Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   पायरोक्यूमुलोनिम्बस बादल (PYROCUMULONIMBUS CLOUDS) पाठ्यक्रम प्रारंभिक एवं मुख्य परीक्षा – भूगोल संदर्भ: संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिका और कनाडा में भीषण जंगली आग के कारण पाइरोक्यूमुलोनिम्बस बादलों का निर्माण हुआ है। पृष्ठभूमि:- हाल के वर्षों में इन बादलों की घटना में वृद्धि हुई है। आम तौर पर, एक वर्ष में विश्व भर में लगभग 102 पाइरोक्यूमुलोनिम्बस बादल दर्ज किए गए, जिनमें से 50 कनाडा में थे। हालांकि, पिछले साल के चरम जंगल की आग के मौसम के दौरान, अकेले कनाडा में 140 पाइरोक्यूमुलोनिम्बस बादल देखे गए। पाइरोक्यूमुलोनिम्बस बादलों के बारे में क्यूम्यलोनिम्बस फ्लेमजेनिटस क्लाउड (CbFg), जिसे पाइरोक्यूम्यलोनिम्बस क्लाउड के नाम से भी जाना जाता है, एक प्रकार का क्यूम्यलोनिम्बस क्लाउड है जो किसी ऊष्मा स्रोत, जैसे कि जंगल की आग, परमाणु विस्फोट, या ज्वालामुखी विस्फोट, के ऊपर बनता है। पाइरोक्यूमुलोनिम्बस बादलों का निर्माण: सभी जंगली आग पाइरोक्यूमुलोनिम्बस बादल नहीं बनाती हैं; वे अत्यधिक गर्म आग या ज्वालामुखी विस्फोट के दौरान बनते हैं। उदाहरण के लिए, 2019-2020 में ऑस्ट्रेलिया में लगी बुशफायर /झाड़ियों में लगी आग, जिसमें तापमान 800 डिग्री सेल्सियस से अधिक था, के कारण ये बादल बने थे। प्रक्रिया: आग से निकलने वाली तीव्र गर्मी के कारण आस-पास की हवा ऊपर उठती है, जिससे जल वाष्प, धुआँ और राख निकलती है। जैसे-जैसे यह हवा ऊपर उठती है और ठंडी होती है, जल वाष्प राख के कणों पर संघनित होती है, जिससे पाइरोक्यूम्यलस या “आग के बादल” बनते हैं। लेकिन अगर पर्याप्त जल वाष्प उपलब्ध है और गर्म हवा की ऊपर की ओर गति तेज हो जाती है, तो पाइरोक्यूम्यलस बादल पाइरोक्यूम्यलोनिम्बस बादल में बदल सकते हैं, जो 50,000 फीट तक पहुँच सकते हैं और अपने स्वयं के गरज के साथ तूफान पैदा कर सकते हैं। प्रभाव: हालांकि वे बिजली पैदा कर सकते हैं, लेकिन वे बहुत कम बारिश करते हैं, जिससे मूल स्रोत से दूर नई आग लगने की संभावना होती है। इसके अतिरिक्त, वे तेज़ हवाएँ चला सकते हैं, जिससे जंगल की आग का फैलाव तेज़ और जटिल हो सकता है। बढ़ती आवृत्ति: पाइरोक्यूमुलोनिम्बस घटनाओं में वृद्धि का सटीक कारण पूरी तरह से समझा नहीं गया है, क्योंकि इस क्षेत्र में अनुसंधान सामने आ रहा है। हालांकि, जलवायु परिवर्तन, जिसके कारण वैश्विक तापमान में वृद्धि और अधिक तीव्र जंगल की आग लगती है, माना जाता है कि इनकी घटनाओं में वृद्धि में योगदान देता है। स्रोत: Indian Express छत्तीसगढ़ को मिलेगा नया टाइगर रिजर्व (CHHATTISGARH TO GET NEW TIGER RESERVE) पाठ्यक्रम प्रारंभिक परीक्षा – पर्यावरण संदर्भ: छत्तीसगढ़ ने हाल ही में एक नए बाघ अभयारण्य को अधिसूचित करने के लिए लंबे समय से लंबित प्रस्ताव को मंजूरी दे दी है – जो देश में तीसरा सबसे बड़ा है। यह राज्य में घटती बाघ आबादी के बीच हुआ है। पृष्ठभूमि: राष्ट्रीय बाघ संरक्षण प्राधिकरण की रिपोर्ट के अनुसार, छत्तीसगढ़ में बाघों की आबादी 2014 में 46 से घटकर 2022 में 17 हो गई। गुरु घासीदास–तमोर पिंगला टाइगर रिजर्व के बारे में गुरु घासीदास-तमोर पिंगला टाइगर रिजर्व, जो एक मौजूदा राष्ट्रीय उद्यान को एक वन्यजीव अभयारण्य के साथ एकीकृत करता है, छत्तीसगढ़ का चौथा बाघ रिजर्व है। रिजर्व की स्थापना का निर्णय छत्तीसगढ़ उच्च न्यायालय द्वारा 15 जुलाई को एक जनहित याचिका पर सुनवाई करते हुए राज्य सरकार को उस क्षेत्र को बाघ रिजर्व घोषित करने पर अपना रुख स्पष्ट करने के लिए चार सप्ताह का समय दिए जाने के बाद आया है। 2019 में, वन्यजीव कार्यकर्ता ने राज्य में बाघों की आबादी में गिरावट को उजागर करते हुए उच्च न्यायालय में एक जनहित याचिका दायर की। जनहित याचिका में सरकार पर राष्ट्रीय बाघ संरक्षण प्राधिकरण और केंद्रीय पर्यावरण मंत्रालय से 2012 से मंजूरी मिलने के बावजूद रिजर्व को अधिसूचित करने और स्थापित करने में निष्क्रियता का आरोप लगाया गया था। 7 अगस्त को राज्य मंत्रिमंडल ने मनेन्द्रगढ़-चिरमिरी-भरतपुर, कोरिया, सूरजपुर और बलरामपुर जिलों में स्थित गुरु घासीदास राष्ट्रीय उद्यान और तमोर पिंगला अभयारण्य के क्षेत्रों को मिलाकर नया रिजर्व बनाया। गुरु घासीदास-तमोर पिंगला टाइगर रिजर्व देश का तीसरा सबसे बड़ा टाइगर रिजर्व होगा। यह छत्तीसगढ़ के चार उत्तरी जिलों में 2,829 वर्ग किलोमीटर में फैला हुआ है। आंध्र प्रदेश का नागार्जुनसागर श्रीशैलम टाइगर रिजर्व देश का सबसे बड़ा टाइगर रिजर्व है, जो 3,296.31 वर्ग किलोमीटर में फैला हुआ है। असम का मानस टाइगर रिजर्व 2,837.1 वर्ग किलोमीटर के क्षेत्रफल के साथ दूसरा सबसे बड़ा टाइगर रिजर्व है। स्रोत: Indian Express कस्तूरी कपास (KASTURI COTTON) पाठ्यक्रम प्रारंभिक परीक्षा – वर्तमान घटनाक्रम प्रसंग: केंद्रीय कपड़ा राज्य मंत्री श्री पबित्रा मार्गेरिटा ने लोक सभा में एक लिखित उत्तर में कस्तूरी कपास पहल में प्रगति का उल्लेख किया। पृष्ठभूमि : वैश्विक स्तर पर भारतीय कपास की छवि बनाने, कपास के क्षेत्र में भारत को आत्मनिर्भर बनाने और लोकल के लिए वोकल बनाने के उद्देश्य से, वस्त्र मंत्रालय ने 7 अक्टूबर 2020 को विश्व कपास दिवस की पूर्व संध्या पर कपास के “कस्तूरी कॉटन इंडिया” ब्रांड की घोषणा की थी। कस्तूरी कपास के बारे में कस्तूरी कपासभारत का एक प्रीमियम कपास ब्रांड है, जिसे भारत सरकार द्वारा देश के कपास और कपड़ा उद्योग को विश्व स्तर पर बढ़ावा देने के लिए लॉन्च किया गया है । प्रमुख विशेषताऐं उच्च गुणवत्ता: कस्तूरी कपास अपनी लंबी स्टेपल लंबाई के लिए जाना जाता है, आमतौर पर 30 मिमी और 29 मिमी, जो बेहतर गुणवत्ता सुनिश्चित करता है।कपास को विशिष्ट मानक मापदंडों को पूरा करना होगा, जिसमें माइक्रोनेयर मूल्य, आरडी (परावर्तन की डिग्री) मूल्य, फाइबर शक्ति, एकरूपता सूचकांक, कचरा और नमी सामग्री शामिल हैं। ट्रेसेबिलिटी: कस्तूरी कॉटन की एक प्रमुख विशेषता इसकी ब्लॉकचेन ट्रेसेबिलिटी और बारकोड सत्यापन है।इससे सम्पूर्ण आपूर्ति श्रृंखला में पारदर्शिता और गुणवत्ता नियंत्रण सुनिश्चित होता है। सततता: ब्रांड कपास उत्पादन में सतत प्रथाओं पर जोर देता है, जिससे प्रीमियम मूल्य अर्जित करने और विश्वसनीयता बढ़ाने में मदद मिलती है। उद्देश्य वैश्विक मान्यता: कस्तूरी कॉटन का लक्ष्य वैश्विक बाजार में भारतीय कपास के लिए एक विशिष्ट पहचान बनाना है, जिससे कपास के क्षेत्र में भारत की स्थिति मजबूत होगी। मूल्य संवर्धन: इसका उद्देश्य उच्च मानकों और पता लगाने की क्षमता सुनिश्चित करके किसानों से लेकर अंतिम उपयोगकर्ताओं तक संपूर्ण कपास श्रृंखला में मूल्य संवर्धन करना है। अतिरिक्त जानकारी कपास वस्त्र निर्यात संवर्धन परिषद (टेक्सप्रोसिल), जो विश्व भर में कच्चे कपास सहित भारतीय

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   आपदा प्रबंधन (संशोधन) विधेयक 2024 पाठ्यक्रम मुख्य परीक्षा – जीएस 3 संदर्भ: सरकार ने हाल ही में संसद में आपदा प्रबंधन अधिनियम 2005 में संशोधन हेतु एक विधेयक पेश किया। पृष्ठभूमि:- इसमें अधिनियम में महत्वपूर्ण परिवर्तन करने का प्रस्ताव है, जिसका मुख्य उद्देश्य प्राकृतिक आपदा से निपटने में परिचालन क्षमता में सुधार करना है। आपदा प्रबंधन अधिनियम की पृष्ठभूमि और महत्व अधिनियमन का संदर्भ: आपदा प्रबंधन (डीएम) अधिनियम 2004 को सुनामी के बाद लागू किया गया था, जिसका प्रारंभिक विचार 1998 के ओडिशा सुपर चक्रवात से उत्पन्न हुआ था। संस्थागत ढांचा: अधिनियम द्वारा स्थापित: राष्ट्रीय आपदा प्रबंधन प्राधिकरण (NDMA) राज्य आपदा प्रबंधन प्राधिकरण (SDMAs) राष्ट्रीय आपदा प्रतिक्रिया बल (NDRF) राष्ट्रीय आपदा प्रबंधन संस्थान (NIDM) इस अधिनियम के बाद 2009 में राष्ट्रीय आपदा प्रबंधन नीति और 2016 में राष्ट्रीय आपदा प्रबंधन योजना बनाई गई। यह ढांचा जीवन बचाने, राहत, बचाव और पुनर्वास सेवाएं प्रदान करने में प्रभावी रहा है। जलवायु परिवर्तन: बढ़ती प्राकृतिक आपदाओं ने एनडीएमए जैसी एजेंसियों को पहले से कहीं अधिक महत्वपूर्ण बना दिया है, जिसके लिए अधिक जिम्मेदारियां और संसाधन आवंटित करने की आवश्यकता है। विधेयक में प्रस्तावित संशोधन: शहरी आपदा प्रबंधन प्राधिकरण: आपदा प्रबंधन संरचना पहले से ही जिला स्तर तक फैली हुई है, जिसमें जिला आपदा प्रबंधन प्राधिकरण कार्यरत हैं। हालाँकि, विधेयक बड़े महानगरीय शहरों की विशिष्ट आवश्यकताओं को स्वीकार करता है, जो अक्सर कई जिलों को शामिल करते हैं। इसलिए विधेयक में प्रस्ताव है: सभी राज्यों की राजधानियों और शहरों में शहरी आपदा प्रबंधन प्राधिकरणों का गठन, जिसमें एकीकृत शहर स्तरीय आपदा प्रबंधन के लिए नगर निगम का गठन किया जाएगा, जिसका नेतृत्व नगर आयुक्त करेंगे। राज्य आपदा प्रतिक्रिया बल (एसडीआरएफ): जबकि अधिकांश राज्यों में पिछले कई वर्षों से एनडीआरएफ की तर्ज पर आपदा प्रतिक्रिया बल मौजूद हैं, 2005 के अधिनियम में एसडीआरएफ के गठन का प्रावधान नहीं है। 2024 के विधेयक में: प्रत्येक राज्य के लिए एसडीआरएफ की स्थापना और रखरखाव करना अनिवार्य है, ताकि आकार और क्षमता में वर्तमान विसंगतियों को दूर किया जा सके। राष्ट्रीय संकट प्रबंधन समिति (एनसीएमसी): गंभीर या राष्ट्रीय प्रभाव वाली आपदाओं से निपटने के लिए कैबिनेट सचिव की अध्यक्षता वाली एनसीएमसी को कानूनी दर्जा दिया गया। एनडीएमए की बढ़ी हुई भूमिका: एनडीएमए समय-समय पर उभरते खतरों सहित आपदा जोखिमों का आकलन करेगा। राष्ट्रीय आपदा डेटाबेस का निर्माण एवं रखरखाव। SDMAs राज्य स्तरीय आपदा डेटाबेस स्थापित करेंगे। मुआवज़ा संबंधी दिशानिर्देश: एनडीएमए जीवन, संपत्ति और आजीविका के नुकसान के लिए न्यूनतम राहत मानकों और मुआवजे की सिफारिश करेगा। मानव निर्मित आपदाओं पर स्पष्टीकरण: कानून-व्यवस्था की स्थितियों को मानव-निर्मित आपदाओं की परिभाषा से बाहर रखा जाना। एनडीएमए का दिन-प्रतिदिन का कार्य: संशोधन से अध्यक्ष या उपाध्यक्ष को दैनिक कार्य के लिए एनडीएमए के एक सदस्य को नामित करने की अनुमति मिल गई है, जिससे वर्तमान में रिक्त उपाध्यक्ष की भूमिका को वैधता मिल गई है। विधेयक में अनसुलझे मुद्दे: एनडीएमए का स्तर ऊंचा करना: बेहतर समन्वय और अधिकार के लिए एनडीएमए को सरकारी विभाग या मंत्रालय के स्तर पर स्तरोन्नत करने का सुझाव। नेतृत्व और राजनीतिक समर्थन: उपाध्यक्ष का पद लगभग एक दशक से खाली है। राज्यों और अन्य केंद्रीय सरकारी एजेंसियों से निपटने के लिए आवश्यक नेतृत्व और राजनीतिक ताकत प्रदान करने के लिए उपाध्यक्ष की आवश्यकता है। प्रशासनिक और वित्तीय शक्तियां: एनडीएमए के पास प्रत्यक्ष प्रशासनिक वित्तीय शक्तियों का अभाव अकुशलता का कारण बनता है। हर छोटे निर्णय को गृह मंत्रालय के माध्यम से पारित करना एक अकुशल और समय लेने वाली प्रक्रिया है। स्टाफ: एनडीएमए में शीर्ष स्तर पर स्टाफ की कमी है, पहले छह से सात सदस्यों के स्थान पर अब केवल तीन सदस्य ही हैं, जिससे आपदा प्रबंधन प्रभावित हो रहा है। स्रोत: Indian Express स्वास्थ्य बीमा पर जीएसटी (GST ON HEALTH INSURANCE) पाठ्यक्रम प्रारंभिक एवं मुख्य परीक्षा – सामाजिक मुद्दे संदर्भ: बीमा कंपनियों ने इस वर्ष स्वास्थ्य और जीवन पॉलिसियों पर प्रीमियम बढ़ा दिया है, और 18% जीएसटी के साथ, कई लोगों के लिए बीमा कम किफायती हो गया है। पृष्ठभूमि: राहुल गांधी सहित विपक्षी नेताओं ने हाल ही में जीवन और स्वास्थ्य बीमा प्रीमियम पर जीएसटी हटाने की मांग को लेकर विरोध प्रदर्शन किया। स्वास्थ्य एवं जीवन बीमा प्रीमियम पर जीएसटी कितना है? 1 जुलाई 2017 से जीएसटी ने सेवा कर और उपकर जैसे सभी अप्रत्यक्ष करों का स्थान ले लिया। वर्तमान में स्वास्थ्य और जीवन बीमा पॉलिसियों पर जीएसटी 18% निर्धारित है। चूंकि जीएसटी में सेवा कर भी शामिल है, जो बीमा उद्योग पर लागू होता है, इसलिए इसके लागू होने से प्रीमियम राशि में वृद्धि हुई है। जीएसटी से पहले, जीवन बीमा प्रीमियम पर 15% सेवा कर लगता था, जिसमें बेसिक सर्विस टैक्स, स्वच्छ भारत सेस और कृषि कल्याण सेस शामिल थे। 15% से 18% तक की वृद्धि ने पॉलिसीधारकों को – उनकी प्रीमियम राशि में वृद्धि करके प्रभावित किया है। इसके साथ ही मेडिकल इन्फ्लेशन, जो पिछले साल के अंत तक 14% होने का अनुमान था, ने कई लोगों के लिए मेडिकल इंश्योरेंस खरीदना मुश्किल बना दिया है। टर्म इंश्योरेंस पॉलिसी के मामले में भी यही स्थिति है। सरकार ने हाल ही में स्वीकार किया कि जीवन और स्वास्थ्य बीमा पर जीएसटी की दर में छूट या कमी की मांग करते हुए ज्ञापन प्राप्त हुए हैं। बीमा प्रीमियम पर जीएसटी लगाने का औचित्य: जीएसटी सभी बीमा पॉलिसियों पर लागू होता है क्योंकि उन्हें सेवाएं माना जाता है, और पॉलिसीधारकों को उनके प्रीमियम पर कर का भुगतान करना होता है। यह कर सरकार के लिए एक महत्वपूर्ण राजस्व स्रोत है, जिससे पिछले तीन वित्तीय वर्षों में 21,256 करोड़ रुपये तथा स्वास्थ्य पॉलिसी नवीनीकरण से 3,274 करोड़ रुपये की अतिरिक्त आय हुई है। बीमा पॉलिसियां आयकर अधिनियम, 1961 के अंतर्गत कुछ कर कटौती की अनुमति देती हैं। धारा 80सी और 80डी विशेष रूप से लोकप्रिय हैं। धारा 80सी: जीएसटी सहित समग्र बीमा प्रीमियम पर5 लाख रुपये तक की कटौती की अनुमति देता है। धारा 80डी: यदि ग्राहक अपनी जीवन बीमा पॉलिसियों के साथ मेडिकल राइडर का विकल्प चुनते हैं तो उन्हें अतिरिक्त कटौती की सुविधा मिलती है। इस बात की कोई गारंटी नहीं है कि सरकार द्वारा जीएसटी कम करने पर भी बीमा कंपनियां इसका लाभ ग्राहकों को देंगी। प्रीमियम पर जीएसटी वापस लेने का तर्क

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   ANTARCTICA’S DEEP-WINTER HEATWAVE  Syllabus Prelims & Mains – GEOGRAPHY Context: For the second time in two years, Antarctica is experiencing an unprecedented heatwave during its winter season. Since mid-July, ground temperatures have been 10 degrees Celsius above the seasonal norm, with some days seeing spikes as high as 28 degrees above average. Background:- In East Antarctica, where higher elevations dominate two-thirds of the world’s coldest continent, temperatures are currently ranging from minus 25 to minus 30 degrees Celsius. Typically, deep-winter temperatures in this region fall between minus 50 and minus 60 degrees Celsius. Reasons for the Heatwave Weakening of the Polar Vortex: The polar vortex, a band of cold air and low-pressure systems around Earth’s poles, usually remains strong during the southern hemisphere winter, trapping cold air over Antarctica. This year, large-scale atmospheric waves disturbed the vortex, allowing trapped cold air to escape and warmer air to enter, raising temperatures as this warm air descended from the upper atmosphere. Reduction in Antarctic Sea Ice: The extent of Antarctic sea ice in June was the second-lowest on record for that time of year, slightly above the lowest extent in June 2023. Sea ice plays a critical role in cooling the polar regions by reflecting sunlight and acting as a barrier between cold air and warmer water. Reduced sea ice likely contributed to warmer winter weather over Antarctica. Impact of Global Warming: Antarctica is warming nearly twice as fast as the global average, with temperatures increasing at a rate of 0.22 to 0.32 degrees Celsius per decade. Global warming’s impact on Antarctica is exacerbating the frequency and intensity of heatwaves. Possible Consequences Ice Sheet Loss and Sea Level Rise: The ongoing heatwave could accelerate the loss of the Antarctic Ice Sheet, potentially leading to a significant rise in global sea levels. Antarctica has already lost 280% more ice mass in recent decades compared to the 1980s and 1990s, with catastrophic events like the 2022 collapse of a Rome-sized portion of the ice sheet. Impact on Global Ocean Circulation: Melting Antarctic ice is slowing down the global ocean circulation system, which is crucial for regulating climate by transporting heat, carbon, nutrients, and freshwater. A slowdown in this system could lead to less heat and CO2 absorption by the oceans, intensifying global warming and increasing the frequency and severity of extreme weather events like floods and droughts. Source: Indian Express BIOFUELS  Syllabus Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: Every year on August 10, World Biofuel Day is observed to underline the significance of biofuels as a sustainable source of energy. Background: In recent years, biofuels have garnered significant attention due to growing concerns about climate change and the health impacts of air pollution from fossil fuels, which are not only costly but also finite in supply. Understanding Biofuels Biofuels are renewable fuels derived from the biomass of plants or animal waste. Common sources include corn, sugarcane, and animal waste like cow dung. Unlike fossil fuels, biofuels are sustainable energy sources. The two most common types are ethanol and biodiesel. Ethanol: Produced by fermenting crop residues such as corn and sugarcane. It is often blended with petroleum to reduce emissions, with Ethanol-10 (E10) being a common blend containing 10% ethanol. Biodiesel: Made from used cooking oil, yellow grease, or animal fats, biodiesel is produced by burning these materials with alcohol in the presence of a catalyst. Importance of Biofuels Environmental Benefits: Biofuels can mitigate the negative environmental impacts of fossil fuels, such as greenhouse gas emissions and resource depletion, while also improving waste management. Energy Security: As the world’s third-largest consumer of crude oil, India’s reliance on imports for over 85% of its needs poses energy security challenges. Biofuels offer a way to reduce this dependency. Economic Benefits: Increased biofuel use can decrease reliance on imported oil, lower import bills, and boost farm income by creating demand for crops like corn and sugarcane. Government Initiatives and Policies on Biofuels National Policy on Biofuels (2018): Aimed at reducing import dependency and promoting fuel blending, this policy supports ethanol, biodiesel, and bio-CNG production. In 2022, the policy was amended to advance the 20% ethanol blending target from 2030 to 2025-26. Global Biofuels Alliance (GBA): Launched in 2022, this multi-stakeholder alliance, including governments and international organizations, promotes global cooperation and sustainable biofuel use. Additionally, it aims to facilitate global biofuel trade and provide technical support for national biofuel programs. Reduced GST on Ethanol: The government lowered the GST on ethanol for blending from 18% to 5% under the Ethanol Blended Petrol (EBP) Programme. Pradhan Mantri JI-VAN Yojana: This initiative supports Second Generation (2G) ethanol production from cellulosic and lignocellulosic materials, offering financial incentives. Challenges Related to Biofuels Environmental Concerns: Biofuel production can strain land and water resources and contribute to air and groundwater pollution. It may also alter cropping patterns, affecting agricultural balance. Food vs. Fuel Dilemma: The competition between food security and energy security arises depending on the choice of feedstock and production processes. Source: Indian Express LAKE TURKANA  Syllabus Prelims – GEOGRAPHY Context: Findings of the first comprehensive survey of Lake Turkana in 50 years was released recently. Background: Lying in a hot, arid, and remote region, Lake Turkana provides resources for communities on the lakeshore and surrounding areas. However, its semi-saline waters, driven by high evaporation rates and fluctuating lake levels of up to 8 meters per decade, have historically hindered sustainable development initiatives. About Lake Turkana Location: Lake Turkana is located in the Great Rift Valley in northern Kenya, extending into southern Ethiopia. Size and Rank: Lake Turkana is Africa’s 4th largest lake. It is the world’s largest permanent desert lake and the largest alkaline lake. Geographical Features: The lake is surrounded by volcanic rock and desert. It is fed by three main rivers: the Omo, Turkwel, and Kerio. The lake has no outlet, which contributes to its high salinity and alkalinity. Biodiversity: Lake Turkana is home to diverse wildlife, including Nile crocodiles, hippos, and various

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   अंटार्कटिका की गहरी सर्दियों की गर्म लहर (ANTARCTICA’S DEEP-WINTER HEATWAVE) पाठ्यक्रम प्रारंभिक एवं मुख्य परीक्षा – भूगोल संदर्भ: पिछले दो सालों में दूसरी बार अंटार्कटिका में सर्दियों के मौसम में अभूतपूर्व गर्मी पड़ रही है। जुलाई के मध्य से, ज़मीन का तापमान मौसमी मानक से 10 डिग्री सेल्सियस ज़्यादा रहा है, और कुछ दिनों में तापमान औसत से 28 डिग्री ज़्यादा तक बढ़ गया है। पृष्ठभूमि:- पूर्वी अंटार्कटिका में, जहाँ विश्व के सबसे ठंडे महाद्वीप के दो-तिहाई हिस्से पर उच्च ऊँचाई का प्रभुत्व है, तापमान वर्तमान में माइनस 25 से माइनस 30 डिग्री सेल्सियस के बीच है। आमतौर पर, इस क्षेत्र में गहरी सर्दियों का तापमान माइनस 50 और माइनस 60 डिग्री सेल्सियस के बीच रहता है। गर्म लहर के कारण ध्रुवीय भंवर (Polar Vortex) का कमजोर होना: ध्रुवीय भंवर, जो पृथ्वी के ध्रुवों के चारों ओर ठंडी हवा और निम्न निम्न प्रणालियों का एक बैंड है, आमतौर पर दक्षिणी गोलार्ध की सर्दियों के दौरान मजबूत रहता है, तथा अंटार्कटिका के ऊपर ठंडी हवा को रोके रखता है। इस वर्ष, बड़े पैमाने पर वायुमंडलीय तरंगों ने भंवर को अस्तव्यस्त कर दिया, जिससे फंसी हुई ठंडी हवा बाहर निकल गई और गर्म हवा अंदर आ गई, जिससे ऊपरी वायुमंडल से नीचे उतरी इस गर्म हवा के कारण तापमान बढ़ गया। अंटार्कटिका की समुद्री बर्फ में कमी: जून में अंटार्कटिक समुद्री बर्फ की मात्रा वर्ष के उस समय के लिए रिकॉर्ड में दूसरी सबसे कम थी, जो जून 2023 में न्यूनतम मात्रा से थोड़ा अधिक थी। समुद्री बर्फ सूर्य की रोशनी को परावर्तित करके और ठंडी हवा और गर्म पानी के बीच अवरोध के रूप में कार्य करके ध्रुवीय क्षेत्रों को ठंडा करने में महत्वपूर्ण भूमिका निभाती है। समुद्री बर्फ में कमी ने संभवतः अंटार्कटिका में सर्दियों के मौसम को गर्म करने में योगदान दिया। ग्लोबल वार्मिंग का प्रभाव: अंटार्कटिका वैश्विक औसत से लगभग दोगुनी गति से गर्म हो रहा है, तथा वहां का तापमान प्रति दशक 0.22 से 0.32 डिग्री सेल्सियस की दर से बढ़ रहा है। अंटार्कटिका पर ग्लोबल वार्मिंग के प्रभाव से ताप तरंगों की आवृत्ति और तीव्रता बढ़ रही है। संभावित परिणाम बर्फ की चादर का नुकसान और समुद्र स्तर में वृद्धि: वर्तमान में जारी गर्म लहर अंटार्कटिका की बर्फ की चादर को तेजी से नष्ट कर सकती है, जिससे वैश्विक समुद्र स्तर में उल्लेखनीय वृद्धि हो सकती है। अंटार्कटिका ने 1980 और 1990 के दशक की तुलना में हाल के दशकों में 280% अधिक बर्फ खो दी है, जिसमें 2022 में बर्फ की चादर के रोम के आकार के हिस्से के ढहने जैसी विनाशकारी घटनाएं शामिल हैं। वैश्विक महासागर परिसंचरण पर प्रभाव: अंटार्कटिका की पिघलती बर्फ वैश्विक महासागर परिसंचरण तंत्र को धीमा कर रही है, जो ऊष्मा, कार्बन, पोषक तत्वों और मीठे पानी के परिवहन द्वारा जलवायु को नियंत्रित करने के लिए महत्वपूर्ण है। इस प्रणाली में मंदी के कारण महासागरों द्वारा कम ऊष्मा और CO2 अवशोषण हो सकता है, जिससे वैश्विक तापमान में वृद्धि हो सकती है तथा बाढ़ और सूखे जैसी चरम मौसम की घटनाओं की आवृत्ति और गंभीरता बढ़ सकती है। स्रोत: Indian Express जैव ईंधन (BIOFUELS) पाठ्यक्रम प्रारंभिक एवं मुख्य परीक्षा – वर्तमान घटनाक्रम संदर्भ: ऊर्जा के एक सतत स्रोत के रूप में जैव ईंधन के महत्व को रेखांकित करने के लिए हर साल 10 अगस्त को विश्व जैव ईंधन दिवस मनाया जाता है। पृष्ठभूमि: हाल के वर्षों में, जलवायु परिवर्तन और जीवाश्म ईंधन से होने वाले वायु प्रदूषण के स्वास्थ्य पर पड़ने वाले प्रभावों के बारे में बढ़ती चिंताओं के कारण जैव ईंधनों ने काफी ध्यान आकर्षित किया है, क्योंकि जीवाश्म ईंधन न केवल महंगे हैं, बल्कि इनकी आपूर्ति भी सीमित है। जैव ईंधन को समझना जैव ईंधन नवीकरणीय ईंधन हैं जो पौधों या पशु अपशिष्ट के बायोमास से प्राप्त होते हैं। आम स्रोतों में मक्का, गन्ना और गाय के गोबर जैसे पशु अपशिष्ट शामिल हैं। जीवाश्म ईंधन के विपरीत, जैव ईंधन सतत ऊर्जा स्रोत हैं। दो सबसे आम प्रकार इथेनॉल और बायोडीजल हैं। इथेनॉल: मक्का और गन्ने जैसे फसल अवशेषों को किण्वित करके बनाया जाता है। उत्सर्जन को कम करने के लिए इसे अक्सर पेट्रोलियम के साथ मिश्रित किया जाता है, इथेनॉल-10 (E10) एक आम मिश्रण है जिसमें 10% इथेनॉल होता है। बायोडीजल: प्रयुक्त खाना पकाने के तेल, पीले ग्रीस या पशु वसा से निर्मित बायोडीजल को उत्प्रेरक की उपस्थिति में अल्कोहल के साथ इन सामग्रियों को जलाकर बनाया जाता है। जैव ईंधन का महत्व पर्यावरणीय लाभ: जैव ईंधन जीवाश्म ईंधन के नकारात्मक पर्यावरणीय प्रभावों, जैसे ग्रीनहाउस गैस उत्सर्जन और संसाधनों की कमी को कम कर सकते हैं, साथ ही अपशिष्ट प्रबंधन में भी सुधार कर सकते हैं। ऊर्जा सुरक्षा: कच्चे तेल के मामले में दुनिया में तीसरे सबसे बड़े उपभोक्ता के रूप में भारत की 85% से अधिक ज़रूरतों के लिए आयात पर निर्भरता ऊर्जा सुरक्षा चुनौतियों को जन्म देती है। जैव ईंधन इस निर्भरता को कम करने का एक तरीका प्रदान करता है। आर्थिक लाभ: जैव ईंधन के उपयोग में वृद्धि से आयातित तेल पर निर्भरता कम हो सकती है, आयात बिल कम हो सकता है, तथा मक्का और गन्ना जैसी फसलों की मांग पैदा करके कृषि आय में वृद्धि हो सकती है। जैव ईंधन पर सरकारी पहल और नीतियां जैव ईंधन पर राष्ट्रीय नीति (2018): आयात निर्भरता को कम करने और ईंधन मिश्रण को बढ़ावा देने के उद्देश्य से, यह नीति इथेनॉल, बायोडीज़ल और बायो-सीएनजी उत्पादन का समर्थन करती है। 2022 में, 20% इथेनॉल मिश्रण लक्ष्य को 2030 से 2025-26 तक आगे बढ़ाने के लिए नीति में संशोधन किया गया। वैश्विक जैव ईंधन गठबंधन (GBA): 2022 में शुरू किया गया यह बहु-हितधारक गठबंधन, जिसमें सरकारें और अंतर्राष्ट्रीय संगठन शामिल हैं, वैश्विक सहयोग और जैव ईंधन के सतत उपयोग को बढ़ावा देता है। इसके अतिरिक्त, इसका उद्देश्य वैश्विक जैव ईंधन व्यापार को सुविधाजनक बनाना और राष्ट्रीय जैव ईंधन कार्यक्रमों के लिए तकनीकी सहायता प्रदान करना है। इथेनॉल पर जीएसटी में कमी: सरकार ने इथेनॉल मिश्रित पेट्रोल (ईबीपी) कार्यक्रम के तहत मिश्रण के लिए इथेनॉल पर जीएसटी को 18% से घटाकर 5% कर दिया। प्रधानमंत्री जी–वन योजना: यह पहल सेल्यूलोसिक और लिग्नोसेल्यूलोसिक सामग्रियों से द्वितीय पीढ़ी (2जी) इथेनॉल उत्पादन को समर्थन देती है,

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   KAKORY TRAIN ROBBERY  Syllabus Prelims & Mains – HISTORY Context: This year marks the centenary of the Kakori case, also known as the Kakori train robbery. On Friday, August 9, Uttar Pradesh Chief Minister Yogi Adityanath inaugurated the 100th – anniversary celebrations. Background:- The incident shook the British government and accelerated the freedom movement. Kakori Train Robbery: An Overview Incident Date & Location: Occurred on August 9, 1925, near Kakori, a railway station approximately 20 km from Lucknow. The Event: Ten revolutionaries boarded the Saharanpur-Lucknow passenger train at Kakori station. Shortly after departure, they pulled the chain to stop the train at Bajnagar, a village 2 km away. They looted funds intended for the British treasury being transported by rail. Involvement of Hindustan Republican Association (HRA): This was the first major action by the HRA, a revolutionary group formed in 1924. Key members included Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqullah Khan, Sachindra Nath Bakshi, and Chandrashekhar Azad, among others. Execution & Aftermath: Ram Prasad Bismil, who hatched the robbery plan, was joined in its execution by Ashfaqullah Khan, Rajendra Lahiri, Chandrashekhar Azad, Sachindra Nath Bakshi, Keshab Chakravarthy, Manmathnath Gupta, Murari Sharma, Mukundi Lal and Banwari Lal. A passenger was accidentally killed when a Mauser gun went off, complicating their mission. Trial & Sentences: Of the accused who were made to stand trial at the Special Sessions Court of Justice Archibald Hamilton, 19 persons were convicted. Four were sentenced to death: Ram Prasad Bismil, Roshan Singh, Rajendra Lahiri, and Ashfaqullah Khan. Others received various sentences, including deportation to the Cellular Jail in Port Blair. On December 17, 1927, Lahiri was hanged at Gonda jail. On December 19, 1927, Ashfaqullah, Roshan and Bismil too were put to death — Ashfaqullah at Faizabad jail, Roshan at Naini (Allahabad) jail and Bismil at Gorakhpur jail. Ram Prasad Bismil’s Arrest & Legacy: Bismil was arrested in October 1925, supposedly after two members of the HRA betrayed him. He famously recited the ghazal “Sarfaroshi ki tamanna” while being led to the gallows, which became an iconic anthem for freedom fighters. Chandrashekhar Azad : Chandrashekhar Azad was the only major revolutionary associated with the HRA who evaded arrest. He shot himself dead in Allahabad’s Alfred Park (now Chandrashekhar Azad Park) on February 27, 1931. Impact on the British Raj: The Kakori incident was a symbolic defiance against British rule, which led to harsh punishments to deter future revolutionaries. Defence lawyers who became CMs: Prominent lawyers who defended the accused, including Govind Ballabh Pant and Chandra Bhanu Gupta, went on to become the first and third Chief Ministers of Uttar Pradesh. Source: Indian Express INDIA – MALDIVES TIES  Syllabus Mains – GS 2 Context: External Affairs Minister S Jaishankar met Maldivian President Mohamed Muizzu recently and emphasised New Delhi’s commitment to deepen India-Maldives ties Background: Jaishankar is on a three-day official visit to Maldives to reset the bilateral relationship, the first high-level trip from India after the archipelago nation’s pro-China president Muizzu assumed office last year. Key Takeaways Jaishankar’s trip to the Maldives comes weeks after President Muizzu’s visit to India in June to attend the swearing-in ceremony of Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s government. The Maldives is an essential ally for India, helping to protect its maritime borders and monitor the wider Indian Ocean region, where China is expanding presence. The archipelago is located about 300 nautical miles (560 km) off the west coast of India and about 70 nautical miles (130 km) from Minicoy Island in Lakshadweep. The Chinese influence in the Maldives has progressively expanded over the last few decades. The island nation is a component of China’s Belt and Road Initiative, which has resulted in an influx of Chinese money and a deepening of the two countries’ relationship—at the expense of India. Key Points on Mr. Muizzu’s ‘India Out’ Campaign and Its Aftermath Muizzu campaigned on an ‘India Out’ plank during last years election, seeking the removal of Indian military personnel stationed in the Maldives. The Indian military was primarily there to operate aerial platforms for health and environmental emergencies. Approximately 75 Indian military personnel were stationed in the Maldives for these purposes. Muizzu used this presence as a focal point for political mobilization. Upon coming to power, Muizzu requested India to withdraw military personnel operating three aviation platforms gifted by India. India complied with the request, withdrawing military personnel. India replaced them with civilian personnel to operate a Dornier aircraft and two helicopters. Source: Indian Express GREAT BARRIER REEF (GBR)  Syllabus Prelims – ENVIRONMENT Context: An adversely changing climate and rising sea surface temperatures (SST) have exposed the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) to its highest temperature in more than 400 years and pose an existential threat to the world heritage site. Background: Scientists in their recent assessment have found that the ocean temperatures at the reef are hottest in the past 407 years and threaten the ecosystem that is larger than the size of Italy. About Coral Reefs Coral reefs are diverse underwater ecosystems formed by colonies of tiny marine animals called coral polyps. They are often referred to as the “rainforests of the sea” due to their rich biodiversity, supporting around 25% of all marine species. This is a remarkable statistic given the fact that reefs cover just a tiny fraction (less than one percent) of the earth’s surface and less than two percent of the ocean bottom. Coral reefs provide vital ecosystem services, including coastal protection, tourism, and fisheries. Formation: Coral polyps secrete calcium carbonate, which accumulates over time to form the hard structures of reefs. Reefs thrive in warm, shallow waters with plenty of sunlight, typically found in tropical and subtropical regions. The Indo-Pacific region account for 90.9% of world’s reef area while the Atlantic-Caribbean and Eastern Pacific regions account for 7.6% and 0.5% respectively. With a highly skewed distribution, Indonesia and Australia alone account for 35% of the world’s reef area. High near shoreturbidity and freshwater runoff from rivers, limit reef development and thus the Indian Subcontinent has a scanty growth

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   HOW DID INVASIONS CHANGE INDIAN CULTURE?  Syllabus Mains – HISTORY Context: History has become a contested space with political parties muddying the water. The impact of invasions and migrations have become a closely watched arena. Background:- Invaders typically seize wealth, take people as slaves, disrupt and control economic and political systems, and over time, alter the culture of the conquered land. Migration on the other hand involves gradual integration into a new place without immediate disruptions, though tensions may slowly develop as immigrant and native cultures interact. Kinds of Invasion Raid: Raiders focus on looting wealth without seeking long-term control.Example: Mahmud of Ghazni’s raids in India a thousand years ago. Colonialism: Colonisers take over the political and economic systems and also get settled in the land. It was similar to what happened when the Delhi Sultanate was established by a mamluk, Qutubuddin Aibek, after the death of invader Muizzad-Din Muhammad Ghori. Imperialism: Imperialists extract wealth from a distant colony to the motherland. Examples: Italy and Britain during their colonial periods. Unique Case – Mughals: The Mughals with their marital ties with Rajputs, saw themselves as locals. Despite these ties, many natives did not accept them as locals. Migrations and invasions in history All humans originated in Africa, with the first Indians migrating 60,000 years ago as part of the Out of Africa migration. The next major migration, 10,000 years ago, brought Iranian farmers to India, who introduced barley and wheat farming. From Southeast Asia, the Austro-Asiatic ‘Munda’ people migrated over 4,000 years ago. They introduced wet-rice farming. Then came the Aryans from Eurasia via Central Asia nearly 3,500 years ago. They introduced the horse. (As per the author Devdutt Pattanaik). The Persian empire regularly invaded North-Western India between the 6th-4th century BCE. They introduced the Aramaic script, which later evolved into Kharosthi script and was used for writing Prakrit and Sanskrit languages in the North-West. Besides, the Persian administrative practices of dividing territories into satrapies (provinces) and centralised bureaucracy were taken up by the Mauryas and the Guptas. In Mauryan times, Indians finally were inspired to invent the Brahmi script – a unique script that spread from India to Southeast Asia. Pillars were erected by kings to indicate power just like Persian Emperors. Foreign Tribes and Their Impact Greeks, Scythians, Parthians, and Kushans (300 BCE-300 CE): Most of these tribes sought to control trade routes from the Ganga river basin through the Hindu Kush mountains to Persia. Many of them patronized Buddhism and Jainism, popularized the use of coins and stone images, especially in Gandhara and Mathura. Hunas (5th century CE): Came from Central Asia during the Gupta period. Huns were responsible for the destruction of Buddhist monasteries and the disintegration of the Gupta empire. This was also concurrent with the fall of the Roman Empire, an important trading partner for India. Later on, merchants became less important and agriculture rose to fill the gap. We see a gradual shift from Buddhist-mercantile culture to Brahmin-agricultural-temple culture. Sanskrit became the language of the court and spread from Afghanistan to Vietnam. Arrival of Islam in India Islam emerged in 7th-century Arabia and reached coastal India through sailors. Early mosques were established on the western coasts in Gujarat, Konkan, and Kerala. Invasion by Central Asian Warlords (12th century): Central Asian warlords, newly converted to Islam, established control over Delhi. They took over the economic system, including tolls, taxes, and rent. They decided on the legal system as well, marking an invasion and a shift in governance. Cultural and Administrative Changes: Persian replaced Sanskrit as the court language. Brahmins were sidelined in favor of Turks, Persians, and Afghans. Temples declined in importance, with mosques and royal tombs gaining prominence. Sufi saints, rather than Brahmins, received land grants. Shift from Raj-Mandala to Persian Model: The relatively decentralized Raj-mandala system was replaced by the centralised Persian Iqta system, later evolving into the Mansab system under the Mughals. Introduction of kagaz (paper) and kalam (pen) replaced traditional materials like stone, copper, birch bark, and palm leaves. From Portuguese to British Colonialism Portuguese Colonialism (1510): Began with the conquest of Goa from the Bijapur Sultanate. Portuguese controlled the western coast and seas, introducing maritime taxes. They established Christian missions, introduced the printing press, and began translating local languages. European Powers Follow: Other European powers like the Dutch, French, and English followed the Portuguese. They brought a new way of thinking based on science, mathematics, logic, and evidence, marking the onset of the Industrial Revolution. This challenged traditional agricultural and feudal systems worldwide. Rise of British Colonialism (18th century): The sacking of Delhi by Nadir Shah of Iran and later Ahmad Shah Abdali exposed the Mughal Empire’s weakness. These events paved the way for the British East India Company to establish control, leading to British colonialism. Impact on Indian Culture Invasions brought significant changes to Indian culture, from the introduction of new religious practices to shifts in administrative and economic systems. The influence of various invaders reshaped India’s social and cultural landscape, leading to the complex and diverse society seen today. Source: Indian Express FIRST-EVER MEGAQUAKE ADVISORY ISSUED BY JAPAN  Syllabus Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: After a 7.1-magnitude earthquake shook southern Japan on August 8, the country’s meteorological agency issued its first-ever “megaquake advisory”. The warning said the likelihood of strong shaking and large tsunamis is higher than normal on the Nankai Trough. Background: The advisory is a warning and not an accurate prediction of earthquake as such. The advisory asked residents to prepare, review evacuation routes, and consider potential future warnings. Nankai Trough and Earthquake Risk in Japan The Nankai Trough is a 900 km long underwater subduction zone where the Eurasian Plate collides with the Philippine Sea Plate, pushing the latter under the former. This builds tectonic stress that can cause megaquakes (earthquakes with a magnitude larger than 8). Historically, the Nankai Trough has produced large earthquakes every 100 to 150 years, often in pairs, with the second quake

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   TUNGABHADRA  Syllabus Prelims – GEOGRAPHY Context: A flood alert has been sounded downstream of the Tungabhadra dam in Karnataka’s Koppal district after one of the crest gates of the massive stone masonry dam across the Tungabhadra river was washed away. Background:- Repairs to restore gate can be carried out only after two-thirds of the dam is emptied. About Tungabhadra river and dam The Tungabhadra River originates in Karnataka and flows primarily through the state before entering Andhra Pradesh, where it eventually merges with the Krishna River. The river Tungabhadra derives its name from two streams viz., the Tunga, and the Bhadra which rise in the Western Ghats. The river after the confluence of the two streams near Shimoga, runs for about 531 km till it joins the river Krishna at Sangamaleshwaram in Andhra Pradesh. It runs for 382 km in Karnataka, forms the boundary between Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh for 58 km and further runs for the next 91 km in Andhra Pradesh. The confluence of Tungabhadra and Krishna River is a holy pilgrimage site – The Sangameswaram Temple. Hampi one of the important heritage locations being listed by UNESCO is on the banks of the Tunga Bhadra River. Nava Brindavan, an island where the final resting location of nine holy Madhva saints is in the midst of the Tunga Bhadra River. It is influenced chiefly by the South-West monsoon. It is a perennial river but the summer flows dwindle to as low as 2.83 to 1.42 cumec. Tungabhadra Dam The Tungabhadra reservoir sprawls over an area of 378 sq km primarily in Karnataka’s Vijayanagar district. It is one of the major reservoirs in South India that supplies water for irrigation and industrial use, as well as drinking water to Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. The dam was first conceived of in 1860 to mitigate the impact of recurrent famine in Rayalaseema. Construction was begun by the erstwhile governments of Hyderabad and Madras in 1945, and the project was completed in 1953. The Tungabhadra Board was established by a presidential order in 1953. The Board currently has a chairman appointed by the Union government, and four members, representing the Union government and the states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana. The Tungabhadra reservoir and the Mullaperiyar dam in Kerala hold the unique distinction of being the only two reservoirs in the country that were built using a combination of mud and limestone. Source: Indian Express GOVERNANCE IN DELHI  Syllabus Prelims & Mains – POLITY Context: The Supreme Court has ruled that the Lieutenant Governor of Delhi can independently nominate 10 aldermen to the Municipal Corporation of Delhi without consulting the council of ministers. This decision has heightened tensions between the Union government, the Delhi government, and the local administration. Background: People of Delhi should get responsible and responsive governance from all three layers of government irrespective of party  in power. Evolution of the Delhi Government 1950: At the commencement of the Constitution, Delhi was a Part C State. 1956: During the States Reorganisation, Delhi was made a Union Territory, governed by an administrator. The Municipal Corporation of Delhi (MCD) was established in 1958 and a limited local government was established since 1966. 1991: Following the Balakrishnan Committee’s (1989) recommendations, the 69th Constitutional Amendment provided Delhi with a Legislative Assembly and a council of ministers. However, public order, police, and land remained under Union government control. Government of NCT of Delhi Act, 1991 provided detailed provisions regarding Delhi’s legislature, executive, and administration. Present Issues Political Conflict (2015-Present): Ongoing clashes between the Union government (BJP) and the Delhi government (AAP) over various issues. The judgments of the Supreme Court have resulted in amendments to the Government of NCT of Delhi Act that have curtailed the powers of the elected government in Delhi MCD and Local Governance: Apart from the issues between the Union and the Delhi government, the MCD with its elected representatives add another dimension to the problem as was witnessed in the recent unfortunate loss of lives due to electrocution and flooding in Delhi. Public accountability has been undermined by the blame-shifting among elected officials. Proposed Way Forward As part of its judgment in 2023, the Supreme Court mentioned that there is a triple chain of accountability in a democracy. The officials are accountable to the ministers; the council of ministers are collectively responsible to the legislative assembly; and the legislative assembly members are accountable to the people. The constant tussle between various layers of government ruptures such a chain of accountability. Potential Structural Changes: The NCT of Delhi covers 1,450 sq km, while New Delhi, which houses central government offices and foreign embassies, spans about 50 sq km. For comparison, Washington DC, the U.S. capital district, is 177 sq km. A similar approach could be adopted in India, where 50-100 sq km of New Delhi is placed under complete Central government control, with the remaining areas governed by the Delhi Assembly. Implementing this would require a constitutional amendment. In the meantime, the spirit of the Supreme Court’s 2023 judgment should be upheld. Source: Hindu HOW WILL SHEIKH HASINA’S EXIT IMPACT INDIA  Syllabus Mains – GS 2 Context: After protests in Bangladesh forced former Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina to flee to India, her future remains unclear. While the Modi government has provided her shelter, it is also engaging with the new regime, assessing the impact of Bangladesh’s political changes on India’s relations with the country. Background: India and Bangladesh were creating new milestones in bilateral relationship under former prime minister Sheikh Hasina. Impact of Sheikh Hasina’s Ouster on India Setback for India: Sheikh Hasina’s removal is a significant setback for India, jeopardizing the progress made in economic ties, border security, defense, trade, and connectivity. Transformation Under Hasina Strong Ties with India: Since her 2009 return to office, Hasina prioritized strong relations with India, cracking down on terror camps, campaign against religious radicalisation, addressing border tensions, and extradited over 20 “most wanted” men accused of terrorism and crime to India. In sharp

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   JOINT PARLIAMENTARY COMMITTEE (JPC)  Syllabus Prelims & Mains – POLITY Context: The Opposition has demanded a Joint Parliamentary Committee (JPC) to investigate the Hindenburg Research allegations against Sebi chairperson Madhabi Puri Buch. Background:- Citing documents from whistleblowers, Hindenburg claimed that Sebi chief and her husband had made investments, dating back to 2015, in offshore funds in Bermuda and Mauritius linked to entities allegedly used by the Adani Group to manipulate financial markets. About Joint Parliamentary Committee (JPC) Formation and Composition: A JPC is an ad hoc body comprising members from both Houses of Parliament, roughly in proportion to party strengths in Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha. Lok Sabha’s representation is usually double that of Rajya Sabha. Acts as a mini Parliament, tasked with scrutinizing specific matters within a specific timeframe. Setup Process: Joint committees are established by a motion passed in one House and agreed to by the other. Parliament decides on the details of membership and subjects for a JPC. Powers and Functions: Can access documents and examine officials from any concerned ministry or institution. Members can submit dissenting notes if they disagree with the majority. The government decides whether to act on JPC recommendations. The government may launch investigations on the basis of a JPC report. Government, in any case, must report on the follow-up action taken based on the committee’s recommendations. Based on the government’s action, the JPC submits an ‘Action Taken Report’ to Parliament, which can be discussed, allowing the Opposition to question the government. Significance for Opposition: Provides access to all details of an alleged scams. Ensures the issue remains in the public eye, creating political pressure on the government. Notable Financial Investigations by JPC 2G Spectrum Scam (2013): The JPC report absolved PM Manmohan Singh, stating he was misled by the Department of Telecommunications. Criticized by the opposition, which rejected the report as a cover-up. Disagreed with the CAG’s calculation of revenue loss, citing policy consistency. Share Market Scam (2001): Involved Ketan Parekh and the Madhavpura Mercantile Cooperative Bank (MMCB). Parekh accused of using MMCB funds to manipulate share prices. The JPC recommended sweeping changes in stock market regulations; however, they were not fully implemented. Securities & Banking Transactions (1992): Focused on Harshad Mehta’s diversion of funds, causing a major financial scandal. Led to significant legal action, including the CBI filing 72 charges and Mehta’s conviction. JPC recommendations were not fully implemented. Other Investigations: The Bofors scam JPC and the VVIP AgustaWestland chopper scam JPC (2013) were significant, though the latter didn’t proceed due to the BJP’s non-participation. Source: Indian Express ISSUE OF STRUCTURAL UNEMPLOYMENT  Syllabus Prelims & Mains – ECONOMY Context: According to the Periodic Labour Force Survey, the unemployment rate declined from 6 per cent in 2017-18 to 3.2 percent in 2022-23. Background: Unemployment, especially youth unemployment, has emerged as a major concern for the Indian economy. Measuring employment and unemployment Economists divide the population into labour force and not in labour force. Labour Force: Includes working-age individuals (e.g., 15-60 years). Non-Labour Force: Includes children and retired/old-age population. Within the labour force, the population is divided into employed and unemployed. Labour Force Categories: Employed: Individuals with work. Unemployed: Individuals willing to work but unable to find jobs. Key Economic Indicators: Labour Force Participation Rate: Ratio of the labour force to the adult population. Unemployment Rate: Percentage of the labour force that is unemployed. Surveys in India: The National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO) conducted quinquennial (once in five years) surveys on employment & unemployment since 1972. These surveys had a large time lag and there was a need for a higher frequency survey and timely response by the government to address unemployment. Since 2017-18, the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MOSPI) releases quarterly and annual surveys through the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS). PLFS Findings: 2017-18: Overall unemployment rate at 6%, youth unemployment (ages 15-29) at 18%. 2022-23: Overall unemployment rate at 3.2%, youth unemployment at 10%. Rural-Urban Divide: Rural youth unemployment at 8%, urban youth unemployment at 15.7%. Male youth unemployment: 9.7%, female youth unemployment: 10%. Male labour force participation increased slightly from 55.5% to 56.2% over the same period. Female labour force participation increased from 17% (2017-18) to 27.8% (2022-23). The lower representation of females in the labour force is also a major problem for the Indian economy. Types of Unemployment Frictional Unemployment: Temporary and occurs as workers search for jobs that match their skills.Frictional unemployment is inevitable and less concerning. Structural Unemployment: Occurs when the supply of jobs is less than the demand. Addressing Structural Unemployment Economic Shifts: Agriculture’s share in GDP has decreased from 60% (1951) to 15% today, but employment in agriculture remains high. Agriculture suffers from disguised unemployment where more people are employed than required as opportunities are not available in other sectors. Growth sectors like industry and services have not created proportional employment opportunities,  showing the structural unemployment problem in India. Structural unemployment needs to be addressed on both demand and supply fronts. While there is a need to create a supply of more jobs in growth sectors, there is also a need to work on demand factors by improving education and skill-sets of labour enabling them to work in the higher growth sectors. Government Initiatives: Union Budget 2024 prioritizes ‘Employment & Skilling’ with three key schemes targeting formal sector employment and manufacturing. Focus on upgrading Industrial Training Institutes, providing skill loans, and facilitating internships with top companies. Female Labour Force Participation: Government to develop hostels and creches for working women and organize women-specific skilling programs. India has struggled with structural unemployment for years. New policies have been introduced, but their success depends on effective implementation. Source: Indian Express LEAD-UP TO INDIA’S INDEPENDENCE AND PARTITION  Syllabus Prelims & Mains – HISTORY Context: As the country celebrates its independence, lets have a look at histories significant moments including partition. Background: The partition led to massive population exchanges, communal violence, and a humanitarian crisis, as millions of Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs found themselves

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   EVOLUTION OF THE WOMAN’S QUESTION IN INDIA  Syllabus Mains – GS 1 & GS 2 Context: A number of recent incidents, including the rape and murder of a young woman at R G Kar Medical College and Hospital last week, brought renewed attention to women’s rights issues in India. Background:- The question of women’s rights, including their right to equality, liberty and security, has been a longstanding issue. British Interest in the ‘Woman’s Question’ in India The British were driven by a mix of Western morality, political strategy, and reformist zeal in addressing the ‘woman’s question’ in India. The 1881 Indian census, under Lord Ripon, highlighted a skewed sex ratio due to female foeticide and infanticide. The exploitation and sexualisation of Indian women by the ruling classes of the British through a series of Cantonment Acts for regulating prostitution in the British military bases, exploitation of domestic servants through long hours of work with no/low wages and with no kind of legal protection needs to be taken into account. They perpetrated forced imprisonment and stigmatisation of women in prostitution through the Contagious Diseases Acts (1864-1869), to fight venereal disease in soldiers stationed in territories under British occupation. These laws developed a legacy that had a psychosocial impact on women’s rights, social justice, and the objectification of women’s bodies even today. Social Reforms in India The Bengal Renaissance (late 18th to early 20th century) emerged with the decline of Mughal rule and the East India Company’s rise. Raja Ram Mohan Roy, known as the father of the ‘Indian Renaissance,’ was pivotal in abolishing the practice of Sati in 1829. Swami Dayananda Saraswati founded the Arya Samaj in 1875, advocating for a revival of Vedic values. Activists like Begum Roquiah Sakhawat Hossain and Rukhmabai Raut campaigned against sati and child marriage. Women reformers depended upon their male allies; a fact that has to be closely examined.One can consider in this context the Hindu Widows’ Remarriage Act of 1856, which was carried through by Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar, with the help of many women reformers who had no chance of influencing the formative process of legislation. Child Marriage Restraint Act (1929) also known as the Sarda Act, the legislation raised the marriage age to 18 for boys and 14 for girls. Political Representation While several global movements were raising demand for universal adult franchise in the Western countries, Nehru proposed to engage women in the political process, including in franchisee, at the Indian National Congress (INC) meeting in Lucknow in 1937. Of the 299 members of the Constituent Assembly, there were only 15 women, including Sarojini Naidu, Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit, Rajkumari Amrit Kaur, Hansa Jivraj Mehta, Durgabai Deshmukh, Renuka Ray, Leela Roy. Dakshayani Velayudhan was the first and only Dalit woman and Begum Aizaz Rasul was the only Muslim representative. Later, in the first Lok Sabha, during 1952-1957, only 4.4 percent of the members were women. As of today, only 14% of Lok Sabha seats and about 11% of Rajya Sabha seats are held by women. 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments (1993): Provided for 33% reservation for women in Panchayati Raj Institutions, increasing grassroots representation. Women’s Reservation Bill: This bill proposes reserving 33% of seats for women in state legislatures and Parliament but faces criticism as mere ‘tokenism.’ Economic Challenges Labour Participation: Women’s Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR) is about 25% (2022), with a significant gap compared to men. Income Disparity: Women earn about 25-30% less than men, with underrepresentation in high-paid jobs and overrepresentation in low-paid work. Farmer Identity: The definition of a ‘farmer’ often excludes women, and male land ownership dominates. Mental Health: 30% of suicides in India are of women, highlighting the need for better mental health support and data representation. Trends in Education and Skill Gaps Higher Education: Women constitute about 50% of higher education students, but regional disparities exist. Tribal Women Literacy: Literacy among tribal women (59.6% as of 2011) lags behind the general female population (75.6%). Challenges in Schooling: High dropout rates among girls at primary and secondary levels persist, despite schemes like the Mid-Day Meal and Beti Bachao Beti Padhao. Socio-Cultural Issues Caste and Class Discrimination: Even with Untouchability Offences Act, 1955, and the provisions of Articles 15 and 17, besides the SC & ST Prevention of Atrocities Act, the subtle power of caste and class discrimination that works against women has not ended. An example is that of the Devadasi system, where women were institutionalised as a religious and social entity to worship deities in temples. In this regard, the marginalisation and sexual exploitation of devadasis by priests, patrons, and others led to the passing of Devadasi Abolition Act in 1988. Nevertheless, according to data from the National Commission for Women, there were 48,358 devadasis in India in the year 2011. Disability and Marginalisation: About 11.8 million women with disabilities face severe discrimination and marginalization. Sexual Violence: Rape remains a significant issue, with a case reported every 16 minutes (NCRB). Legal frameworks like the Nirbhaya Act (2013) and POCSO Act (2012) exist but stigma and underreporting persist. Workplace Harassment: The Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace Act (2013) mandates Internal Complaints Committees (ICCs), but issues around implementation and ethics persist. Source: Indian Express FOREVER CHEMICALS  Syllabus Prelims – ENVIRONMENT Context: In a major breakthrough aimed at managing the long-term environmental impact of anthropogenic activity, American researchers have found a method to be able to trace the origin and the destination of forever chemicals. Background: The researchers opted for a technology known as nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. About Forever Chemicals Forever chemicals, also known as PFAS (per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances), are a group of over 9,000 synthetic (man made) chemicals that have been used in various industries since the 1940s. They are called “forever chemicals” because they do not break down easily in the environment or in the human body, leading to their persistence over time. They include a wide range of chemicals, but the most well-known and studied are: Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and Perfluorooctane

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   TRAFFIC AND AIR POLLUTION  Syllabus Mains – ENVIRONMENT Context: The recent World Air Quality Report stated that India is home to 83 of the 100 most polluted cities in the world. Another report from the British Medical Journal estimated that air pollution led to the deaths of 2.1 million people in India, the second largest numbers after China. Background:- Air pollution, considered the most significant environmental peril to human well-being, is the reason behind one out of every nine global fatalities, approximately. Severity of Air Pollution CO2 Emissions from Road Transport: 12% of India’s CO2 emissions come from road transport. 5 Emissions: Heavy vehicles are the primary contributors to PM2.5 emissions, which can penetrate deep into the lungs, enter the bloodstream, and cause respiratory and cardiovascular issues. Nitrogen Oxide (NOx) Emissions: Heavy vehicles significantly contribute to NOx emissions, leading to ground-level ozone formation and worsening air quality. Measures Taken to Combat Air Pollution from vehicles: Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) Norms: The Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) is developing CAFE III and IV norms to reduce CO2 emissions from cars by lowering fuel consumption (or improving fuel efficiency) of vehicles. The timelines proposed to implement CAFE III from 2027-2032 and CAFE IV from 2032-2037 are practical. The proposed emissions target for CAFE III based on the WLTP at 91.7g CO2/km and for CAFE IV at 70g CO2/km is achievable. The commitment to shift from the Modified India Driving Cycle (MIDC) to the World Light Duty Vehicle Testing Procedure (WLTP) from March 31, 2027, is excellent because the WLTP offers a more accurate and globally harmonised measure of a vehicle’s actual fuel consumption and CO2 emissions. The CAFE norms however exclude emissions by heavy vehicles such as trucks, lorries, and other freight vehicles. Vehicle Scrappage Policy (2022): The government introduced a vehicle scrappage policy to phase out old and polluting vehicles, including heavy vehicles in 2022. It mandates that passenger vehicles older than 20 years and commercial vehicles older than 15 years must pass a fitness and emissions test. If vehicles fail the mandatory tests, they are categorised as end-of-life vehicles, and will lose their registration certificate, and are recommended to be scrapped. Additional Recommendations Expand Vehicle Scrappage Policy: Address implementation challenges, such as the limited number of scrapyards and the voluntary nature of the policy. Stringent Implementation of Existing Policies: Ensure strict enforcement of vehicle emissions testing, bans on open garbage burning, and regulation of industrial emissions. Promote Mass Transit: Mass transit should be prioritized as a sustainable solution to reduce air pollution in India. Source: Hindu HIMALAYAN TOWNS AND NEED FOR A DIFFERENT KIND OF DEVELOPMENT  Syllabus Mains – GS 1 & GS 2 Context: The Indian Himalayan Range (IHR), comprising 11 States and two Union Territories, had a decadal urban growth rate of more than 40% from 2011 to 2021. Towns have expanded, and more urban settlements are developing. Disasters are following. Background: Himalaya’s towns urgently need carrying capacity-based development plans. Challenges in IHR Towns Civic Issues: Most Himalayan towns, including state capitals like Srinagar, Guwahati, Shillong, and Shimla, struggle with managing sanitation, solid and liquid waste, and water. Inadequate Planning: Planning institutions often use models copied from the plains, which are ineffective in the Himalayan context. Additionally, city governments face a 75% shortage of human resources. Urban Expansion: Cities like Srinagar and Guwahati are expanding into peripheries, leading to encroachment on open spaces, forests, and watersheds. For example, in Srinagar, land use changes between 2000 and 2020 showed a 75.58% increase, with a significant loss of water bodies. Environmental Impact: Nearly 90% of liquid waste enters water bodies untreated, exacerbating pollution and environmental degradation. Causes of the Challenges Urbanization and Tourism Pressure: The IHR faces growing pressure from urbanization, high-intensity tourism, unsustainable infrastructure development, and resource overuse, compounded by climate change. Environmental Degradation: These pressures lead to water scarcity, deforestation, land degradation, biodiversity loss, and increased pollution. Tourism Growth: Tourism in the IHR has expanded with an anticipated average annual growth rate of 7.9% from 2013 to 2023, often replacing eco-friendly infrastructure with inappropriate and unsustainable developments. Recommendations for Improvement Localized Planning: Towns need to be mapped for geological and hydrological vulnerabilities, with urban planning guided by climate resilience and local input. Bottom-up Approach: Planning should involve locals and move away from consultant-driven processes to ensure relevance and sustainability. Financial Support: None of the cities in the IHR can generate capital for their infrastructure needs. The Finance Commission must include a separate chapter on urban financing for the IHR. Current intergovernmental transfers from the centre to urban local bodies constitute a mere 0.5% of GDP; this should be increased to at least 1%. Focus on Sustainability: Engage in broader discussions on sustainability, emphasizing eco-centric planning and public participation for urban development in the IHR. Source: Hindu KURDS AND CONFLICTS IN WEST ASIA  Syllabus Mains – GS 2 Context: Turkiye and Iraq agreed on a military cooperation pact recently that will see joint training and command centres against Kurdish separatists. Background: Kurds are one of the Middle East’s largest ethnic groups of between 25 and 35 million people but without a state. Although Kurdish nationalism is a century-old phenomenon, compared to world attention on Palestine, the conflict-prone zone in the Middle East disallowed it to become a global concern. Brief History of the Kurdish Question Term “Kurdistan”: First used in the 12th century by the Saljuqs as a geographical term. Kurds are mainly followers of Sunni Islam but they have a strong ethnic identity and therefore certain cultural identity supersedes the political project of religious nationalism. Population Distribution: Turkey has the largest Kurdish population (43%), followed by Iran (31%), Iraq (18%), Syria (6%), and former Soviet states which includes Armenia and Azerbaijan (2%). The particularity of Kurdish nationalism or Kurdish nationalist movement, which was a direct consequence of the collapse of the Ottoman Empire in the early 20th century, is that it is not the product of an independence war against the occupation, nor