rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) Satellite Internet Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Context:  Starlink Internet in India Need for Satellite Internet: Ground-based networks use cables and towers, efficient in urban areas but limited in sparsely populated regions due to high infrastructure costs and vulnerability to disasters. Satellite internet bypasses physical infrastructure, making it suitable for remote, offshore, and disaster-hit areas, with applications in military, emergency, healthcare, agriculture, and transportation. Features: Modern systems use mega-constellations (e.g., Starlink) with hundreds/thousands of satellites in Low Earth Orbit (LEO) for high-speed, low-latency coverage. Offers “Internet in the sky” enabling communication without fixed ground infrastructure. Dual-use nature: civilian (connectivity, telemedicine) & military (coordination, disaster response). Types of Orbits: LEO (200–2,000 km altitude): Low latency, flexible coverage, smaller satellites. MEO (2,000–35,786 km): Balanced latency and coverage. GEO (35,786 km): Large satellites, fixed relative to Earth, higher latency but wider coverage. Advantages: Global coverage, disaster resilience, rapid deployment. Flexible scaling via mega-constellations. Reduces dependency on cables and towers. Challenges: Smaller coverage area per satellite; requires many satellites for large coverage. Expensive equipment for households (₹40,000) and subscription (₹5,500/month for Starlink in India). Space debris risk, spectrum management, and regulatory issues. Applications: Direct-to-smartphone internet, IoT, autonomous vehicles, telemedicine, remote education, agriculture, defence, and disaster management. Learning Corner: Major Differences Between Satellite Internet and Traditional Internet Aspect Satellite Internet Traditional Internet Infrastructure Uses satellites orbiting the Earth to transmit data Uses terrestrial cables (fiber, DSL, coaxial) and cellular towers Coverage Provides internet access virtually anywhere, including remote and rural areas Limited to areas with wired or cellular infrastructure; urban-centric Latency Higher latency (delay) due to long distance signals travel to/from satellites Generally lower latency due to shorter signal paths Speed Typically slower speeds, though improving with new satellite tech (e.g., LEO satellites) Usually faster and more stable speeds, especially fiber-optic connections Reliability Affected by weather conditions (rain, storms) and line-of-sight issues Generally more stable and reliable under normal conditions Installation Requires a satellite dish and modem; easier for remote areas without cables Requires physical cable connections or cell towers; may need complex installation Cost Usually higher monthly costs and equipment fees Often lower costs, especially where infrastructure is mature Use Case Ideal for remote, rural, maritime, or emergency use where terrestrial internet is unavailable Preferred for urban, suburban areas with established infrastructure Source: THE HINDU Sleeping sickness Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Context : The World Health Organization (WHO) has officially declared Kenya free of human African trypanosomiasis (HAT), or sleeping sickness WHO Declares Kenya Free of Sleeping Sickness Making it the tenth country to achieve this milestone. The last indigenous case was detected in 2009, and the last imported case in 2012 in the Masai Mara region. About the Disease: HAT is a parasitic disease transmitted by the tsetse fly. Kenya was affected by the rhodesiense form, which progresses rapidly and can be fatal within weeks if untreated. Factors Behind Elimination: Kenya’s success is the result of decades of sustained public health measures including tsetse fly control, better diagnostics, community awareness, and strong collaborations between local authorities, WHO, and international partners. Significance: This is Kenya’s second eliminated neglected tropical disease after Guinea worm disease in 2018. The achievement protects vulnerable communities, supports economic growth, and contributes to Africa’s goal of eradicating neglected tropical diseases. Ongoing Measures: Kenya will maintain strong surveillance and community engagement to prevent resurgence, supported by WHO and partner organizations through post-validation monitoring and rapid response systems. Former Hotspots: Historic high-risk areas included counties around Lake Victoria such as Busia, Bungoma, Siaya, Migori, Homa Bay, Kisumu, and Kwale, where sustained control and monitoring proved crucial. Learning Corner: Sleeping Sickness Sleeping sickness, medically known as Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT), is a parasitic disease caused by protozoan parasites of the genus Trypanosoma. It is transmitted to humans through the bite of an infected tsetse fly found in sub-Saharan Africa. Key Points: Types: Two forms exist—Trypanosoma brucei gambiense (chronic form, West and Central Africa) and Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense (acute form, East and Southern Africa). Symptoms: Early symptoms include fever, headaches, joint pains, and itching. If untreated, it progresses to neurological symptoms like confusion, disrupted sleep cycles, and can lead to coma and death. Transmission: The tsetse fly bites humans and animals, transferring parasites into the bloodstream. Diagnosis and Treatment: Diagnosis requires blood tests and sometimes examination of cerebrospinal fluid. Treatment depends on disease stage and may involve drugs like pentamidine or melarsoprol. Control Measures: Include vector control (reducing tsetse fly populations), active surveillance, prompt diagnosis, and treatment. Recent Progress: Several countries, including Kenya, have been declared free of sleeping sickness due to sustained public health efforts. Sleeping sickness remains a neglected tropical disease but control efforts have significantly reduced its incidence. Source:  AIR Kakori Heroes Category: HISTORY Context: PM Modi Pays Tribute to Kakori Heroes on 100th Anniversary On August 9, 2025, Prime Minister Narendra Modi paid tribute to the heroes of the Kakori Train Action, marking its 100th anniversary. The Kakori Train Action was a daring train robbery near Lucknow in 1925, led by revolutionaries like Ram Prasad Bismil, Chandra Shekhar Azad, and Ashfaqullah Khan to protest British colonial rule and reclaim funds for the independence movement. The incident led to the arrest and execution of several revolutionaries and remains a pivotal moment in India’s struggle for freedom. Modi reaffirmed the government’s commitment to uphold their legacy and work towards a strong and prosperous India. Learning Corner: Conspiracy Case Year Prominent Leaders Involved Objectives Alipore Bomb Case 1908 Aurobindo Ghosh, Barindra Kumar Ghosh To assassinate British officials and incite armed rebellion against colonial rule Kakori Conspiracy Case 1925 Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqullah Khan, Roshan Singh To loot government treasury from a train to fund revolutionary activities Meerut Conspiracy Case 1929 Shaukat Usmani, S.A. Dange, S.V. Ghate To organize a communist-led uprising and overthrow British government through strikes and mutiny Lahore Conspiracy Case 1930 Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, Sukhdev To avenge the death of Lala Lajpat Rai and to inspire mass revolution against British rule Peshawar Conspiracy Case 1922 Ghadar Party leaders (e.g.,

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) Perito Moreno Glacier Category: GEOGRAPHY Context:  The Perito Moreno Glacier in Argentina, long known for its stability, is now thinning rapidly since 2019, raising fears of irreversible retreat Historically stable due to unique geography—high-altitude ice fields and a submerged bedrock ridge—the glacier resisted melting despite global warming. New radar studies revealed the ridge extends deep into the glacier’s base, preventing it from detaching and floating away. However, recent data shows accelerated ice loss, likely from climate change, making the glacier more vulnerable to melting. Scientists warn that without action to cut greenhouse gas emissions; the glacier’s retreat is inevitable. Learning Corner: Major Glaciers of the World Glacier Location Notable Facts Lambert Glacier East Antarctica World’s largest glacier (~400 km long, ~100 km wide). Pine Island & Thwaites Glacier West Antarctica Rapidly melting, major contributors to sea-level rise. Hubbard Glacier Alaska, USA North America’s largest tidewater glacier (~122 km long). Baltoro Glacier Pakistan (Karakoram) ~63 km long, near K2; important for Indus basin. Siachen Glacier India/Pakistan (Karakoram) Highest battlefield in the world (~76 km² under Indian control). Perito Moreno Glacier Argentina (Patagonia) Famous for stability; now thinning rapidly. Fedchenko Glacier Tajikistan (Pamir Mountains) Largest in the world outside polar regions (~77 km long). Jakobshavn Glacier Greenland Fastest-moving glacier; major iceberg producer. Major Glaciers in India Glacier Location Notable Facts Siachen Glacier Ladakh (Karakoram) Strategic location; source of Nubra River. Gangotri Glacier Uttarakhand (Garhwal Himalaya) Source of Bhagirathi River, major Ganga tributary. Zemu Glacier Sikkim (Kangchenjunga region) Largest in Eastern Himalayas. Dokriani Glacier Uttarakhand Monitored for climate change impacts. Pindari Glacier Uttarakhand (Kumaon Himalaya) Popular trekking destination; source of Pindar River. Milam Glacier Uttarakhand Source of Goriganga River. Chhota Shigri Glacier Himachal Pradesh (Lahaul Valley) Well-studied for glacial retreat trends. Kolhai Glacier Jammu & Kashmir (Lidder Valley) Largest in Kashmir Himalaya. Drang-Drung Glacier Ladakh (Zanskar) Source of Stod River. Prelims Pointers Longest glacier in the world: Lambert Glacier (Antarctica). Longest glacier outside polar regions: Fedchenko Glacier (Tajikistan). Largest glacier in India: Siachen Glacier (~76 km). Climate change impact: Himalayan glaciers retreating faster than global average (WMO reports). Strategic importance: Siachen (defense), Gangotri & Zemu (river systems). Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS Removal of Minister Category: POLITY Context : On the first day of Karnataka’s Monsoon Assembly Session, Cooperation Minister K.N. Rajanna was removed from the Cabinet. Removal of a Minister in State Legislature  In India’s parliamentary form of government, both at the Union and State levels, the Council of Ministers holds office collectively responsible to the Legislative Assembly (Article 164). Key Points: Collective Responsibility The entire Council of Ministers (CoM), headed by the Chief Minister (CM), remains in office as long as it enjoys the confidence of the Legislative Assembly. If the Assembly passes a vote of no-confidence or the Budget/appropriation bill is defeated, the entire CoM must resign. Individual Minister’s Removal A minister can be removed: (a) By the Governor on the advice of the CM (Article 164(1)). (b) Indirectly, if the CM asks for their resignation or reshuffles the cabinet. (c) By loss of membership of the Legislature (disqualification, resignation, or defeat in elections). Governor’s Role The Governor does not act on personal discretion but follows the CM’s advice in removing a minister. Legislative Control Any individual minister may be targeted through: No-confidence motion against the whole CoM. Censure motion or cut motion in the Assembly. Judicial Aspect Removal is a political/legislative matter; courts generally do not intervene unless constitutional procedures are violated. In essence: In a state parliamentary democracy, a minister cannot cling to office if the CM or Legislative Assembly withdraws support. The Governor’s formal action is just the constitutional formality to implement this political decision. Learning Corner: Salient Features of Parliamentary Democracy Supremacy of the Legislature The Parliament (or State Legislature) is the supreme law-making body within the constitutional framework. Executive is responsible to the legislature. Collective Responsibility of the Executive The Council of Ministers, headed by the Prime Minister (or Chief Minister at state level), is collectively responsible to the Lower House (Lok Sabha/State Assembly). Loss of confidence in the House mandates resignation. Bicameral Legislature (at the Union level) Lok Sabha (House of the People) and Rajya Sabha (Council of States). Provides representation to both the people and the states. Majority Rule The political party/coalition with majority support in the Lower House forms the government. Opposition plays a vital role in scrutiny. Separation of Head of State and Head of Government Head of State (President/Governor) is largely ceremonial. Head of Government (Prime Minister/Chief Minister) exercises real executive power. Fusion of Executive and Legislature Ministers are members of the legislature, unlike in the presidential system where the separation is strict. Free, Fair, and Periodic Elections Conducted by an independent Election Commission. Universal adult suffrage ensures equal participation. Rule of Law & Constitutional Supremacy All organs function within the limits set by the Constitution. Judiciary ensures checks and balances. Opposition and Accountability Mechanisms Question Hour, Zero Hour, Parliamentary Committees, and debates ensure government accountability. Cabinet System of Government Real executive authority lies with the cabinet headed by the Prime Minister. Source:  THE HINDU Envelope Dimer Epitope (EDE) Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Context: researchers from the US and the Philippines has identified envelope dimer epitope (EDE)-like antibodies as a key factor in building strong, broad, cross-serotype immunity against dengue virus (  Dengue remains a major global health challenge, and developing a universal vaccine is difficult due to the immune system’s complex response — notably, antibody-dependent enhancement, where a second infection with a different serotype can worsen the disease. The study, conducted in Cebu province, Philippines, followed 2,996 children over several years. Findings showed that EDE-like antibodies accounted for 42–65% of the protective effect of virus-neutralising antibodies and 41–75% of the effect of E protein-binding antibodies. These antibodies were strongly linked to broad immunity and lower risk of severe disease. The results may pave the way for better-targeted dengue vaccines and therapeutics. Learning Corner: Envelope Dimer Epitope (EDE) Definition: A specific site found on the envelope (E) protein

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) Rising Farm Exports Category: AGRICULTURE Context:  Impact of USA’s tariff on agriculture exports India’s Rising Farm Exports Export Performance: India exported agricultural goods worth $51.94 billion in 2024–25 (Apr–Jun data annualized), up 5.84% year-on-year. Key Export Items: Marine products, rice (basmati & non-basmati), spices, buffalo meat, coffee, fruits & vegetables, sugar, tobacco, processed F&V, castor oil, oilseeds, and oilmeals. Top Gainers: Non-basmati rice (+11.54%), tobacco (+19.29%), coffee (+13.87%), and processed F&V (+12.08%). Top Decliners: Marine products (-19.45%), oilseeds (-12.58%), oilmeals (-5.24%). Trade Surplus: Agriculture exports ($51.9B) exceed imports ($38.5B), but surplus has halved compared to a decade ago. Growth Factors: Higher global food prices (FAO index), strong demand for certain commodities, easing of export restrictions, and price rises in onions, coffee, and tobacco. Risks: Possible US tariffs under Trump’s policies, global market volatility, and falling prices in some commodities. Global Context: Demand boosts from countries like Brazil, Zimbabwe; domestic measures like onion export bans lifted; drought impacts in some countries helped exports. Learning Corner: India’s Exports  Overview India is among the top 20 largest exporters globally. Merchandise exports crossed USD 450 billion in FY 2023–24, while services exports exceeded USD 340 billion, making India a net exporter in services. Major export sectors: Petroleum products, engineering goods, gems & jewellery, pharmaceuticals, textiles, and agricultural products. Key Schemes & Initiatives Foreign Trade Policy (FTP) 2023: Shift from incentive-based to remission-based schemes. Remission of Duties and Taxes on Exported Products (RoDTEP): Refunds taxes not rebated under other schemes. Export Promotion Capital Goods (EPCG): Duty-free import of capital goods for producing export goods. Production Linked Incentive (PLI): Boosts manufacturing in electronics, pharmaceuticals, textiles, etc. Market Access Initiative (MAI): Financial assistance for market development. Institutional Framework Directorate General of Foreign Trade (DGFT) – policy implementation. Export Credit Guarantee Corporation (ECGC) – export credit insurance. Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA) – agri exports. Marine Products Export Development Authority (MPEDA) – marine exports. Important Facts for Prelims Top export destinations (FY 2024): USA, UAE, Netherlands, Singapore, China. Top exported items (2024): Petroleum products, engineering goods, gems & jewellery, rice, pharmaceuticals. India’s global rank in IT services exports – 1st. Special Economic Zones (SEZs) contribute over 30% of India’s total exports. Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) and India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC) expected to boost trade routes. WTO & Trade Agreements Context India is a WTO member since 1995. Involved in FTAs/CECA with countries like UAE (CEPA), Australia (ECTA), Mauritius (CECPA), ASEAN, and Japan. Negotiating India-UK FTA and India-EU FTA. Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS IMEC (India–Middle East–Europe Economic Corridor) Category: INTERNATIONAL Context : Gaza War Delayed IMEC. Background: The IMEC was announced during the G20 Summit (2023) to cut shipping time from India to Europe by ~40% compared to the Red Sea route. It involves sea and rail connectivity from India to UAE, across Saudi Arabia and Jordan to Israel, then by ship to Greece and onward via Europe’s rail network. It also includes cables for electricity, internet, and pipelines for clean energy. Importance: The EU is India’s largest trading partner; in FY 2023–24, bilateral trade was $137.41 billion. IMEC aims to strengthen connectivity, boost trade, and reduce costs. Initial Momentum: Announced during a rare stable geopolitical moment in the Middle East, with growing normalisation (Israel–Arab rapprochement, Saudi Arabia’s cautious engagement). Impact of Gaza War: Jordan–Israel ties have collapsed due to Israeli–American pressure on Jordan over Gaza. Saudi Arabia’s normalisation with Israel stalled; Riyadh is doubling down on Palestinian statehood demands. Red Sea shipping has been disrupted by Houthi attacks. Regional instability has made stakeholder meetings impossible. Learning Corner: India–Middle East–Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC) – UPSC Prelims Specific Announcement – Launched at the G20 Summit, New Delhi, September 2023 as part of the Partnership for Global Infrastructure and Investment (PGII). Members – India, Saudi Arabia, UAE, Jordan, Israel, European Union, USA. Structure – Two corridors: Eastern Corridor – Connects India to the Arabian Gulf. Northern Corridor – Connects the Arabian Gulf to Europe. Mode of Transport – Multimodal: rail, road, and shipping links. Key Aim – To boost trade, digital connectivity, clean energy transfer (green hydrogen), and supply chain resilience. Significance for India – Strategic alternative to China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). Enhances connectivity with Europe via Middle East bypassing Pakistan. Strengthens ties with Gulf nations and EU. Challenges – Geopolitical tensions in West Asia, Israel–Palestine conflict, and funding issues. Source:  THE INDIAN EXPRESS Kaleshwaram Project (KLIP) Category: AGRICULTURE Context: One-man judicial commission to investigate corruption in KLIP What is KLIP? A multi-purpose lift irrigation project on the Godavari River in Kaleshwaram, Bhupalpally district, Telangana. World’s largest multi-stage irrigation project; utilises a canal network of over 1,800 km. Designed to irrigate 16 lakh hectares, stabilise existing ayacut, and store/distribute 240 TMC ft of Godavari water for irrigation, drinking, and industrial use. Built across Godavari at Medigadda, Annaram, Sundilla. Controversy: Structural failures: Within 3 years, piers of Sundilla barrage sank; Annaram and Sundilla developed cracks. Allegation: Barrages were built on permeable foundations unable to withstand heavy water inflow. Location shift from Tummidihatti to Medigadda raised cost and invited political criticism. Water availability doubts at Tummidihatti led to change, but opposition alleged ulterior motives. Inquiry: Congress promised probe; CM A. Revanth Reddy set up one-man judicial commission headed by Justice Pinaki Chandra Ghose. Inquiry spanned 15 months, examined over 110 witnesses, including ex-CM KCR and former ministers. Found negligence in execution and fund release. Report submitted on July 31, 2025; discussion to be held in Assembly. Learning Corner: Lift Irrigation Projects in India Major Operational Lift Irrigation Projects Project State Source of Water Key Points Kaleshwaram Lift Irrigation Project (KLIP) Telangana Godavari River World’s largest multi-stage lift irrigation; lifts water up to ~600 m; designed for irrigation, drinking water, and industrial use. Handri-Neeva Sujala Sravanthi (HNSS) Andhra Pradesh Krishna River Multi-phase; lifts water to drought-prone Rayalaseema. Indira Gandhi Canal Lift Scheme Rajasthan IG Canal (from Sutlej-Beas) Supplies water to higher elevation areas of Thar Desert. Ganga Canal Lift Scheme Uttar Pradesh Ganga River

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) Rising Farm Exports Category: AGRICULTURE Context:  Impact of USA’s tariff on agriculture exports India’s Rising Farm Exports Export Performance: India exported agricultural goods worth $51.94 billion in 2024–25 (Apr–Jun data annualized), up 5.84% year-on-year. Key Export Items: Marine products, rice (basmati & non-basmati), spices, buffalo meat, coffee, fruits & vegetables, sugar, tobacco, processed F&V, castor oil, oilseeds, and oilmeals. Top Gainers: Non-basmati rice (+11.54%), tobacco (+19.29%), coffee (+13.87%), and processed F&V (+12.08%). Top Decliners: Marine products (-19.45%), oilseeds (-12.58%), oilmeals (-5.24%). Trade Surplus: Agriculture exports ($51.9B) exceed imports ($38.5B), but surplus has halved compared to a decade ago. Growth Factors: Higher global food prices (FAO index), strong demand for certain commodities, easing of export restrictions, and price rises in onions, coffee, and tobacco. Risks: Possible US tariffs under Trump’s policies, global market volatility, and falling prices in some commodities. Global Context: Demand boosts from countries like Brazil, Zimbabwe; domestic measures like onion export bans lifted; drought impacts in some countries helped exports. Learning Corner: India’s Exports  Overview India is among the top 20 largest exporters globally. Merchandise exports crossed USD 450 billion in FY 2023–24, while services exports exceeded USD 340 billion, making India a net exporter in services. Major export sectors: Petroleum products, engineering goods, gems & jewellery, pharmaceuticals, textiles, and agricultural products. Key Schemes & Initiatives Foreign Trade Policy (FTP) 2023: Shift from incentive-based to remission-based schemes. Remission of Duties and Taxes on Exported Products (RoDTEP): Refunds taxes not rebated under other schemes. Export Promotion Capital Goods (EPCG): Duty-free import of capital goods for producing export goods. Production Linked Incentive (PLI): Boosts manufacturing in electronics, pharmaceuticals, textiles, etc. Market Access Initiative (MAI): Financial assistance for market development. Institutional Framework Directorate General of Foreign Trade (DGFT) – policy implementation. Export Credit Guarantee Corporation (ECGC) – export credit insurance. Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA) – agri exports. Marine Products Export Development Authority (MPEDA) – marine exports. Important Facts for Prelims Top export destinations (FY 2024): USA, UAE, Netherlands, Singapore, China. Top exported items (2024): Petroleum products, engineering goods, gems & jewellery, rice, pharmaceuticals. India’s global rank in IT services exports – 1st. Special Economic Zones (SEZs) contribute over 30% of India’s total exports. Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) and India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC) expected to boost trade routes. WTO & Trade Agreements Context India is a WTO member since 1995. Involved in FTAs/CECA with countries like UAE (CEPA), Australia (ECTA), Mauritius (CECPA), ASEAN, and Japan. Negotiating India-UK FTA and India-EU FTA. Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS IMEC (India–Middle East–Europe Economic Corridor) Category: INTERNATIONAL Context : Gaza War Delayed IMEC. Background: The IMEC was announced during the G20 Summit (2023) to cut shipping time from India to Europe by ~40% compared to the Red Sea route. It involves sea and rail connectivity from India to UAE, across Saudi Arabia and Jordan to Israel, then by ship to Greece and onward via Europe’s rail network. It also includes cables for electricity, internet, and pipelines for clean energy. Importance: The EU is India’s largest trading partner; in FY 2023–24, bilateral trade was $137.41 billion. IMEC aims to strengthen connectivity, boost trade, and reduce costs. Initial Momentum: Announced during a rare stable geopolitical moment in the Middle East, with growing normalisation (Israel–Arab rapprochement, Saudi Arabia’s cautious engagement). Impact of Gaza War: Jordan–Israel ties have collapsed due to Israeli–American pressure on Jordan over Gaza. Saudi Arabia’s normalisation with Israel stalled; Riyadh is doubling down on Palestinian statehood demands. Red Sea shipping has been disrupted by Houthi attacks. Regional instability has made stakeholder meetings impossible. Learning Corner: India–Middle East–Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC) – UPSC Prelims Specific Announcement – Launched at the G20 Summit, New Delhi, September 2023 as part of the Partnership for Global Infrastructure and Investment (PGII). Members – India, Saudi Arabia, UAE, Jordan, Israel, European Union, USA. Structure – Two corridors: Eastern Corridor – Connects India to the Arabian Gulf. Northern Corridor – Connects the Arabian Gulf to Europe. Mode of Transport – Multimodal: rail, road, and shipping links. Key Aim – To boost trade, digital connectivity, clean energy transfer (green hydrogen), and supply chain resilience. Significance for India – Strategic alternative to China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). Enhances connectivity with Europe via Middle East bypassing Pakistan. Strengthens ties with Gulf nations and EU. Challenges – Geopolitical tensions in West Asia, Israel–Palestine conflict, and funding issues. Source:  THE INDIAN EXPRESS Kaleshwaram Project (KLIP) Category: AGRICULTURE Context: One-man judicial commission to investigate corruption in KLIP What is KLIP? A multi-purpose lift irrigation project on the Godavari River in Kaleshwaram, Bhupalpally district, Telangana. World’s largest multi-stage irrigation project; utilises a canal network of over 1,800 km. Designed to irrigate 16 lakh hectares, stabilise existing ayacut, and store/distribute 240 TMC ft of Godavari water for irrigation, drinking, and industrial use. Built across Godavari at Medigadda, Annaram, Sundilla. Controversy: Structural failures: Within 3 years, piers of Sundilla barrage sank; Annaram and Sundilla developed cracks. Allegation: Barrages were built on permeable foundations unable to withstand heavy water inflow. Location shift from Tummidihatti to Medigadda raised cost and invited political criticism. Water availability doubts at Tummidihatti led to change, but opposition alleged ulterior motives. Inquiry: Congress promised probe; CM A. Revanth Reddy set up one-man judicial commission headed by Justice Pinaki Chandra Ghose. Inquiry spanned 15 months, examined over 110 witnesses, including ex-CM KCR and former ministers. Found negligence in execution and fund release. Report submitted on July 31, 2025; discussion to be held in Assembly. Learning Corner: Lift Irrigation Projects in India Major Operational Lift Irrigation Projects Project State Source of Water Key Points Kaleshwaram Lift Irrigation Project (KLIP) Telangana Godavari River World’s largest multi-stage lift irrigation; lifts water up to ~600 m; designed for irrigation, drinking water, and industrial use. Handri-Neeva Sujala Sravanthi (HNSS) Andhra Pradesh Krishna River Multi-phase; lifts water to drought-prone Rayalaseema. Indira Gandhi Canal Lift Scheme Rajasthan IG Canal (from Sutlej-Beas) Supplies water to higher elevation areas of Thar Desert. Ganga Canal Lift Scheme Uttar Pradesh Ganga River

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) MERITE Scheme Category: POLITY Context:  The Union Cabinet has approved the Multidisciplinary Education and Research Improvement in Technical Education (MERITE) Scheme. Key Features Central Sector Scheme to upgrade quality, equity, and governance in technical education, aligned with NEP 2020. Funding: ₹2,100 crore loan from the World Bank and ₹2,100 crore from the Central Government. Coverage: 275 government and government-aided technical institutions, including 175 engineering colleges and 100 polytechnics. Beneficiaries: Around 7.5 lakh students to benefit from better infrastructure, digital access, and skill development. Objectives & Benefits Quality Enhancement: Improve teaching, research, governance, and industry relevance. Equity & Inclusion: Focus on women faculty, diverse student groups, and regional balance. Research & Innovation: Boost institutional autonomy, innovation culture, and R&D. Skills & Employability: Promote curriculum reform, internships, and blended learning. Governance Support: Capacity-building for state/UT technical education departments. Digital Transformation: Expand use of digital tools and e-learning platforms. Implementation Administered by a central nodal agency under the Ministry of Education in collaboration with states/UTs, AICTE, NBA, IITs, and IIMs. Learning Corner: Schemes on Higher Education – India Scheme / Initiative Ministry / Body Objective Key Features Rashtriya Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan (RUSA) Ministry of Education Improve quality, access, and equity in State higher education Funding for infrastructure, faculty development, accreditation, and innovation. Centrally Sponsored Scheme (CSS). Institutions of Eminence (IoE) Ministry of Education & UGC Develop world-class teaching & research institutions 10 public (funded) & 10 private (no funding) institutions given greater autonomy. National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF) Ministry of Education Rank institutions based on performance Annual rankings based on parameters like teaching, research, outreach. Impacting Research Innovation and Technology (IMPRINT) MoE & DST Address engineering & technology challenges Joint research projects across higher institutions. Global Initiative for Academic Networks (GIAN) MoE Bring foreign faculty to teach in Indian institutions Short-term courses, knowledge exchange. Scheme for Promotion of Academic and Research Collaboration (SPARC) MoE International research collaboration Partnerships with top global universities. Unnat Bharat Abhiyan MoE & IITs Link higher education to rural development Faculty & students work on local challenges. National Apprenticeship Training Scheme (NATS) MoE Provide skill training to graduates/diploma holders Industry-linked apprenticeships with stipends. PM Research Fellowship (PMRF) MoE Attract talent for PhD in IITs/IISc/NITs High-value fellowships for research excellence. Source: PIB CATCH Grant Program Category: POLITY Context : IndiaAI (MeitY) and the National Cancer Grid (NCG) have launched the Cancer AI & Technology Challenge (CATCH) Grant Program to boost AI-based innovations in cancer screening, diagnosis, and treatment across India. Key Highlights Funding: Up to ₹50 lakh per project; successful pilots may receive scale-up grants up to ₹1 crore. Focus Areas: AI solutions for screening, diagnostics, clinical decision support, patient engagement, operational efficiency, research, and data curation. Eligibility: Open to startups, health tech firms, academic/research institutions, hospitals, and non-profits in India. Joint clinical–tech applications encouraged. Deployment: Uses NCG’s 300+ cancer center network for validation, pilot testing, and nationwide scaling. Timeline Launch: 2 Aug 2025 Application deadline: 2 Sep 2025 Review & matchmaking: Sep–Oct 2025 Final approval: Oct–Nov 2025 First grant disbursement: Feb 2026 onwards Features Mentorship, regulatory guidance, and clinical support. Focus on ethical, clinically validated, and India-specific AI solutions. Large-scale impact via NCG and IndiaAI’s networks. Learning Corner: Artificial Intelligence (AI) in the Medical Field Use of algorithms, machine learning (ML), and deep learning (DL) to analyze medical data, assist diagnosis, predict disease progression, personalize treatment, and improve healthcare delivery. Key Applications & Examples Application Area Role of AI Specific Examples Medical Imaging & Diagnostics AI algorithms detect abnormalities in X-rays, MRIs, CT scans faster and often more accurately than humans. Google’s DeepMind – detects eye diseases from retinal scans; IBM Watson Health – cancer diagnosis support; Qure.ai – TB & stroke detection from imaging in India. Predictive Analytics & Disease Outbreaks Predict patient deterioration or epidemic spread using large datasets. BlueDot – predicted COVID-19 spread before WHO alert; AI-based sepsis prediction tools in ICUs. Drug Discovery & Development AI accelerates drug molecule screening & clinical trial design. BenevolentAI – repurposed drugs for rare diseases; Insilico Medicine – AI-designed drug candidates for fibrosis. Personalized Medicine Tailors treatment based on patient’s genetic and lifestyle data. Tempus – uses AI for cancer genomics to personalize therapy. Surgical Assistance & Robotics AI-powered robots improve precision and reduce recovery time. Da Vinci Surgical System – minimally invasive surgeries with AI guidance; Versius – robotic-assisted laparoscopic surgeries in India. Virtual Health Assistants AI chatbots & voice assistants provide basic medical advice and reminders. Babylon Health – symptom checker; Practo AI – appointment and teleconsultation in India. Administrative Automation Reduces time spent on paperwork, billing, and patient records. AI-based Electronic Health Record (EHR) automation tools like Epic Systems. Source:  PIB Sea Star Wasting Disease (SSWD) Category: ENVIRONMENT Context: Mystery of 5 billion Starfish Deaths Solved Over 12 years, more than 5 billion starfish along the Pacific coast of North America died from sea star wasting disease (SSWD), marked by lesions, limb loss, and body disintegration. The worst hit was the sunflower sea star, with population losses of up to 90%. As a keystone predator, its disappearance triggered sea urchin population booms, devastating kelp forests. Discovery Journey Early studies suspected a virus (densovirus), but it proved unrelated. Researchers shifted focus to the coelomic fluid of starfish instead of tissue samples. Experiments showed that boiling the infected fluid removed the disease-causing agent, indicating a bacterium. The Culprit Identified After years of analysis, scientists at the Hakai Institute and University of British Columbia found Vibrio pectenicida (strain FHCF-3) to be the cause. DNA sequencing revealed its high presence in sick starfish. Healthy starfish exposed to it developed wasting disease and died. Why It Took a Decade Symptoms had multiple possible causes. Initial research targeted the wrong tissues and pathogens. The bacterium hid in plain sight, detectable only in fluid from living specimens. Learning Corner: Sunflower Sea Star (Pycnopodia helianthoides) Description: One of the largest and fastest-moving sea stars found along the Pacific coast of North America, with up to 24 arms resembling sunflower petals. Ecological

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) Herbicides Category: AGRICULTURE Context:  While insecticides are the largest segment, herbicides are growing fastest at 10%+ annually, driven by labour shortages for manual weeding. India’s crop protection chemicals market (~₹24,500 crore) is dominated by insecticides (₹10,706 crore), fungicides (₹5,571 crore), and herbicides (₹8,209 crore).  Key Points: Market control: Mostly by multinationals like Bayer AG, Syngenta, Corteva, Sumitomo, and Crystal Crop Protection. Labour shortage: Manual weeding takes 8–10 hours per acre, repeated multiple times. Rural labour is scarce due to alternative employment, pushing farmers towards herbicides. Usage trend: Farmers now use “pre-emergent” herbicides before weeds sprout and “early post-emergent” for initial weed stages. Preventive spraying is replacing curative measures. Cost: Herbicides (~₹1,500 crore pre-emergent market) are cheaper than manual labour; pre-emergent herbicide cost is about ₹550 per acre. Monopoly concerns: Like seeds and fertilizers, herbicide sales are influenced by corporate promotion, leading to dependence on branded products. Learning Corner: Insecticides vs fungicides, vs herbicides  Aspect Insecticides Fungicides Herbicides Target Insects and pests that damage crops by feeding on them or spreading disease. Fungi causing plant diseases such as rusts, blights, and mildew. Unwanted plants/weeds that compete with crops for nutrients, water, and sunlight. Purpose Prevent or kill insects to protect crops. Prevent or control fungal diseases to maintain crop health. Kill or inhibit the growth of weeds. Timing of Use Often applied during pest infestation or as preventive sprays in pest-prone seasons. Usually applied before or during disease occurrence, sometimes preventively in humid/wet conditions. Applied pre-emergent (before weeds sprout) or post-emergent (after weeds appear). Market Size in India (2024–25 est.) ₹10,706 crore (largest share). ₹5,571 crore. ₹8,209 crore. Annual Growth Rate 5.3%–5.5%. 5.5%–6%. 10%–11% (fastest-growing). Current Trend Stable growth, market leader in share. Moderate growth, focused on disease management. Rapid growth due to labour shortage for manual weeding and shift to preventive use. Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS Small Finance Bank Category: ECONOMICS Context : AU Small Finance Bank Gets RBI Nod to Become Universal Bank The Reserve Bank of India has given in-principle approval for AU Small Finance Bank (AU SFB) to transition into a universal bank. This status will let AU Bank offer a wider range of financial services and products under one roof with fewer restrictions compared to a small finance bank. Learning Corner: Small Finance Bank (SFB) – Brief Note Origin & Recommendation – The idea of SFBs was recommended by the Usha Thorat Committee (2014), constituted by the RBI to explore new models of financial inclusion. It suggested creating niche banks to serve small business units, small and marginal farmers, micro and small industries, and other unorganised sector entities. Related Committees – Usha Thorat Committee (2014) – Recommended SFBs. Nachiket Mor Committee (2013) – Recommended differentiated banking structure, including Payments Banks. Purpose – To provide credit and savings facilities to underserved and unbanked sections, with a focus on priority sector lending. Key Features – Minimum 75% of Adjusted Net Bank Credit (ANBC) must be given to the priority sector. At least 50% of loans should be up to ₹25 lakh. Must be registered as a public limited company under the Companies Act, 2013 and licensed under Section 22 of the Banking Regulation Act, 1949. Minimum paid-up equity capital: ₹200 crore. Examples – AU Small Finance Bank, Equitas Small Finance Bank, Ujjivan Small Finance Bank, Jana Small Finance Bank. Universal Bank: Purpose: Offer a full range of banking and financial services — retail, corporate, investment banking, insurance, mutual funds — under one roof without many of the restrictions applicable to niche banks. Regulation: Licensed under RBI’s universal bank guidelines. Scope: Broader operational freedom, larger customer base, and wider product portfolio compared to SFBs. Example: State Bank of India, HDFC Bank, ICICI Bank. Key Difference: SFBs are targeted, inclusion-driven banks with lending restrictions and high priority sector requirements. Universal banks have diversified operations and fewer restrictions, enabling them to serve all segments extensively. Source:  THE INDIAN EXPRESS Tariff War Category: INTERNATIONAL Context: US President Donald Trump announced an extra 25% tariff on Indian imports as a penalty for buying Russian energy, adding to an existing 25% tariff. This makes Indian goods face a 50% tariff in the US Summary What Trump’s 50% tariff means for India: India’s reaction: Called the move unfair and warned of taking all necessary actions to protect national interests. Impact: Could reduce India’s GDP by over 0.5 percentage points annually, disrupt supply chains, and hurt small exporters (e.g., textile firms in Ludhiana). Trade deficit concerns: Imposing retaliatory tariffs on US imports would harm Indian consumers and potentially widen India’s trade deficit. Reasoning: The tariff is less about free trade and more about using economic pressure to achieve political goals, particularly regarding Russia. Learning Corner: World Trade Organization (WTO)  The World Trade Organization (WTO) is the only global international organization dealing with the rules of trade between nations. It aims to ensure that international trade flows as smoothly, predictably, and freely as possible. Historical Background 1944 – At the Bretton Woods Conference, there was an initial idea for an International Trade Organization (ITO) to complement the IMF and World Bank, but it never came into existence due to lack of ratification by the US Congress. 1947 – General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) signed as a temporary arrangement to regulate international trade. 1948–1994 – GATT evolved through various negotiation rounds (notably the Uruguay Round). 1 January 1995 – WTO formally established, replacing GATT, as an outcome of the Uruguay Round (1986–94) negotiations. Objectives of WTO Promote free and fair trade among nations. Provide a platform for trade negotiations. Settle trade disputes in a rules-based manner. Enhance transparency in global trade policies. Integrate developing countries into the global trading system. Key functions Administering WTO Agreements – Includes: GATT 1994 – Trade in goods. GATS – Trade in services. TRIPS – Intellectual property rights. Forum for Negotiations – Trade liberalization and new agreements. Dispute Settlement Mechanism (DSM) – Through the Dispute Settlement Body (DSB), ensures prompt resolution of conflicts. Monitoring and Review – Trade

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) Cloudburst Category: GEOGRAPHY Context:  Cloudburst in Uttarkhand. The Uttarkashi flash flood site in Dharasu-Gangotri stretch lies in the Bhagirathi Eco-Sensitive Zone (ESZ), a protected area established in 2012 to safeguard the Ganga river’s ecology. Experts believe unregulated construction, especially on river floodplains, worsened the disaster’s impact. Over 600 people are reported missing. Activists and environmental groups had raised alarms over bypass road constructions, widening of roads without EIAs, and cutting of Deodar trees. The village of Dharali, the flood’s epicentre, has a narrow gorge of igneous rock, making it naturally prone to flash floods and landslides. Learning Corner: Cloudburst  “A cloudburst is an extreme weather event in which very heavy rainfall occurs over a localized area in a very short duration, typically at a rate of 100 mm per hour or more.” Key Features as per NDMA: High Intensity: ≥ 100 mm of rainfall in an hour. Localized Area: Usually within a few square kilometers. Short Duration: Often less than an hour. Common in Mountains: Especially in the Himalayas due to orographic lifting. Potential Impacts: Flash floods, landslides, debris flows, and severe damage to life and infrastructure. Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS Mirzakhani New Frontiers Prize Category: INTERNATIONAL Category: INTERNATIONAL Context: Rajula Srivastava, a mathematician originally from India, has won the Maryam Mirzakhani New Frontiers Prize for her groundbreaking work in harmonic analysis and analytic number theory Research Focus: Works on harmonic analysis: breaking down complex functions into simpler frequencies (like Fourier analysis). Explores how these patterns extend into higher dimensions and number theory, including lattice points and wave geometry. Uses geometry, patterns, and logic to tackle fundamental math problems with elegant simplicity. Learning Corner: Maryam Mirzakhani New Frontiers Prize: The Maryam Mirzakhani New Frontiers Prize is an international mathematics award presented annually as part of the Breakthrough Prizes. It honors early-career women mathematicians who have completed their PhDs within the past two years and have made significant contributions to the field of mathematics. Key Features: Named after Maryam Mirzakhani, the first and only woman to win the Fields Medal. Purpose: To recognize and encourage young women pursuing careers in mathematics. Eligibility: Female mathematicians within two years of receiving their PhD. Awarded for: Outstanding contributions in any area of mathematics. It aims to promote gender equity in mathematical sciences and highlight the achievements of women in a traditionally male-dominated field. Source: THE HINDU Tipu Sultan, Haidar Ali, and the Anglo-Mysore wars Category: HISTORY Context: The new NCERT Class 8 Social Science textbook has omitted references to Tipu Sultan, Haidar Ali, and the Anglo-Mysore wars of the 1700s In response to a parliamentary question, the Union Government clarified that states have the flexibility to include or expand regional content, including historical personalities and events, in their textbooks. Learning Corner: Anglo-Mysore Wars: The Anglo-Mysore Wars were a series of four military conflicts fought in the late 18th century between the Kingdom of Mysore (under Haider Ali and later Tipu Sultan) and the British East India Company, often involving the Marathas and Nizam of Hyderabad. Key Details: First War (1767–1769): Fought between Haider Ali and the British. Ended with the Treaty of Madras (1769), restoring conquered territories. Second War (1780–1784): Tipu Sultan emerged as a key leader. Ended with the Treaty of Mangalore, restoring status quo ante. Third War (1790–1792): British allied with Marathas and Nizam. Ended with the Treaty of Srirangapatam, Tipu ceded half his territory. Fourth War (1799): Tipu Sultan was killed in the Battle of Srirangapatam. Mysore came under British control with a subsidiary alliance. These wars marked the decline of Mysore as a powerful kingdom and expanded British dominance in South India. Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS E20 Fuel Category: ENVIRONMENT Context Union Minister Nitin Gadkari has accused the petrol lobby of fueling a fear campaign against E20 ethanol-blended fuel, Union Minister Nitin Gadkari has accused the petrol lobby of fueling a fear campaign against E20 ethanol-blended fuel, amid public backlash over mileage drops and engine concerns. While surveys show significant user opposition, the government maintains that issues are minor, scientifically overstated, and driven by vested interests resisting biofuel adoption. Learning corner: E20 Fuel  E20 is a blend of 20% ethanol and 80% petrol. It is part of India’s strategy to reduce oil imports, cut carbon emissions, and support farmers by promoting ethanol production. The fuel is suitable for E20-compliant vehicles, with only minor efficiency drops. Public concerns exist over mileage and engine wear. India’s Biofuel and Ethanol Blending Strategy: The National Policy on Biofuels, 2018, aims to promote biofuels for energy security, environmental sustainability, and rural development. It encourages the use of ethanol, biodiesel, and advanced biofuels from various feedstocks like sugarcane, grains, and agricultural waste. Key Features: Ethanol Blending Target: 20% in petrol by 2025-26 Biodiesel Blending Target: 5% in diesel by 2030 Allows production of ethanol from damaged food grains, starchy crops, and industrial waste Promotes 1G, 2G, and advanced biofuels Offers financial incentives, viability gap funding, and tax benefits Objectives: Reduce import dependency on crude oil Cut greenhouse gas emissions Boost farmers’ income and support rural employment The policy creates a roadmap for cleaner fuels but requires strong implementation, feedstock availability, and infrastructure development. Note on 1G, 2G, and Advanced Biofuels: 1G (First-Generation) Biofuels: Produced from food crops like sugarcane, maize, and wheat. Examples: Ethanol from sugarcane juice, biodiesel from vegetable oils. Concern: May compete with food production and affect food security. 2G (Second-Generation) Biofuels: Made from non-food biomass like agricultural residues (rice straw, corn cobs), forest waste, and lignocellulosic materials. Examples: Cellulosic ethanol Advantage: Does not impact food supply; better waste utilization. Advanced Biofuels (3G & beyond): Derived from algae, industrial waste gases, or genetically engineered organisms. Examples: Algae-based biodiesel, bio-CNG, biohydrogen Potential: High yield, low land requirement, and carbon-neutral or negative. These categories represent a shift toward more sustainable and non-food-based fuel sources in India’s biofuel roadmap. Source:  THE HINDU Biochar Category: ENVIRONMENT Context : With the upcoming Indian carbon market in 2026, biochar — a carbon-rich product made from agricultural and

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) Money laundering Category: POLITY Context:  Increasing problem of money laundering in India. Rising Cases: Since 2015, 5,892 cases under the Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA) have been reported, but only 15 convictions have occurred. This indicates that investigations are not progressing efficiently, and the government has struggled to curb financial crimes. Definition: Money laundering refers to the process of disguising illicitly obtained money through financial systems to make it appear legitimate. It is often done by organized crime syndicates. Challenges in Enforcement: The lack of convictions and slow enforcement suggest issues with the legal framework. The government has struggled to implement stringent measures, with some areas being overlooked, such as the proper registration of cases and investigations into suspicious financial activities. Double Taxation Avoidance Agreement (DTAA): India has signed DTAA with over 80 countries, which helps track illicit financial flows, although it has not fully addressed money laundering concerns. The framework needs stronger enforcement, particularly in combating terror financing and other financial crimes. Court Ruling: A 2022 ruling emphasized that property registration under Section 3 of PMLA is necessary for the prosecution of money laundering cases. Learning Corner: Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA), 2002 The Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA) was enacted by the Government of India in 2002 to combat money laundering and related crimes. The primary objective of the PMLA is to prevent money laundering, track illicit financial flows, and seize assets acquired through illegal means. Key Provisions: Money Laundering Definition: The act defines money laundering as the process of concealing the origins of illegally obtained money, typically through complex financial transactions to make it appear legitimate. Enforcement Directorate (ED): The Enforcement Directorate, a government agency, is tasked with investigating offenses related to money laundering under PMLA. It can attach properties derived from proceeds of crime. Attachment and Confiscation of Property: The PMLA allows authorities to attach properties linked to criminal activities and, after investigation, confiscate them if the accused is found guilty of money laundering. Proceeds of Crime: The act defines ‘proceeds of crime’ as any property derived from criminal activities, such as corruption, tax evasion, drug trafficking, and terrorism financing. Prevention and Investigation: PMLA mandates financial institutions and professionals to report suspicious transactions, which aids in the prevention of laundering activities. The act empowers investigative agencies to conduct searches, seize assets, and arrest individuals involved in money laundering. Punishment: Money laundering is a serious offense, with penalties including imprisonment for up to seven years and substantial fines. If proven, the maximum punishment can be extended based on the severity of the crime. Recent Amendments: The act was amended in 2019 to widen the scope of money laundering offenses and enhance the powers of investigating agencies. These amendments include the provision of faster attachment of properties and stricter punishments for economic offenses. Significance: PMLA plays a crucial role in strengthening India’s legal framework to tackle financial crimes and bolster the global fight against money laundering. It helps enhance transparency, trace illicit financial flows, and maintain the integrity of the financial system. Source: THE HINDU Necropolitics Category: MISC Context : Keyword- Can be directly asked in prelims Key points include: Necropolitics and Biopolitics: The theory, coined by Achille Mbembe, builds on Michel Foucault’s biopolitics, focusing on how states manage populations through surveillance, control, and exclusion. Biopolitics concerns itself with preserving life, while necropolitics focuses on deciding who is allowed to live and who is abandoned, neglected, or sacrificed. The State of Exception: Drawing on Giorgio Agamben’s work, the article discusses how states use exceptional laws to protect life in certain spaces while excluding others. This creates zones where death is treated as normal, and people are left to suffer or die in conditions of neglect. The Living Dead: Mbembe introduces the concept of the “living dead” to describe those who are biologically alive but deprived of social, political, and moral recognition. This was seen during the COVID-19 lockdown when migrant workers were left without food, shelter, or transportation and many died from neglect. Gaza as a Case Study: The article points to the situation in Gaza, where civilians face violence and systematic neglect. The deaths of children and civilians are framed as collateral damage in the name of national security. In Everyday Life: Necropolitics also manifests in everyday life, particularly in regions with ongoing violence or war. Disposability of life is evident in the treatment of marginalized communities and individuals subjected to violence, state neglect, or abandoned in disaster zones. Source:  THE HINDU Microplastics Category: ENVIRONMENT Context: Microplastics and its impact on brain. Microplastics—tiny plastic particles, often smaller than 5mm—are now being found inside human brains, raising concerns about their potential effects on brain health. How Do Microplastics Reach the Brain? Microplastics enter the body through food, water, air, and medical devices. Studies show these particles can cross the blood-brain barrier, accumulating in brain tissue, especially in fat-rich areas like the myelin sheath around neurons. What Are Microplastics Doing to Our Brains? Bioaccumulation and Rising Exposure Microplastic levels in the brain have increased significantly in recent years, with concentrations higher than in other organs like the liver or kidney. Autopsies reveal plastic fragments, even the size of a small spoon, within the brain. Disruption of Brain Structure and Function Microplastics trigger neuroinflammation, activate immune cells, block blood vessels, and disrupt neuronal signaling. Animal studies link exposure to cognitive impairments like memory loss, reduced movement, and motor coordination issues. Changes in proteins related to neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s, have also been observed. Immune and Vascular Effects Microplastics can clog small blood vessels in the brain, disrupting blood flow and causing potential damage. Some effects appear to recover over time, but others persist. Potential for Neurodegeneration Microplastics may cause cellular stress, inflammation, and neuronal death, possibly contributing to or exacerbating neurodegenerative diseases like dementia. Are Microplastics the Cause of Diseases? While there is no proven link between microplastics and specific diseases, higher levels of microplastics in the brain correlate with cognitive impairments. They