Archives (PRELIMS  Focus) Right to Vote Category: Polity and Governance. Context: The Centre has argued in the Supreme Court that the ‘right to vote’ in an election is different from the ‘freedom of voting’, and while one is a mere statutory right, the second is a part of the fundamental right to freedom of speech and expression. About Right to Vote: Significance: It is the cornerstone of our democracy, allowing citizens to have a say in who governs them and how they are governed. The ability to vote is not only a right, but a responsibility, as it ensures that the voices of all citizens are heard and that their interests are represented in the government. Protected by UDHR: The right to vote is not just a privilege, but a basic human right. It is protected by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966). Constitutional provision: The Constitution of India, under Article 326, guarantees universal adult franchise, stating that every citizen aged 18 or above is entitled to vote, provided they are not disqualified under law. Amendment: The 61st Constitutional Amendment Act, 1988, lowered the voting age of elections to the Lok Sabha and to the Legislative Assemblies of States from 21 years to 18 years (earlier it was 21 years). Legal provisions: Representation of the People Act, 1950 (RP Act, 1950): Section 16 disqualifies non-citizens from being enrolled in electoral rolls. Further, Section 19 requires voters to be ordinarily resident and aged 18 or more on the qualifying date. Representation of the People Act, 1951 (RP Act, 1951): Section 62 allows voting for all enrolled individuals unless disqualified by law or imprisoned. Important judgements by SC: N.P. Ponnuswami Case (1952): The Supreme Court held that the right to vote is purely statutory. PUCL Case (2003): Justice P.V. Reddy observed that even if not fundamental, the right to vote could be considered a constitutional right. Kuldip Nayar Case (2006): The Supreme Court reverted to viewing voting as a statutory right. Anoop Baranwal Case (2023): Majority opinion once again concluded that the right to vote is statutory. Source: The Hindu This is box title Category: Geography Context: Meghalaya’s Umngot river, famed for its picturesque crystal-clear water, is murky this year, triggering alarm in the state. :   About Umngot River: Origin: It originates from the Eastern Shillong Peak, which is located 1,800 m above sea level. The river is in the village of Mawlynnong (“God’s Own Garden”) in Meghalaya, close to India’s border with Bangladesh, which is touted as Asia’s Cleanest Village. Uniqueness: Popularly known as Dawki river, the Umngot river is regarded as the cleanest river in India as well as Asia with its crystal-clear water. Its water is so clear that boats appear to be floating on air, with the riverbed visible even at depths of 15–20 feet. Natural divide: It acts as a natural divide between Jaintia and Khasi hills, before finally flowing into Bangladesh. Prominent tourist destinations: The river flows through the West Jaintia Hills district of Meghalaya and its pristine water in the winter makes locations along it such as Dawki and Shnongpdeng among the top tourist attractions in the state. Boat race: It is also known for the annual boat race in the month of March-April. Transportation: The suspension bridge over the Dawki River on NH-40 was constructed way back in 1932 and it is one of the busiest bilateral trade routes between India and Bangladesh. Source: The Indian Express Scrub Typhus Disease Category: Science and TechnologyContext: A Gulf Keralite’s impulsive decision to return home to treat a persistent fever turned out to be life-saving after he was diagnosed with scrub typhus. This has become the first documented case of scrub typhus contracted in the Gulf and diagnosed in India. About Scrub Typhus Disease: Nomenclature: Typhus (or typhus fever) is the name used for several different types of bacterial infections spread by bug bites that cause similar symptoms, like high fever and rash. Causing agent: It is an infectious disease caused by bacteria called Orientia tsutsugamushi. Transmission: It is not directly communicable from person to person. Instead, it is a zoonotic disease that is transmitted to humans through the bite of infected chiggers (young mites). Reasons: Several factors, like vector abundance, climatic factors, exposures like farming and owning domestic animals, outdoor activities and sanitation, affect its prevalence. Also, this disease is more prevalent in cooler months. Symptoms: The symptoms typically include fever, headache, body ache, and sometimes a rash. In severe cases, the infection can lead to respiratory distress, brain and lung inflammation, kidney failure, and multi-organ failure, ultimately resulting in death. Vaccine: Presently, there is no vaccine available for this disease. Treatment:  It is treated with doxycycline, which is most effective when administered early. Source: The Indian Express INS Ikshak Category: Defence and Security Context: The third vessel of the Survey Vessel Large (SVL) class, INS Ikshak, was commissioned into the Indian Navy at a ceremonial event held at Naval Base in Kochi.        About INS Ikshak: Nomenclature: The ship’s name, Ikshak, meaning “The Guide”, symbolises its purpose: to chart unexplored waters, ensure safe navigation for mariners. Construction: It is constructed by Garden Reach Shipbuilders & Engineers (GRSE) Ltd, Kolkata. Objective: It is the indigenously built Survey Vessels (Large) (SVL) which will study underwater hydrography. Indigenous: It boasts over 80% indigenous content. Structure: The Survey Vessel (Large) ships are 110 m long, 16 m wide with deep displacement of 3400 tons. Speed: The propulsion system of the ship consists of two Main Engines in twin shaft configuration and is designed with cruise speed of 14 knots and maximum speed of 18 knots. HADR capability: Beyond its primary role in hydrographic survey operations, Ikshak is also equipped with dual-role functionality, enabling it to operate as a Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief (HADR) platform and a hospital ship during emergencies. Uniqueness: It is the first vessel in the SVL class to feature dedicated accommodation for

Archives (PRELIMS  Focus) Anti-Defection Law Category: Polity and Governance Context: The Legislature Secretariat of Telangana has summoned four more MLAs of the Bharat Rashtra Samiti (BRS) who are facing charges of defection to the ruling Congress.             About Anti-Defection Law: Evolution: In post-Independence India, frequent defections led to political instability. The phrase “Aaya Ram, Gaya Ram” became popular in the 1960s after a Haryana MLA switched parties multiple times in a single day.  To address this issue, the Anti-Defection Law was introduced as the Tenth Schedule to the Constitution through the 52nd Constitutional Amendment, 1985.  Objective: It aimed to stop political defections for personal gain. It applies to both Parliament and State Assemblies.  Amendment: The 91st Amendment Act (2003) amended the anti-defection law by scrapping the one-third split provision, allowing mergers only if two-thirds of a party’s members agreed, and disqualifying defectors from holding ministerial or paid political posts until they are re-elected.  Grounds for Disqualification:  A member voluntarily gives up party membership (can be inferred from conduct, not just resignation).   A member votes or abstains from voting against the party whip can lead to disqualification.  A legislator can further be disqualified if he is an independently elected member and joins a political party.  A nominated member is disqualified if they join a political party after six months of becoming a legislator.  Exceptions to Disqualification: A party can merge with another if two-thirds of its legislators agree, with no disqualification for those who merge or stay.  No disqualification for Speaker/Chairman/Deputy Chairman resigning from the party to remain neutral.  Deciding authority: Disqualification cases are decided by the Speaker/Chairman. There’s no legally binding time frame for the Speaker to decide on disqualification cases, allowing for strategic delays. Judgements by SC: In Kihoto Hollohan vs Zachillhu (1992), the SC ruled that the Speaker’s decisions are subject to judicial review. This means Courts can intervene in the Speaker’s decision if there’s mala fide intent, procedural lapse, or constitutional violation, ensuring fairness and transparency. In Keisham Meghachandra Singh vs The Hon’ble Speaker Manipur Legislative Assembly & Ors (2020), the SC directed Speakers to decide defection cases within 3 months and suggested an independent tribunal to ensure neutrality and speed. The SC noted that delaying disqualification proceedings violates the intent of Tenth Schedule and undermines trust in the Speaker’s office by failing to uphold the standard of timely decision-making. Source: The Hindu QS Asia University Rankings Category: Miscellaneous Context: China has overtaken India as the most-represented location in the QS World University Rankings: Asia 2026, according to the rankings released this week. About QS Asia University Rankings: Nature: The QS Asia University Rankings is an annual regional assessment that evaluates Asia’s leading higher education institutions based on academic reputation, employability, research productivity, and international outlook. Released by: It is compiled by Quacquarelli Symonds (QS), a UK-based higher education analytics firm, known globally for its QS World University Rankings. Objectives: To benchmark Asian universities using globally comparable indicators. To highlight academic excellence, innovation, and research impact in the region. To promote quality, global competitiveness, and collaboration in Asian higher education. About QS Asia Rankings 2026: The top 10 positions in the 2026 rankings were dominated by universities from Hong Kong, Singapore, and China. While India added 132 universities and institutes to the list this year, taking its tally to a record high of 294, China added 259 institutions, bringing its total to 394. Seven Indian institutions feature in the top 100, with the Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, ranked highest at 59. China has 25 universities in the top 100, while India retained the same number of institutes in the top 100 as last year. Source: The Hindu APEDA Category: Polity and Governance Context: APEDA, under the Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Government of India, has facilitated the first export consignment of 12 metric tonnes of Fortified Rice Kernel (FRK) from Chhattisgarh to Costa Rica. About APEDA: Establishment: The Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA) was established by the Government of India under the Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority Act, 1985. Nodal ministry: It functions under the Ministry of Commerce and Industry. Headquarters: Its headquarters is located in New Delhi. Secretariat to NAB: It also functions as the Secretariat to the National Accreditation Board (NAB) for the implementation of accreditation of the Certification Bodies under National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP) for Organic exports. Objective: APEDA is mandated with the responsibility of export promotion and development of the scheduled products viz. fruits, vegetables and their products, meat and meat products, poultry and poultry products, floriculture and floriculture products, herbal and medicinal plants, etc. Conducting surveys and studies: It looks after the development of industries relating to the scheduled products for export by way of providing financial assistance or otherwise for undertaking surveys and feasibility studies, participating through subsidy schemes. Inspection of slaughterhouses: It carries out inspection of meat and meat products in slaughterhouses, processing plants, storage premises and improving packaging of the scheduled products. Composition of APEDA Authority: The APEDA Authority consists of the following members namely: A Chairman appointed by the Central Government The Agricultural Marketing Advisor to the Government of India, ex-official One member appointed by the Central Government representing the Niti Aayog Three members of Parliament of whom two are elected by the House of People and one by the Council of States Eight members appointed by the Central Government representing respectively, the Ministries of the Central Govt. Source: PIB Vijayanagara Empire Category: History and Culture Context: One hundred and three punch-marked gold coins dated to Vijayanagara era were found in a earthen pot around 10 kms from Jamunamarathur village atop Jawadhu Hills in Tiruvannamalai. About Vijayanagara Empire: Foundation: According to tradition, the founders of the Vijayanagara Empire belonged to a family of five brothers who were feudatories of the Kakatiyas of Warangal. Founded in 1336 by Harihara I and Bukka Raya I of the Sangama Dynasty, Vijayanagara became a prominent cultural and political centre in

Archives (PRELIMS  Focus) BRICS Category: International Relations Context: For over a decade, the BRICS have taken a series of steps showing their increasing determination to reduce dependence on the dollar-dominated international financial system. About BRICS: Nomenclature: The acronym ‘BRIC’ was coined by British economist Jim O’Neill in 2001 to represent the emerging economies of Brazil, Russia, India, and China.  Evolution: BRIC began functioning as a formal group during the G-8 Outreach Summit in 2006, held its first summit in Russia in 2009, and became BRICS with the inclusion of South Africa in 2010.  Members: The initial five BRICS members were Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa. In 2024, Iran, the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Egypt, and Ethiopia joined the group while Indonesia joined in 2025. Saudi Arabia has not yet formalised its BRICS membership, while Argentina, initially expected to join in 2024, later opted out.   Significance: BRICS accounts for 45% of the world’s population and 37.3% of global GDP, surpassing the EU’s 14.5% and the G7’s 29.3%. Important for energy security: With Iran, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE joining, BRICS now accounts for around 44% of global crude oil production positioning it as a key player in ensuring energy security and influencing oil prices and supply chains. Key Initiatives of BRICS: These include New Development Bank (2014), Contingent Reserve Arrangement (CRA), BRICS Grain Exchange, BRICS Rapid Information Security Channel, STI Framework Programme (2015) etc. About New Development Bank: Focus on developing countries: NDB is a multilateral development bank established by BRICS with the purpose of mobilising resources for infrastructure and sustainable development projects in emerging markets and developing countries (EMDCs). Fortaleza declaration: The Agreement was signed during the BRICS Summit held in Fortaleza in 2014, and the Bank started operations in 2015. Headquarters: Its headquarters is in Shanghai, China, with regional offices in South Africa and Brazil. Members: Apart from the founding members, Bangladesh and United Arab Emirates, Egypt, and Uruguay are the new members. The membership is open to members of the United Nations. Voting power: The voting power of each member shall equal its subscribed shares in the capital. However, the share of the BRICS nations can never be less than 55% of the voting power. Also, none of the countries will have veto power. Source: The Hindu Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA) Category: Polity and Governance Context: The Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA) has proposed revised airfare refund norms requiring airlines to issue a full refund or credit note if a passenger cancels a flight due to a medical emergency, among several other changes. About Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA): Nodal ministry: It is the regulatory body in the field of civil aviation primarily dealing with safety issues. It is an attached office of the Ministry of Civil Aviation. Objective: It is responsible for regulation of air transport services to/from/within India and for enforcement of civil air regulations, air safety and airworthiness standards. It also coordinates all regulatory functions with the International Civil Aviation Organisation. Headquarters: Its headquarters is located in New Delhi. Functions: It ensures the safety of passengers and crew members on all flights operating in India. It also conducts regular safety inspections of all airlines and aircraft to meet the required safety standards. In addition to safety, the DGCA also plays a crucial role in the growth and development of the Indian aviation industry. Manages air traffic control systems: The DGCA also plays a key role in developing new air traffic control systems and technologies to improve the overall efficiency of Indian airspace. Awards certificates to pilots: The DGCA is also responsible for issuing licenses and certificates to pilots, aircraft maintenance engineers, and other aviation personnel. Works closely with AAI: The DGCA is also responsible for the regulation of air traffic in India. It works closely with the Airports Authority of India (AAI) to ensure air traffic is managed safely and efficiently. About Airports Authority of India (AAI): Nature: It is a statutory body under the Directorate General of Civil Aviation, Ministry of Civil Aviation, Government of India. Establishment: It was constituted by an Act of Parliament and came into being on 1st April, 1995, by merging the erstwhile National Airports Authority and the International Airports Authority of India. Function: The merger brought into existence a single Organization entrusted with the responsibility of creating, upgrading, maintaining, and managing civil aviation infrastructure both on the ground and air space in the country. Source: The Hindu CITES Category: Environment and Ecology Context: A committee of CITES has recommended that India’s wildlife authorities pause the issue of permits that allow endangered animals to be imported by zoos, and wildlife rescue and rehabilitation centres. About CITES: Nomenclature: Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) is also known as the Washington Convention. Establishment: It was signed on 3rd March 1973 during the World Wildlife Conference and came into force on 1st July 1975. It was drafted following a 1963 resolution adopted by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) to regulate wildlife trade.   Members: The Convention now has 185 Parties, including India (a member since 1976) and the European Union.  Administration: Administered by the UN Environment Programme (UNEP) in Geneva, CITES regulates international trade in over 40,000 species of wild animals and plants, including live specimens and wildlife-derived products.   Objective: The treaty aims to ensure that such trade is sustainable, legal, and traceable, supporting biodiversity, local livelihoods, and national economies in line with the UN Sustainable Development Goals.  Working Procedure: CITES regulates international trade through permits for export, import, re-export, and sea introduction. Each member country appoints management and scientific authorities to oversee licensing and conservation advice.  Appendices System:  Appendix I: Species threatened with extinction. Trade is highly restricted.  Appendix II: Species not endangered but need controlled trade to avoid risk.  Appendix III: Species protected by at least one country that seeks cooperation to regulate trade.  Amendments: Changes to Appendices I and II are decided at the Conference of the Parties (CoP), while Appendix III can be amended unilaterally by individual Parties.  Importance: Wildlife trade is a multi-billion dollar global industry, and unregulated trade alongside habitat loss threatens many species with extinction.

Archives (PRELIMS  Focus) Nipah Virus Category: Science and Technology Context: The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) has invited Expression of Interest (EoI) from eligible organisations, companies, and manufacturers for the development and production of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) against Nipah viral disease. About Nipah Virus: Nature: Nipah virus (NiV) is a zoonotic virus (transmitted from animals to humans) and can also be transmitted through contaminated food or directly between people. Family: The organism that causes Nipah Virus encephalitis is an RNA or Ribonucleic acid virus of the family Paramyxoviridae, genus Henipavirus, and is closely related to Hendra virus. Genome structure: The NiV genome is a negative-sense single-stranded RNA. It generates structural proteins like N, P, M, F, G, and L. Global spread: Nipah virus was first recognized in 1998-99 during an outbreak among pig farmers in Malaysia. The traces of the virus have been identified in various countries like Cambodia, Ghana, and Thailand. First spread in India: In India, the first Nipah virus outbreak occurred in Siliguri, West Bengal, in the year 2001. Hosts: NiV initially appeared in domestic pigs, dogs, cats, goats, horses, and sheep. Transmission: It spreads through fruit bats (genus Pteropus). The virus is found in bat urine, faeces, saliva, and birthing fluids. Fatality: The case fatality rate ranges from 40% to 75%. Symptoms: It causes encephalitic syndrome in humans, presenting with fever, headache, drowsiness, disorientation, mental confusion, coma, and potentially death. Diagnosis: Its diagnosis can be established through real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) from bodily fluids and antibody detection via enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).  Prevention: Presently, there are no vaccines available for humans or animals. However, Ribavirin, an antiviral, may play a role in lowering mortality in patients with Nipah virus encephalitis. Source: The Hindu Laokhowa Wildlife Sanctuary Category: Environment and Ecology Context: Conservationists, wildlife officials, academicians, and students have got together to push for the Ramsar site tag for Rowmari-Donduwa wetland complex, which is within the Laokhowa Wildlife Sanctuary. About Laokhowa Wildlife Sanctuary: Location: It is located on the southern part of the Brahmaputra River in Nagaon District of Assam. Area: It covers an area of around 70.13 sq.km. Associated with Kaziranga tiger reserve: It was declared as a buffer zone of the Kaziranga Tiger Reserve in 2007 and became an integral part of the larger Laokhowa-Burachapori ecosystem.  Encapsulated by human-dominated areas: It is a part of the Brahmaputra valley and the sanctuary is surrounded by human-dominated areas on all sides except for the north. Flora: Laokhowa is rich in flora, with diverse plant species including grasslands, tropical moist deciduous forests, and semi-evergreen forests. Fauna: Its main attraction is the Great Indian one horned Rhinocerous. Other animals found here are Indian royal Bengal tiger, elephant, Wild Boar, Civet Cat, Leopard Cat, Hog Deer, Asian water buffalo, about 200 species of birds, including the Bengal Florica, Leopard, Asiatic Buffalo, etc. Source: The Hindu UNESCO Creative Cities Network Category: History and Culture Context: Lucknow has been declared a UNESCO ‘Creative City of Gastronomy’ during the 43rd Session of the UNESCO General Conference in Uzbekistan. The recognition celebrates the city’s centuries-old Awadhi cuisine and living food traditions. About UNESCO Creative Cities Network (UCCN): Creation: It was created in 2004 to promote UNESCO’s goals of cultural diversity and strengthen resilience to threats such as climate change, rising inequality, and rapid urbanisation. Objective: It aims to promote cooperation among cities that have identified creativity as a strategic factor for sustainable urban development. Coverage: The network covers seven creative fields: crafts and folk arts, media arts, film, design, gastronomy, literature and music. The network is aimed at leveraging the creative, social, and economic potential of cultural industries. In sync with SDGs: It is in line with Sustainable Development Goal 11, which aims for Sustainable Cities and Communities. Involves participation of private sector: It allows member cities to recognise creativity as an essential component of urban development, notably through partnerships involving the public and private sectors and civil society. Formation of hubs of creativity: It envisages developing hubs of creativity, innovation and broadening opportunities for creators and professionals in the cultural sector. Indian Cities in the UCCN: Kozhikode (Literature), Gwalior (Music), Jaipur (Crafts and Folk Arts), Varanasi (Music), Chennai (Music), Mumbai (Film), Hyderabad (Gastronomy), Lucknow (Gastronomy), and Srinagar (Crafts and Folk Arts) are included in this list. Source: The Hindu Indian Institute of Packaging (IIP) Category: Polity and Governance Context: Indian Institute of Packaging (IIP), an autonomous body under the Ministry of Commerce and Industry (MoCI), opened its Bengaluru Centre recently. About Indian Institute of Packaging (IIP): Nature: It is an autonomous body in the field of packaging and working under the administrative control of the Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Government of India.  Establishment: It was established on 14th May, 1966, and the institute set up its first branch office at Chennai in 1971, followed by branches at Kolkata, Delhi, and Hyderabad in 1976, 1986, and 2006, respectively. Headquarters: Its headquarters and principal laboratories are located in Mumbai. Objective: The main objective of the Institute is to promote the export market by way of innovative package design and development as well as to upgrade the overall standards of packaging in the country. Activities involved: The Institute is involved in various activities like testing and evaluation of packaging materials and packages, consultancy services, and research & development related to packaging. Besides this, the Institute is involved in training and education in the field of packaging.  Closely associated with export promotion councils: It imparts training in innovative and aesthetic packaging to the artisans, weavers, exporters, stakeholders, etc. It is closely working with various commodity boards and export promotion councils such as APEDA, Spices Board, MPEDA, Tea Board, MoFPI, and others. Member of various packaging federations: The Institute has linkages with international organisations and is a founding member of the Asian Packaging Federation (APF); a member of the Institute of Packaging Professionals (IOPP), USA; the Institute Packaging (IOP), UK; Technical Association of Pulp and Paper Industry (TAPPI), USA. Events: The Institute organizes a biannual event i.e. International Packaging Exhibition, i.e., INDIAPACK, and a national contest

Archives (PRELIMS  Focus) Cauvery River Category: Geography Context: Heavy metals are polluting the Cauvery River and its fish, researchers from Tamil Nadu have reported. They have also cautioned against consuming “regular” or “excessive” amounts of fish from here. About Cauvery River: Nature: It is the third largest river – after Godavari and Krishna – in southern India, and the largest in the state of Tamil Nadu, known as ‘Ponni’ in Tamil. Basin states: The Cauvery River is one of the major rivers of the peninsula. It extends over states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala and Union Territory of Puducherry. Boundary: It is bounded by the Western Ghats on the west, by the Eastern Ghats on the east and the south and by the ridges separating it from Krishna basin and Pennar basin on the north. Origin: It rises at an elevation of 1,341 m at Talakaveri on the Brahmagiri range near Cherangala village of Kodagu district of Karnataka. The river drains into the Bay of Bengal at Poompuhar in the Mayiladuthurai district of Tamil Nadu. Length: Spanning approximately 800 kilometres, the Cauvery is a crucial lifeline for the states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Significance: Known as the “Ganga of the South,” the Cauvery has historical, cultural, and economic significance, playing a pivotal role in the irrigation and water supply for millions of people in the region. Major left bank tributaries: These include Harangi, the Hemavati, the Shimsha and the Arkavati. Major right bank tributaries: These include Lakshmantirtha, the Kabbani, the Suvarnavati, the Bhavani, the Noyil and the Amaravati. Division: The basin can be divided into three parts, viz. the Western Ghats, the Plateau of Mysore and the Delta. The delta area is the most fertile tract in the basin. Soil types: The principal soil types found in the basin are black soils, red soils, laterites, alluvial soils, forest soils and mixed soils. Red soils occupy large areas in the basin. Alluvial soils are found in the delta areas. National Parks in this basin: These include Bandipur National Park, Nagarhole National Park and Bannerghatta National Park. Source: The Hindu High Seas Treaty Category: Environment and Ecology Context: The High Seas Treaty was ratified by over 60 countries in September; it will now be enforced in January 2026. The treaty sets rules to preserve and use marine biodiversity sustainably and addresses threats from climate change, overfishing and pollution. About High Seas: Definition of high Seas: According to the 1958 Geneva Convention on the High Seas, parts of the sea that are not included in the territorial waters or the internal waters of a country are known as the high seas. It is the area beyond a country’s Exclusive Economic Zone (that extends up to 200 nautical miles from the coastline) and till where a nation has jurisdiction over living and non-living resources. Significance of high seas: The high seas cover over 64% of the world’s oceans and 50% of the Earth’s surface, making them vital for marine life. They are home to around 270,000 known species, with many yet to be discovered. Influence on climate: The high seas regulate climate, absorb carbon, store solar radiation, and distribute heat, crucial for planetary stability and mitigating climate change. About High Seas Treaty: Formal name: It is formally called the Agreement on Conservation and Sustainable Use of Marine Biological Diversity of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction. In short, known as BBJN or High Seas Treaty. Under UNCLOS: It is a new international legal framework under UNCLOS for maintaining the ecological health of the oceans. Objective: The treaty was negotiated in 2023 and is meant to reduce pollution, and promote the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity and other marine resources in ocean waters outside the national jurisdiction of any country. Focus on fair and equitable sharing: It identifies Marine Genetic Resources (MGRs) as the common heritage of humankind, and insists on a fair and equitable sharing of benefits. Includes EIAs: The treaty also entails Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) for events potentially affecting these areas, especially when cumulative and transboundary impacts are taken into account. Evolution: The first steps for the treaty began two decades ago. In 2004, the UN General Assembly formed an ad-hoc working group to fix the gap in the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), 1982, which did not have clear guidelines on protecting BBNJ. By 2011, states had agreed to negotiate on four key issues, mainly MGRs, ABMTs, EIAs, and capacity building and technology transfer. Following this, four Intergovernmental Conference sessions were held between 2018 and 2023. The parties to these discussions finally reached an agreement in March 2023, which led to the adoption of the treaty in June 2023. Source: The Hindu National Beekeeping and Honey Mission Category: Government Schemes Context: The National Beekeeping & Honey Mission (NBHM) launched in 2021 by the Government of India is driving the ambitious “Sweet Revolution” in the country. About National Beekeeping and Honey Mission: Nature: It is a Central Sector Scheme launched by the Government of India. Objective: It focuses on overall promotion and development of scientific beekeeping and the production of quality honey and other beehive products. Implementation: It is implemented by the National Bee Board (NBB) through 3 Mini Missions (MMs). Mini Mission-I: Under this Mission, thrust will be given on production & productivity improvement of various crops through pollination assisted by adoption of scientific beekeeping; Mini Mission-II: This Mission will concentrate on post-harvest management of beekeeping/beehive products including collection, processing, storage, marketing, value addition, etc. Mini Mission-III: This Mission will concentrate on research & technology generation for different regions/states/agro-climatic and socio-economic conditions. Funding: The scheme has a total budget outlay of ₹500 crore for three years (2020–21 to 2022–23) and has been extended for another three years (2023–24 to 2025–26). Major objectives: Promoting holistic growth of the beekeeping industry for providing livelihood support to farm and non-farm households. Developing additional infrastructural facilities for developing quality nucleus stock of honeybees, multiplication of stock by bee breeders and post-harvest and marketing infrastructures. Setting up of state-of-the-art

Archives (PRELIMS  Focus) One District One Product (ODOP) Category: Government Schemes Context: In a bid to promote local talent, the Indian Railways will patronise the newly launched ‘Aabhar’ online store that will showcase a range of exquisite gift items manufactured under the ambit of One District One Product (ODOP). About One District One Product (ODOP): Nodal ministry: One District One Product (ODOP) was launched by the Ministry of Food Processing Industries in 2018. Objective: it aims to help districts reach their full potential, foster economic and socio-cultural growth, and create employment opportunities, especially, in rural areas. Every district as export hub: This initiative is carried out with the ‘Districts as Exports Hub’ initiative by the Directorate General of Foreign Trade (DGFT), Department of Commerce. It aims to turn every district in India, into an export hub through promotion of the product in which the district specialises.  In line with Atmanirbhar Bharat: The initiative plans to accomplish this by scaling manufacturing, supporting local businesses, finding potential foreign customers and so on, thus helping to achieve the ‘Atmanirbhar Bharat’ vision. Process of selection: Under the ODOP initiative, all products have been selected by States/UTs by taking into consideration the existing ecosystem on the ground, products identified under Districts as Export Hubs (DEH), and GI-tagged products. Source: The Hindu Foreign Portfolio Investment (FPI) Category: Economy Context: Foreign Portfolio Investors net bought equities worth ₹14,610 crore in October after three consecutive months of selling, the strongest inflow since July this year. About Foreign Portfolio Investment (FPI): Definition: Foreign portfolio investment (FPI) consists of securities and other financial assets passively held by foreign investors. It does not provide the investor with direct ownership of financial assets and is relatively liquid depending on the volatility of the market. Composition: FPIs include stocks, bonds, mutual funds, exchange traded funds, American Depositary Receipts (ADRs), and Global Depositary Receipts (GDRs). Part of capital account: FPI is part of a country’s capital account and is shown on its Balance of Payments (BOP). The BOP measures the amount of money flowing from one country to other countries over one monetary year. Regulated by SEBI: The Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) brought new FPI Regulations, 2019, replacing the erstwhile FPI Regulations of 2014. Hot money: FPI is often referred to as “hot money” because of its tendency to flee at the first signs of trouble in an economy. FPI is more liquid, volatile and therefore riskier than FDI. Key features: Investors do not participate in the management of the company. It aims for capital appreciation rather than long-term strategic interests. Further, it provides capital flow into financial markets, increasing efficiency and investment potential. Difference with FDI: A foreign investor can hold up to 10% of the total paid-up capital of an Indian company without being classified as an FDI. If the holding exceeds 10%, it is reclassified as Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). About FOREX Reserves: Nature: Foreign exchange (FOREX) reserves are assets held on reserve by a central bank in foreign currencies, which can include bonds, treasury bills and other government securities. Dominated by dollars: It needs to be noted that most foreign exchange reserves are held in US dollars. India’s Forex Reserve include: Foreign Currency Assets Gold reserves Special Drawing Rights Reserve Tranche Position with the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Source: The Hindu Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Category: International Relations Context: Chinese President Xi Jinping takes centre stage at Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) meet and promises to defend global free trade. About Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC): Nature: The Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation is a regional economic forum and was formed in 1989. Objective: The aim of the grouping is to “leverage the growing interdependence of the Asia-Pacific and create greater prosperity for the people of the region through regional economic integration.” Focus: The focus of APEC has been on trade and economic issues and hence, it terms the countries as “economies.” Non-binding commitments: APEC operates based on no binding commitments or treaty obligations. Commitments are undertaken voluntarily and capacity-building projects help members implement APEC initiatives. Member Countries: Currently, APEC has 21 members, which includes Australia, Brunei, Hong Kong, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, Indonesia, China, Japan, South Korea, Russia, Canada, the United States, Mexico, Peru, Chile, Malaysia, Vietnam, Singapore, Thailand and Taiwan. Membership criterion: The criterion for membership, however, is that each member must be an independent economic entity, rather than a sovereign state. India as member: India was not its member till 1997 as it still had too many rules and restrictions. Further, the group decided to stop accepting new members in 1997, to focus on improving the existing cooperation among the current members. So, India is not its member and currently has the ‘observer’ status. Significance: Since its formation, the grouping championed the lowering of trade tariffs, free trade, and economic liberalisation. In the Seoul Declaration (1991), APEC member economies proclaimed the creation of a liberalised free trade area around the Pacific Rim as the principal objective of the organisation. Contribution in world trade: APEC accounts for approximately 62% of world GDP and about half of world trade. It is one of the oldest and most influential multilateral platforms in the Asia-Pacific region. Source: The Hindu Nauradehi Wildlife Sanctuary Category: Environment and Ecology Context: Madhya Pradesh Chief Minister said that Nauradehi Sanctuary will become the third home for cheetahs in the state after Kuno National Park and Gandhi Sagar Sanctuary. About Nauradehi Wildlife Sanctuary: Location: It is spread across three districts, i.e., Sagar, Damoh, and Narsinghpur, of Madhya Pradesh. The entire Sanctuary is situated on a plateau, forming part of the upper Vindhyan range. Area: It covers nearly 1197 sq.km. area. Declaration as wildlife sanctuary: It was declared a wildlife sanctuary in 1975. It is the largest wildlife sanctuary in Madhya Pradesh. Acts as a natural corridor: It acts as a corridor for Panna Tiger Reserve and Satpura Tiger Reserve while indirectly connecting Bandhavgarh Tiger Reserve via Rani Durgawati Wildlife Sanctuary. Drainage: Three-fourths of the wildlife sanctuary

Archives (PRELIMS  Focus) Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (QUAD) Category: International Relations Context: The summit between U.S. President and Chinese President in Busan, South Korea, ended with several outcomes for bilateral ties between the two countries and may also impact India and Quad.                            About Quad: Members: QUAD, also known as the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue is a strategic forum comprising four countries: the United States, Japan, India, and Australia. Objective: The Quad is aimed at promoting regional security and economic cooperation in the Indo-Pacific region. Not a formal grouping: The Quad is a loose grouping rather than a formal alliance. It does not have a decision-making body or a secretariat, or a formal structure like NATO or the United Nations. The alliance is maintained through summits, meetings, information exchanges, and military drills. Revolves around Indo-Pacific region: The four countries share a common interest in maintaining a free and open Indo-Pacific, promoting democracy, human rights, and the rule of law, and countering China’s expanding influence in the region. Counters influence of China: The Quad is seen as a mechanism for balancing China’s influence in the region (through ‘String of pearls’ theory), although its members have stressed that it is not a military alliance and is open to other countries who share their values and interests. Other focus areas: The QUAD aims to promote people-to-people ties through academic and cultural exchanges and enhance disaster relief and humanitarian assistance capabilities. It also resolves debt issues under the G20 Common Framework through the ‘Quad Debt Management Resource Portal.’ Evolution: 2007: The Quad was initially formed in 2007 during an informal meeting of leaders from the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). It was Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe who first proposed the idea of creating the Quad. 2012: The Japanese Prime Minister highlighted the concept of the ‘Democratic Security Diamond’ in Asia, which includes the US, Japan, India, and Australia. 2017: Once again confronted with the growing danger posed by China, the four nations revitalized the Quad by expanding its goals and devising a system that aimed to gradually establish an international order based on rules. India, Japan, USA, and Australia held the first ‘Quad’ talks in Manila ahead of the ASEAN Summit 2017. Source: The Hindu Adaptation Gap Report 2025 Category: Miscellaneous Context: Amid rising global temperatures, UNEP’s 2025 Adaptation Gap Report: Running on Empty finds that a yawning gap in adaptation finance for developing countries is putting lives, livelihoods and entire economies at risk. About Adaptation Gap Report: Published By: It is an annual flagship publication of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) –Copenhagen Climate Centre with contributions from multiple global institutions and experts. Objective: The Adaptation Gap Report tracks global progress on climate adaptation planning, implementation, and finance, assessing how far the world is from achieving climate resilience goals. Focus on developing countries: To evaluate whether nations—especially developing ones—are adapting fast enough to climate impacts, and to quantify the adaptation finance gap to support global negotiations under the UNFCCC and COP30. Important highlights from Adaptation Gap Report 2025: The report updates the cost of adaptation finance needed in developing countries, putting it at US$310 billion per year in 2035, when based on modelled costs. When based on extrapolated needs expressed in Nationally Determined Contributions and National Adaptation Plans, this figure rises to US$365 billion a year. Meanwhile, international public adaptation finance flows to developing countries were US$26 billion in 2023: down from US$28 billion the previous year. This makes adaptation financing needs in developing countries 12-14 times as much as current flows. If current finance trends continue, the Glasgow Climate Pact goal of doubling international public adaptation finance from 2019 levels by 2025 will not be achieved, while the New Collective Quantified Goal for climate finance is not ambitious enough to close the finance gap. The private sector could do more – with potential to provide around US$50 billion per year if backed by targeted policy action and blended finance solutions. Source: UNEP Bharat Taxi Category: Government Schemes Context: India is set to launch it’s first-ever cooperative cab service “Bharat Taxi” in November 2025 in Delhi and it aims to address challenges faced by both commuters and drivers using private cab services. About Bharat Taxi: Launched by: It is launched by Union Ministry of Cooperation and the National e-Governance Division (NeGD). Objective: It aims to build a robust, fairer system settling growing urban cab facility needs in the country. Based on cooperative model: This cooperative cab service offers a transparent, driver-owned alternative to private aggregators where drivers become members and shareholders instead only as ’employees’. One stop solution for passengers and drivers: Bharat Taxi is expected to be as a materialistic solution for the long-standing challenges faced by both commuters and drivers using private cab services. The model ensures all the stakeholders including the driver, the passenger behind the wheels have a voice in the system. Integration with other government services: The platform integrates with government digital services like DigiLocker and UMANG, ensuring seamless verification and service access. Management: Sahakar Taxi Cooperative Limited manages Bharat Taxi comprising cooperative leaders and driver representatives. It is backed by eight major institutions, renowned for its strong governance, transparency, and long-term sustainability for the initiative. Source: Deccan Herald Saranda Sanctuary Category: Environment and Ecology Context: The Supreme Court reserved its verdict on the Jharkhand government’s plea to reduce the expanse of to be notified Saranda sanctuary from its earlier 310 sq km to 250 sq km to exclude 60 sq km of forest inhabited by tribals to protect their forest rights. About Saranda Sanctuary: Location: It is a proposed wildlife sanctuary in West Singhbhum district of Jharkhand, located within the Saranda Forest Division, known as one of Asia’s largest Sal (Shorea robusta) forests and a key biodiversity hotspot at the Jharkhand–Odisha border. Nomenclature: Situated in southern Jharkhand, the Saranda region—means “land of seven hundred hills.” Area: It covers about 856 sq km, of which 816 sq km is reserved forest. Ecological corridor between several states: It lies within the Singhbhum Elephant Reserve, forming a vital ecological corridor between Jharkhand, Odisha, and

Archives (PRELIMS  Focus) Indus Water Treaty (IWT) Category: International Relations Context: Writers are beginning to explain the ramifications of the suspension of the Indus Water Treaty, which was a shared heritage between India and Pakistan. About Indus Water Treaty (IWT): Parties: Indus Waters Treaty was signed on September 19, 1960, between India and Pakistan and was brokered by the World Bank. Objective: The treaty sets out a mechanism for cooperation and information exchange between the two sides on the use of the water of the Indus River and its five tributaries Sutlej, Beas, Ravi, Jhelum, and Chenab. Allocation of rivers: It prescribes how water from the six rivers of the Indus River System would be shared between India and Pakistan. It allocated the three western rivers Indus, Chenab and Jhelum to Pakistan for unrestricted use, barring certain non-consumptive, agricultural and domestic uses by India and the three Eastern rivers Ravi, Beas and Sutlej were allocated to India for unrestricted usage. Permanent Indus Commission: Under the Indus Waters Treaty, both countries must set up a Permanent Indus Commission, mandated to meet annually. Dispute Resolution Mechanism: The IWT provides a three-step dispute resolution mechanism under which “questions” on both sides can be resolved at the Permanent Commission, or can also be taken up at the inter-government level. Unresolved differences between the countries on water-sharing can be addressed by the World Bank-appointed Neutral Expert (NE). Appeal from a Neutral Expert of WB can be referred to a Court of Arbitration set up by the World Bank. Major projects under IWT: Pakal Dul and Lower Kalnai: Pakal Dul Hydro Electric Project is built on river Marusudar, a tributary of the Chenab. Lower Kalnai is developed on the Chenab. Kishanganga Hydroelectric Project: It is a run-of-the-river project located in J&K. Pakistan objected to the project arguing that it would affect the flow of the Kishanganga River (called the Neelum River in Pakistan). In 2013, The Hague’s Permanent Court of Arbitration (CoA) ruled that India could divert all the water with certain conditions. Ratle Hydroelectric Project: It is a run-of-the-river hydroelectric power station on the Chenab River, in J&K. Source: The Hindu Helium Category: Science and Technology Context: When cooled to just a few degrees above absolute zero, helium becomes a superfluid and can move freely without getting stuck, something impossible for any normal fluid. About Helium:   Nature: It is an inert gas and does not react with other substances or combust. Atomic number: Its atomic number is 2, making it the second lightest element after hydrogen. Uniqueness: Helium has a very low boiling point (-268.9° C), allowing it to remain a gas even in super-cold environments. Non-toxic: The gas is non-toxic, but cannot be breathed on its own, because it displaces the oxygen humans need for respiration. Space technology: Helium is used to pressurize fuel tanks, ensuring fuel flows to the rocket’s engines without interruption; and for cooling systems. As fuel and oxidiser are burned in the rocket’s engines, helium fills the resulting empty space in the tanks, maintaining the overall pressure inside. Easy detection of leaks: Its small atomic size and low molecular weight mean its atoms can escape through small gaps or seals in storage tanks and fuel systems. But because there is very little helium in the Earth’s atmosphere, leaks can be easily detected – making the gas important for spotting potential faults in a rocket or spacecraft’s fuel systems. Source: The Hindu 8th Central Pay Commission (CPC) Category: Polity and Governance Context: The Union Cabinet has approved the Terms of Reference of the 8th Central Pay Commission (CPC), the body in charge of deciding the pay structure and retirement benefits of central government employees.                   About 8th Central Pay Commission (CPC): Nature: The 8th Central Pay Commission (CPC) is a temporary expert body set up by the Union Government to review and recommend revisions in the salary structure, allowances, and pension benefits of Central Government employees. Establishment: It was announced in January 2025 and formally constituted after Cabinet approval in October 2025 to ensure timely implementation from 2026. Composition: It has 3 members. It is headed by Justice Ranjana Prakash Desai (Retd.) and the other two members include Prof. Pulak Ghosh (IIM Bangalore) and Pankaj Jain, IAS (Petroleum Secretary). Tenure: The Commission will submit its final report within 18 months of constitution and may provide interim recommendations on specific issues. Coverage: The 8th CPC covers serving and retired employees of the Central Government, defence forces, All India Services, and Union Territories. Functions: It will examine and propose changes in pay scales, allowances, and pension structures. It will also consider the overall economic situation and maintain budgetary discipline while recommending pay revisions. Equity Across Sectors: It will ensure parity between Central services, PSUs, and private sector employees in terms of emoluments and working conditions. Sustainability of Pensions: It will address concerns related to non-contributory pension liabilities and their long-term fiscal implications. Expected Implementation: The recommendations are expected to come into effect from January 1, 2026, continuing the decade-long cycle of pay revisions followed since the First CPC (1946). Source: The Indian Express SJ-100 Aircraft Category: Defence and Security Context: The Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) and Russia’s United Aircraft Corporation (UAC) have signed a Memorandum of Understanding for production of civil commuter aircraft SJ-100. About SJ-100 Aircraft:   Nature: It is a new generation short-haul jet aircraft of Russian origin. It is a twin-engine, narrow-body aircraft. Design: Earlier called the Sukhoi Superjet 100, it originally was designed by the now-merged Russian aircraft company Sukhoi Civil Aircraft. Operation: The aircrafts are being operated by more than 16 airlines across the world, nine of them being from Russia. Uses: The aircraft is primarily used for commercial purposes. It can operate at extreme weather conditions, from -55 degrees Celsius to +45 degrees Celsius. Seating capacity: It is capable of accommodating 103 seats and has a flight range of 3,530 kilometres. The aircraft has been touted as having low operating costs for airlines. Significance for India:

Archives (PRELIMS  Focus) Index of Industrial Production (IIP) Category: Economy Context: Growth in the Index of Industrial Production (IIP), released by the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, stood at 3.2% in September last year. However, growth had since accelerated to 4.3% by July 2025, following which it slowed again. About Index of Industrial Production (IIP): Nature: The Index of Industrial Production (IIP) is a key statistical tool used to measure the short-term changes in the volume of production in Indian industries.  Objective: It provides insight into the growth or contraction of industrial activity over a given period, making it a crucial economic performance indicator. Nodal ministry: The IIP is published by the Central Statistics Office (CSO), which is part of the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI). Base year: The current base year for the index is 2011–12. This base year was adopted to reflect modern industrial structure and production patterns, following periodic revisions from earlier base years such as 1937, 1946, 1951, 1956, and so on. Sectoral Composition of IIP (Weight-wise): Manufacturing: 77.63% of total weight (809 items) Mining: 14.37% (29 items) Electricity: 7.99% (1 item) Composite indicator: It is a composite indicator that measures the growth rate of industry groups classified under: Broad sectors, namely, Mining, Manufacturing, and Electricity. Use-based sectors, namely Basic Goods, Capital Goods, and Intermediate Goods. Eight Core Sectors: These comprise 40.27% of the weight of items included in the Index of Industrial Production (IIP). The eight core sector industries in decreasing order of their weightage: Refinery Products, Electricity, Steel, Coal, Crude Oil, Natural Gas, Cement, Fertilizers. Source: The Hindu National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) Category: Polity and Governance Context: Ahead of Cyclone Montha’s landfall on Tuesday night, the National Disaster Response Force deployed 25 teams across Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Puducherry, and Tamil Nadu, while another 20 teams were on standby. About National Disaster Response Force (NDRF): Establishment: NDRF was established under section 44 of the Disaster Management Act, 2005. Role: It is a multi-skilled and highly specialist force capable of dealing with all types of natural and man-made disasters like Floods, Cyclone, Earthquakes, Landslides, Building-collapse, Trains and road accidents etc. Objective: It is aimed at specialized response to natural and man-made disasters. Nodal ministry: It functions under the purview of the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) and is headed by a Director General. Expansion: Initially established in 2006 with 8 Battalions, the NDRF has now expanded to 16 Battalions, drawn from the CAPF, viz Border Security Force, Central Reserve Police Force, Central Industrial Security Force, Indo-Tibetan Border Police, Sashastra Seema Bal and Assam Rifles. Importance: The strategic deployment of NDRF resources, characterized by “proactive availability” and “pre-positioning” during imminent disaster situations, has proven instrumental in mitigating damages caused by natural calamities across the country. It has also been very active in responding to natural disaster under multi-lateral and bi-lateral agreement at international level. Notable works: The NDRF teams responded during triple disaster (Earthquake, Tsunami and Radiation Leakage) of Fukushima, Japan in 2011 and during Earthquake in Nepal in 2015. Source: The Hindu Electronics Components Manufacturing Scheme (ECMS) Category: Government Schemes Context: Union Electronics and IT Minister announced the approval of first trench of 7 projects under the Electronics Components Manufacturing Scheme (ECMS). About Electronics Components Manufacturing Scheme (ECMS): Launch: The ECMS, was launched in April 2025 as a complement to the India Semiconductor Mission. Objective: It seeks to strengthen India’s electronics value chain beyond finished goods and chip fabrication by boosting Domestic Value Addition (DVA) and linking Indian firms with Global Value Chains (GVCs).   Major sectors: ECMS supports horizontal linkages with automobile, power, and industrial sectors. Uniqueness: It is the first dedicated Production-Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme focused specifically on boosting electronics components manufacturing. Tenure: The scheme has a tenure of 6 years (1 year of gestation period) i.e. from FY2025-26 to FY2031-32. Incentive Structure: The ECMS provides turnover-linked, capex-linked, or hybrid fiscal incentives, with a portion of both turnover and capex incentives linked to employment generation. Incentives will be given on a first-come, first-served basis to firms ready for early production.   Importance: Electronics is India’s third-largest export, with the country being the 2nd-largest mobile manufacturer globally. The ECMS, along with Production Linked Incentive (PLI) and semiconductor initiatives, is crucial for establishing a USD 500 billion electronics manufacturing ecosystem by 2030-31. Source: PIB Dogri Language Category: History and Culture Context: According to the former Director of the Central Institute of Languages (CIIL), India has lost over 220 languages in the last 50 years. In recent years, growing concern has emerged over the gradual decline of the Dogri language in the Jammu region.                          About Dogri Language: Origin: It is an Indo-Aryan language (language of the Vedas and Laukik Sanskrit), part of the larger Indo-European family of languages. Earliest reference: The earliest written reference to Dogri (using the paleonym Duggar) is found in the Nuh sipihr (“The Nine Heavens”), written by the poet Amir Khosrow in 1317 CE. Evolution over time: Like other modern Indo-Aryan languages, Dogri has also passed through Old Indo-Aryan (Sanskrit) and Middle Indo-Aryan (Pali, Prakrit, and Apabhramsha) stages of development and entered the modern Indo-Aryan stage around the 10th century A.D. Hence, it shows its three-fold process of development of its sound structure, expressing its affinity with Shaurseni Prakrit. Script: Once the official script of the Dogra princely state under Maharaja Ranbir Singh (1857–85 CE), it was written in Dogra Akkhar but later replaced by Devanagari script in the 20th century. Current relevance: It is one of the 22 scheduled languages under the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution and an official language of J&K since 2020. It was added to the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution through the 92nd Constitutional Amendment Act of 2003. Major features: Dogri uses 10 vowels and 28 consonants with tonal variations (level, falling, rising). It displays nasalization, metathesis, and tone-based sound differentiation. It also incorporates borrowings from Persian and English while retaining Sanskritic roots. Prevalent in northern states: It is spoken in