rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) Pollution Control Boards Category: ENVIRONMENT Context:  The Supreme Court has ruled that Pollution Control Boards (PCBs) have the authority to impose and collect restitutionary and compensatory damages to restore polluted air and waterbodies to their original state. This power is derived from Sections 33A and 31A of the Water and Air Acts, respectively. The Court directed that such powers must be exercised only after appropriate subordinate legislation (rules and regulations) is framed, ensuring the principles of natural justice are followed. The ruling came in response to a Delhi Pollution Control Committee appeal, where the Delhi High Court had earlier ruled that it lacked authority to impose such damages. Justice P.S. Narasimha emphasized the “polluter pays” principle, noting that restoration should closely resemble the damaged ecosystem. Justice Manoj Misra added that PCBs hold broad statutory powers and responsibilities under the Water and Air Acts, including the ability to regulate or shut down polluting industries and services. The judgment strengthens PCBs’ role in environmental protection and enforcement actions. Learning Corner: Pollution Control Boards (PCBs): Pollution Control Boards (PCBs) are statutory bodies established under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 and the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 to prevent, control, and abate pollution in India. There are two main types: Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) – Functions at the national level under the Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change. State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) – Function at the state level. Key Functions: Monitor and regulate pollution levels in air and water. Grant or revoke consent to industries for discharge of pollutants. Enforce environmental laws and standards. Promote pollution abatement technologies. Advise governments on environmental matters. Source: THE HINDU IPO Category: ECONOMICS Context : Lenskart, a major eyewear unicorn, is preparing for a ₹2,150 crore IPO after becoming profitable in FY25 Key Trends: Worsening Eye Health: Refractive errors among children have surged (from 21% in FY20 to 39% in FY25 for under-19s). For all ages, it’s expected to hit 62% by FY30. Causes: Excessive screen time, reduced outdoor play, poor lighting, and incorrect posture are primary contributors. Optometrist Shortage: India has low access to prescription eyewear (only 35% of affected people wear glasses). The country has just 15–20 optometrists per million people, compared to 80–100 in the US and Japan. Eyewear Access Gaps: Over 70% of eyewear is sold via unorganised channels. Availability and awareness of optometrists are especially low in Tier 2 and 3 cities. Learning Corner: IPO (Initial Public Offering): The process by which a private company offers its shares to the public for the first time and becomes a publicly listed company on a stock exchange. DRHP (Draft Red Herring Prospectus): A preliminary document submitted to SEBI (Securities and Exchange Board of India) containing details about the company’s business, financials, risks, and purpose of the IPO. It invites public feedback before the final prospectus. Red Herring Prospectus (RHP): The final version of the DRHP that includes the issue price and other final details. It is filed before the IPO opens for subscription. Fresh Issue: New shares issued by the company to raise capital. The money goes directly to the company and is often used for expansion, debt repayment, etc. Offer for Sale (OFS): Shares sold by existing shareholders (e.g. promoters, venture capitalists) as part of the IPO. The proceeds go to the selling shareholders, not the company. Book Building: A price discovery mechanism where investors bid within a price band, and the final issue price is decided based on demand. Price Band: The range within which investors can place their bids. The upper and lower limits are set by the issuer. Lot Size: The minimum number of shares that can be applied for in an IPO. Investors must bid in multiples of the lot size. Underwriters: Financial institutions that manage the IPO process, ensure regulatory compliance, and often guarantee the sale of a certain number of shares. Listing: The process of getting the company’s shares admitted to trade on a stock exchange (like NSE or BSE in India) after the IPO is complete. Source:  THE INDIAN EXPRESS Article 370 Category: POLITY Context: August 5, 2025, marks six years since the abrogation of Article 370. Key Themes: Politics: Limited Representation Democratic process restored, but with curtailed powers. The elected government lacks full control over police and services, which lie with the Lieutenant Governor. Political parties like NC and PDP have returned to electoral politics but differ in strategy and tone. Security: Mixed Outcomes One key goal of the abrogation was to reduce terrorism. Civilian deaths have decreased significantly: 24 in 2024 vs. 129 in 2015. However, the Pahalgam terror attack in April 2025 dealt a blow to security gains and tourism confidence. Ongoing infiltration and militant activity remain concerns. Investment and Development Industrial development is progressing: 359 industrial units operational; 1,424 in the pipeline. Government investment rose sharply with ₹2.15 lakh crore in 2024–25 alone. Revenue indicators improving: GST collections up by 39%, and per capita income has risen. Tourism: Growth and Setback 2023 saw record tourism (2.21 crore tourists), contributing 7% to GSDP. But post-Pahalgam attack, the perception of normalcy has been shaken again. Ongoing events like G20 and Miss World pageant hosted to project normalcy. Learning Corner: Article 370: Article 370 of the Indian Constitution granted special autonomous status to the erstwhile state of Jammu and Kashmir (J&K). It was a temporary provision inserted in Part XXI of the Constitution under “Temporary, Transitional and Special Provisions.” Key Features: Autonomy: J&K had its own Constitution, flag, and decision-making powers in all matters except defence, foreign affairs, finance, and communications. Limited applicability of Indian laws: Laws passed by Parliament applied to J&K only if the state assembly agreed. Permanent Residents: Only permanent residents of J&K could own property and get government jobs under Article 35A (inserted via Article 370). Abrogation (August 5, 2019): The Government of India abrogated Article 370 using Presidential Order C.O. 272 and passed the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) Gold Card program Category: INTERNATIONAL Context:  Due to increased restrictions on H-1B and student visas under U.S. President Donald Trump’s administration, more Indians are turning to the EB-5 investment visa route. The new “Gold Card” program, requiring a $5 million investment for U.S. residency, is drawing attention though details are pending. Key data: EB-5 visa applications from India surged in 2023 and 2024, peaking at 1,428 in 2024. In early 2025 (Jan–Feb), 649 applications have already been filed. In FY2025 (Oct 2024–Jan 2025), Indian applicants filed more than 1,200 I-526E petitions, more than any prior year. Learning Corner: Non-Immigrant Visas For temporary stay in the U.S. H-1B Visa – For skilled professionals in specialty occupations (commonly IT, engineering). Employer-sponsored. F-1 Visa – For academic students pursuing full-time study at accredited institutions. J-1 Visa – For exchange visitors (researchers, scholars, interns, au pairs). B-1/B-2 Visa – B-1: For business visitors B-2: For tourism, medical treatment L-1 Visa – For intra-company transferees (managerial or specialized knowledge staff). O-1 Visa – For individuals with extraordinary ability in sciences, arts, education, business, or athletics. TN Visa – For Canadian and Mexican professionals under the USMCA (formerly NAFTA). H-2A/H-2B Visa – For temporary agricultural (H-2A) or non-agricultural (H-2B) workers. Immigrant Visas For permanent residency (Green Card pathway) EB-1 to EB-5 Visas – Employment-based immigrant visas: EB-1: Priority workers (extraordinary ability, outstanding professors, etc.) EB-2: Advanced degree professionals or exceptional ability EB-3: Skilled workers, professionals, and other workers EB-4: Special immigrants (religious workers, etc.) EB-5: Immigrant investors ($800,000–$1,050,000 investment creating jobs in the U.S.) Family-Based Immigrant Visas – For immediate relatives of U.S. citizens (spouses, children, parents) and other family-based preference categories. Diversity Visa (DV) Lottery – For nationals from countries with historically low immigration to the U.S. IR Visas – Immediate relative visas (spouse, parent, unmarried child of U.S. citizen). K-1 Visa – For fiancé(e) of a U.S. citizen intending to marry within 90 days of entry. Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS OPEC+ Category: INTERNATIONAL Context : OPEC+ has agreed to significantly increase oil production by 547,000 barrels per day (bpd) starting September 2025 Key highlights: The total output hike, including a separate increase for UAE, totals around 2.5 million bpd, covering about 2.4% of global demand. This move marks a reversal of previous output cuts, aiming to stabilize global oil markets. A virtual meeting of eight OPEC+ members also discussed U.S. pressure on India to halt Russian oil imports. President Donald Trump wants progress on this issue by August 8. Despite increased output, oil prices remain high, with Brent crude nearing $70/barrel, up from $58 in April. OPEC+ may meet again on September 7 to consider reinstating cuts if necessary. Learning Corner: OPEC (Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) Established: 1960 Headquarters: Vienna, Austria Founding Members: Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Venezuela Current Members (13 countries) include: Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Iran, Kuwait, UAE, Venezuela, Nigeria, Libya, Algeria, Angola, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, and Gabon. Objectives: Coordinate and unify petroleum policies among member countries Ensure stable oil markets and fair prices for producers and consumers Regulate oil production to balance global supply and demand OPEC+ Formed: 2016 (informal coalition) Members: All 13 OPEC members + 10 non-OPEC oil-producing countries Key non-OPEC members: Russia, Kazakhstan, Mexico, Oman, Azerbaijan, etc. Purpose: Cooperate on oil production decisions to stabilize global oil markets Respond jointly to market crises (e.g., COVID-19 demand collapse, Russia-Ukraine conflict) Key Differences: Feature OPEC OPEC+ Members 13 (Only OPEC countries) 23 (OPEC + 10 non-OPEC countries) Formation Year 1960 2016 (as a coordinated alliance) Main Driver Long-term oil policy coordination Short-term cooperation on production levels Source:  THE INDIAN EXPRESS Bio-fortification Category: AGRICULTURE Context: The International Potato Center (CIP), based in Peru, is introducing bio-fortified potatoes enriched with iron to Indian markets, aiming to combat malnutrition and improve farmer livelihoods. Key Points: CIP’s Director General, Simon Heck, announced that bio-fortified sweet potatoes (with Vitamin A) are already grown in Karnataka, Assam, West Bengal, and Odisha. The focus now shifts to iron fortification in regular potatoes. Germplasm has been shared with the ICAR–Central Potato Research Institute, Shimla, and the variety is under evaluation for Indian conditions. A new CIP South Asia Regional Centre is being set up near Agra, in the heart of the Indo-Gangetic potato belt (largest producer in India). The initiative is expected to: Improve seed quality and timely availability. Provide better market access for farmers. Support school feeding programs like mid-day meals. Reduce agro-chemical dependence. The Uttar Pradesh government provided land for the centre, with support from the Union Agriculture Ministry and National Horticulture Board. CIP will work with private companies and research institutes to build seed multiplication infrastructure and ensure quality planting material reaches farmers. The regional centre will be governed by a committee with members from India, Bangladesh, Nepal, and Bhutan. Learning Corner: International Potato Center (CIP)  Established: 1971 Headquarters: Lima, Peru Affiliation: A part of the CGIAR (Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research), a global research partnership for food security. Primary Objectives: Conduct research and development on potatoes, sweet potatoes, and other Andean roots and tubers. Enhance food and nutrition security, especially in developing countries. Promote climate-resilient and bio-fortified crop varieties (e.g., iron-rich potatoes, vitamin A-rich sweet potatoes). Key Functions: Develop disease-resistant, high-yielding, and nutrient-enriched varieties. Work with national governments, NGOs, and private sector for seed multiplication and distribution. Support farmers through capacity building, training, and better market integration. Address malnutrition via biofortification (e.g., vitamin A in sweet potatoes, iron in regular potatoes). 🇮🇳 In India: Recently partnered with the Government of India to establish a South Asia Regional Centre near Agra, Uttar Pradesh. Already introduced bio-fortified sweet potatoes in states like Karnataka, Assam, West Bengal, and Odisha. Working closely with ICAR-Central Potato Research Institute and the Union Agriculture Ministry. Bio-fortification Bio-fortification is the process of increasing the nutrient content of crops through biological means, such as conventional breeding, genetic engineering, or agronomic practices. Objective: To improve the micronutrient levels (e.g., iron, zinc, vitamin A) in staple food crops to

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) Space Technology in Agriculture Category: AGRICULTURE Context:  Space technology is revolutionizing agriculture by enabling precision farming, improving yield estimation, optimizing resource use, and strengthening food security Key Applications: Precision Agriculture: Satellite imagery and remote sensing help monitor crop health, soil moisture, and nutrients in real-time, enabling targeted irrigation and fertilizer use for better yields and reduced waste. Weather and Climate Monitoring: Space-based data improves weather forecasting and helps farmers plan agricultural activities and adapt to climate change. Resource Management: Satellites assist in managing water resources, monitoring drought, mapping soil, and preventing land degradation and deforestation. Yield Estimation & Insurance: Programs like FASAL and KISAN use remote sensing for accurate yield forecasts, aiding insurance schemes and disaster planning. Pest & Disease Detection: Hyperspectral and multispectral data can detect early signs of pest infestation or disease, reducing crop loss and excessive chemical use. Livestock and Land Monitoring: Satellite integration supports sustainable grazing, animal tracking, and land-use planning. Research & Crop Improvement: Space-based plant experiments enhance knowledge of plant biology and aid in developing resilient, high-yield crop varieties. Digital Decision Support: Platforms like Krishi-DSS combine geospatial data and AI to guide farmers and policy decisions in real-time. Food Security & Sustainability: Space technology helps track global agricultural trends, anticipate shortages, and promote sustainable farming. India’s Initiatives: India has led the way with programs such as FASAL, CHAMAN, NADAMS, and the Mahalanobis National Crop Forecast Centre to operationalize space-based agricultural services. Learning Corner: FASAL (Forecasting Agricultural output using Space, Agro-meteorology and Land-based observations) Launched by: Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers’ Welfare Implemented by: Mahalanobis National Crop Forecast Centre (MNCFC) Objective: Pre-harvest crop production forecasting for major crops using remote sensing, weather data, and field observations. Significance: Helps in accurate planning of food grain procurement, supply chain management, and agricultural policy decisions. CHAMAN (Coordinated Horticulture Assessment and Management using Geo-informatics) Launched by: Department of Agriculture & Farmers’ Welfare Implemented by: MNCFC in collaboration with ISRO and state horticulture departments Objective: Mapping and assessing horticulture crops using satellite data and GIS tools. Significance: Supports area estimation, crop condition monitoring, and planning for fruits and vegetables, aiding better management of horticulture sector. NADAMS (National Agricultural Drought Assessment and Monitoring System) Developed by: ISRO and Department of Agriculture Objective: Real-time monitoring and assessment of drought using satellite-based indicators like vegetation index, rainfall, and soil moisture. Significance: Assists in drought declaration, contingency planning, and timely allocation of relief resources. Technology in Agriculture (Agri-Tech) Technology has revolutionized agriculture by enhancing productivity, sustainability, and profitability. It plays a crucial role across the entire agricultural value chain — from pre-sowing to post-harvest. Remote Sensing & GIS Used for crop monitoring, land use mapping, and precision farming. Programmes like FASAL and CHAMAN utilize satellite imagery for real-time assessments. Precision Farming Involves site-specific crop management using GPS, sensors, and data analytics. Helps in optimized use of inputs like fertilizers, pesticides, and water. Internet of Things (IoT) & Smart Sensors IoT devices monitor soil moisture, temperature, humidity, and crop health. Enables real-time decision-making and automated irrigation systems. Artificial Intelligence (AI) & Machine Learning AI models predict weather, pest outbreaks, yield estimation, and market trends. Used in agri-advisory apps like Kisan Suvidha and AgriStack initiatives. Drones & Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) Employed for aerial spraying, crop surveillance, and damage assessment. Reduces human labor and enhances efficiency in large farms. Biotechnology & Genetic Engineering Development of high-yielding, pest-resistant, and climate-resilient crop varieties. Technologies like CRISPR gene editing and GM crops play a key role. Mobile Apps & Digital Platforms Apps like eNAM, PM-KISAN, AgriMarket help in market linkage, subsidies, and price discovery. Farmers receive weather alerts, crop advisory, and digital payments. Robotics & Automation Robots used for harvesting, weeding, and packaging in high-value crops. Reduces labor dependency and ensures uniform operations. Source: PIB BHASKAR Category: ECONOMICS Context: The BHASKAR (Bharat Startup Knowledge Access Registry) platform is a comprehensive digital ecosystem designed to strengthen collaboration and innovation across India’s startup landscape. Key Features: Centralized Networking: Connects startups, investors, mentors, service providers, and policymakers on a single platform, enabling seamless collaboration across sectors and regions. Personalized BHASKAR ID: Users receive a unique ID linked to verified, complete profiles—enhancing credibility, searchability, and secure interaction. Multi-Stakeholder Access: Open to diverse roles including entrepreneurs, investors, mentors, and support organizations, ensuring inclusivity. Enhanced Discoverability: Advanced search tools help users find partners, funding opportunities, programs, and schemes quickly and efficiently. Resource Hub: Offers centralized access to startup-related resources, events, and knowledge-sharing tools, eliminating system fragmentation. Digital & On-Ground Engagement: Facilitates both online collaboration and physical events to build relationships and market presence. Large-Scale Reach: With around 200,000 startups registered as of August 2025, BHASKAR is among the largest startup registries in the country. Conclusion: BHASKAR acts as a secure, inclusive, and scalable digital backbone for India’s startup ecosystem, accelerating innovation, connectivity, and growth. Learning Corner: Initiatives to Develop Startup Ecosystem in India India has emerged as the third-largest startup ecosystem in the world. To encourage innovation, job creation, and entrepreneurship, the government and associated bodies have launched several initiatives: Startup India Initiative (2016) Launched by: Government of India Objective: Promote entrepreneurship, simplify regulatory processes, and provide funding support. Key features: Tax exemption for 3 years Self-certification for compliance Fund of Funds for Startups (FFS) with ₹10,000 crore corpus Startup India Hub for single-window support Atal Innovation Mission (AIM) Launched by: NITI Aayog Components: Atal Tinkering Labs (ATL): Foster creativity among school students Atal Incubation Centres (AIC): Support early-stage startups with infrastructure and mentoring ARISE: Promote innovation in MSMEs and public systems Support for International Patent Protection in Electronics & IT (SIP-EIT) Provides financial support to startups and MSMEs for filing international patents. Startup India Seed Fund Scheme (2021) Objective: Provide seed funding (grants and convertible debentures) up to ₹20 lakh to early-stage startups for proof of concept and product development. Fund of Funds for Startups (FFS) Managed by SIDBI, the fund invests in SEBI-registered Venture Capital funds which in turn invest in startups. State-level Startup Policies States like Karnataka, Gujarat,

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) Tenth Schedule Category: POLITY Context:  The Supreme Court has strongly criticized the Telangana Assembly Speaker for delaying the decision on disqualification petitions. A Bench led by Chief Justice B.R. Gavai stated that anti-defection cases must be resolved within three months to uphold the dignity of the Speaker’s office and prevent political defection from going unpunished. The Court noted that such proceedings often die a “natural death” due to intentional delays by Speakers, making a mockery of the Tenth Schedule (anti-defection law). It criticized the Telangana Speaker for issuing notices only after the matter was brought to the Supreme Court in January 2025, despite a seven-month delay. Chief Justice Gavai emphasized that no constitutional immunity protects the Speaker from judicial review when acting under the Tenth Schedule, and questioned whether the Speaker acted in an expeditious manner as expected by Parliament. Learning Corner: 52nd Amendment Act and Anti-Defection Law: 52nd Amendment Act, 1985: Added the Tenth Schedule to the Indian Constitution. Aimed at curbing political defections by legislators. Enacted during Rajiv Gandhi’s tenure as Prime Minister. Came into effect on 1 March 1985. Anti-Defection Law (Tenth Schedule): Provides for disqualification of legislators (MPs/MLAs) on grounds of: Voluntarily giving up membership of their party. Voting/abstaining against party directives (whip) without permission. Exceptions: Merger provision: If 2/3rd members of a party merge with another, disqualification does not apply. Decision Authority: The Speaker/Chairman of the House decides disqualification petitions. Source: THE HINDU Linguistic reorganization of states Category: POLITY Context: Tamil Nadu Governor R.N. Ravi criticized the linguistic reorganization of states, claiming it created “second-class citizens” by dividing people based on language. Key Highlights: Historical Background: Before 1956, India’s states were categorized as Part A, B, C, and D, based on colonial legacy and integration history. Linguistic and administrative demands led to calls for restructuring post-Independence. Reorganization of 1956: The States Reorganisation Commission (SRC) was formed in 1953 following widespread protests (notably Potti Sriramulu’s fast for Andhra). The SRC report (1955) emphasized language but also recommended balanced reorganization for national unity. The States Reorganisation Act, 1956 reorganized India into 14 states and 6 union territories. Learning Corner: Background: India Post-Independence (1950) After the Constitution came into effect in 1950, Indian territory was categorized into: Part A States: Former British provinces (e.g., Bombay, Madras) Part B States: Former princely states (e.g., Hyderabad, Mysore) Part C States: Chief Commissioner’s provinces (e.g., Delhi, Himachal Pradesh) Part D State: Andaman & Nicobar Islands This structure was temporary and inefficient, prompting demands for reorganization, especially on linguistic lines. Major Movements and the First Linguistic State (1953) Demand for linguistic states gained momentum, especially among Telugu, Marathi, Tamil, and Kannada speakers. The death of Potti Sriramulu after a hunger strike led to the formation of Andhra State (1953) from the Telugu-speaking areas of Madras. Key Committees on Reorganization Committee Year Members Key Recommendations Dhar Commission 1948 S.K. Dhar (Chairman) Opposed reorganization solely on linguistic lines; favored administrative convenience. JVP Committee 1949 Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel, Pattabhi Sitaramayya Rejected linguistic states initially; favored national unity over linguistic aspirations. States Reorganisation Commission (SRC) 1953 Fazl Ali (Chairman), K.M. Panikkar, H.N. Kunzru Recommended reorganization primarily on linguistic lines, with a focus on administrative viability and national integration. States Reorganisation Act, 1956 Based on SRC recommendations: Abolished the A/B/C/D classification. Created 14 states and 6 Union Territories. Realigned boundaries largely on linguistic basis. Subsequent State Formations and Changes Year Reorganization 1960 Bombay split into Maharashtra (Marathi) and Gujarat (Gujarati). 1966 Punjab reorganized to form Haryana (Hindi), with Chandigarh as UT. 1971-72 Manipur, Tripura, and Meghalaya became full-fledged states. 1987 Goa, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram became states. 2000 Creation of Chhattisgarh (from MP), Uttarakhand (from UP), Jharkhand (from Bihar). 2014 Telangana formed as India’s 29th state, bifurcated from Andhra Pradesh. Source:  THE INDIAN EXPRESS Grant in aid to National Cooperative Development Corporation (NCDC) Category: GEOGRAPHY Context : The Union Cabinet, has approved a Central Sector Scheme titled “Grant in aid to National Cooperative Development Corporation (NCDC)”. Key Highlights: Objective: To help NCDC raise up to ₹20,000 crore from the open market to finance cooperatives. Usage: Funds will support loans for new cooperative projects, expansion of existing units, and working capital needs. Beneficiaries: Around 2.9 crore members from 13,288 cooperative societies across sectors like dairy, fisheries, sugar, textile, food processing, storage, and women-led cooperatives. Model: NCDC, with a 99.8% loan recovery rate and zero NPAs, will use the grant to enhance institutional financing for the cooperative sector. Learning Corner: National Cooperative Development Corporation (NCDC) Established: 1963, by an Act of Parliament: National Cooperative Development Corporation Act, 1962. Objective: To plan, promote, and finance programs for the production, processing, marketing, storage, export, and import of agricultural produce, foodstuffs, industrial goods, and livestock based on cooperative principles. Key Functions: Provides financial assistance to cooperatives for: Agro-processing and marketing projects Storage and cold chain facilities Dairy, poultry, fishery, and livestock development Rural sanitation, healthcare, and infrastructure projects Promotes integrated cooperative development projects in rural areas. Facilitates capacity building and skill development of cooperative members. Organizational Structure: Headquartered in New Delhi with 18 regional and state directorates. Operates under the administrative control of the Ministry of Cooperation, Government of India. Key Initiatives: Sahakar Mitra: Internship programme for young professionals in the cooperative sector. Yuva Sahakar Scheme: Promotes startup ventures in cooperatives for youth. NCDC Ayushman Sahakar: Provides financial assistance for healthcare infrastructure in the cooperative sector. Source:  PIB Project 17A Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Context The Indian Navy received INS Himgiri, an advanced stealth frigate and the third ship under Project 17A, on 31 July 2025 at GRSE, Kolkata Key Highlights: Project 17A Overview: Seven Nilgiri-class frigates are being built—four by MDL (Mumbai) and three by GRSE (Kolkata). Project cost is approximately ₹45,000 crore. Himgiri is GRSE’s first in the series and the third overall. Design & Capabilities: Length: 149 meters; Displacement: 6,670 tons. Developed by the Warship Design Bureau with 75% indigenous content. Features stealth design to minimize radar, acoustic, infrared, and magnetic signatures. Successor to the earlier

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) Depreciation of Rupees Category: ECONOMICS Context:  The rupee recorded its biggest single-day fall in nearly 3 months, depreciating by 61 paise to close at ₹87.42 per USD. Cause: Trump Tariff Announcement: US President Donald Trump warned of 20–25% tariffs on Indian goods. Month-end dollar demand. Aggressive FPI selling. Market Reaction: Rupee fell sharply after touching an intraday low of ₹87.66. The rupee has depreciated by 161 paise in the last 11 sessions. Contributing Factors: Fears of economic impact from new US tariffs. Heavy outflows by FPIs (₹16,370 crore in a week). Dollar demand from importers (especially oil firms). Stronger dollar globally. Learning Corner: Currency Appreciation & Depreciation: Appreciation: When the value of the Indian Rupee rises relative to foreign currencies (e.g., ₹75/USD becomes ₹70/USD). Depreciation: When the Rupee falls in value (e.g., ₹75/USD becomes ₹80/USD). Link with Inflation: Depreciation → Costlier Imports → Imported Inflation India depends heavily on oil, electronics, and capital goods imports. A weaker rupee makes these imports more expensive, leading to higher domestic prices. It fuels cost-push inflation (e.g., higher transport and input costs). Appreciation → Cheaper Imports → Helps Tame Inflation A stronger rupee reduces the import bill, especially for crude oil. It can ease inflationary pressure, particularly in sectors dependent on imported inputs. Broader Impact on Indian Economy: Aspect Depreciation of Rupee Appreciation of Rupee Exports Boosts competitiveness (positive) Hurts competitiveness (negative) Imports Becomes costlier (negative) Becomes cheaper (positive) Inflation Increases (especially WPI, CPI) May reduce inflation Current Account Deficit (CAD) May worsen May improve (if exports stay stable) Foreign Investment Can deter if seen as unstable Can attract stable flows RBI Intervention via the Forex Market: Objective: To stabilize the exchange rate of the rupee. When the Rupee Depreciates Sharply: RBI sells US Dollars from its foreign exchange reserves. This increases the supply of dollars and demand for rupees, supporting the rupee. Helps curb imported inflation (e.g., oil becomes less costly in rupee terms). When the Rupee Appreciates Excessively: RBI buys US Dollars, injecting rupees into the market. Prevents exports from becoming uncompetitive. Avoids disinflation or deflation risk due to excess appreciation. Tool Used: Spot and forward transactions, swaps, open market operations in forex. RBI Intervention via Monetary Policy: Objective: To control domestic inflation and manage capital flows. When Inflation Rises (Often Due to Depreciation): RBI may increase the repo rate (tight monetary policy). Higher interest rates attract foreign capital inflows, strengthening the rupee. Also reduces domestic demand, controlling demand-pull inflation. When Growth Slows and Inflation is Low: RBI may cut interest rates to boost credit and investment. This may lead to mild rupee depreciation, which can support exports. Tool Used: Repo rate, CRR, SLR, Open Market Operations (OMOs)   RBI Tool Purpose Impact on Rupee Impact on Inflation Selling USD Curb rupee fall Strengthens rupee Controls imported inflation Buying USD Curb excess rise Weakens rupee Boosts exports Raising Repo Rate Tame inflation Attracts FPI, strengthens rupee Controls inflation Cutting Repo Rate Boost growth May weaken rupee Mild inflation rise possible Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS Mangroves Category: ENVIRONMENT Context: Restoring Mangroves Can Turn the Tide on India’s Coastal Security Why Mangroves Matter: Natural Barriers: Protect coastal areas from cyclones, tidal surges, and erosion. Climate Mitigation: Act as carbon sinks; trap carbon dioxide and store blue carbon. Biodiversity Hotspots: Provide habitat for fish, crabs, molluscs, and migratory birds. Cultural/Economic Value: Vital to local communities for fishing, farming, and traditional practices. Major Threats to Mangroves: Urban expansion, pollution, shrimp farming, altered hydrology, and climate change. Over 50% of mangroves globally are at risk of collapse by 2050 (IUCN report). Learning Corner: Mangroves Mangroves are salt-tolerant trees and shrubs found in coastal intertidal zones of tropical and subtropical regions. They grow in brackish water, where freshwater mixes with seawater, especially in estuaries, lagoons, and deltas. India has about 4,975 sq km of mangrove cover (as per ISFR 2021), mainly in Sundarbans, Gujarat, and Andhra Pradesh. Unique Features of Mangroves Salt Tolerance (Halophytic Nature) Survive in saline conditions through salt-excreting leaves and special root adaptations. Special Root Systems Have stilt roots, pneumatophores (breathing roots), and prop roots for oxygen absorption and anchorage in soft, waterlogged soils. Tidal Adaptability Thrive in highly dynamic tidal zones, tolerating both flooding and exposure to air. High Carbon Sequestration Store large amounts of “blue carbon” in both biomass and deep, anoxic soils  crucial for climate change mitigation. Nursery Grounds Serve as breeding and nursery habitats for fish, crabs, shrimps, and molluscs — vital for coastal livelihoods. Natural Coastal Barriers Protect shorelines from cyclones, tsunamis, storm surges, and coastal erosion. Species Diversity India hosts over 40 mangrove species, with Avicennia, Rhizophora, and Sonneratia being common genera. Ecological and Economic Significance Provide ecosystem services, such as biodiversity support, carbon storage, fisheries productivity, and livelihoods. Act as bioshields, especially in disaster-prone coastal areas like the Sundarbans and Odisha coast. Mangrove Cover in India by State/UT (Descending Order): Rank State/UT Mangrove Area (sq km) % of India’s Total Mangrove Cover Key Mangrove Regions 1 West Bengal 2,114 42.3% Sundarbans (World’s largest mangrove delta) 2 Gujarat 1,141 23.6% Gulf of Kutch, Gulf of Khambhat 3 Andaman & Nicobar Islands 617 12.3% North, Middle & South Andaman coastlines 4 Andhra Pradesh 404 8.1% Godavari and Krishna estuaries 5 Maharashtra 304 6.4% Thane Creek, Raigad, Ratnagiri 6 Odisha 251 5.0% Bhitarkanika delta 7 Tamil Nadu 45 1.0% Pichavaram, Muthupet 8 Goa 26 0.5% Mandovi and Zuari river estuaries 9 Kerala 9 0.2% Kannur, Kozhikode estuaries 10 Karnataka 3 0.1% Uttara Kannada coast Total Mangrove Area in India: 4,975 sq km (approx. 0.15% of total geographical area) Source:  THE HINDU Kamchatka Quake Category: GEOGRAPHY Context : A massive 8.8 magnitude earthquake struck Russia’s Kamchatka Peninsula, one of the strongest in recent times. What Happened? It occurred on the Circum-Pacific Seismic Belt (Ring of Fire), which accounts for 80% of the world’s strongest quakes. Triggered a tsunami with waves up to 3–4 metres in parts of Kamchatka and up to 2 feet in Hawaii. No casualties were reported

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) Gini Index Category: ECONOMICS Context:  The Gini Index ranked India among the world’s more equal societies It fails to capture ground-level realities of urban-rural, gender, wealth, and digital inequalities. Its methodology overlooks informal sector employment, access disparities, and social norms that perpetuate inequality. Forms of Inequality in India: Wealth Inequality: A small fraction holds most of the nation’s wealth. The top 10% own a disproportionate share of income. Informal jobs and non-taxable income make wealth inequality hard to quantify. Gender Inequality: Women make up only 35.9% of the workforce. Only 12.7% of leadership roles are held by women. Startups founded by women are just 7.5% of the total. Patriarchal norms result in fewer resources for girl children and less inheritance. Digital Inequality: Only 53.9% of schools have Internet, and 52.7% have functional computers. Only 25% of rural women vs 49% of rural men have internet access. School closures during pollution seasons show how unequal internet access affects education. Learning Corner: Gini Coefficient The Gini Coefficient (or Gini Index) is a statistical measure of income or wealth inequality within a population. Definition: It ranges from 0 to 1 (or 0% to 100%): 0 represents perfect equality (everyone has the same income). 1 represents perfect inequality (one person has all the income, others have none). How It’s Measured: Based on the Lorenz Curve, which plots the cumulative share of income against the cumulative share of the population. The Gini Coefficient is the ratio of the area between the line of equality and the Lorenz curve to the total area under the line of equality. Applications: Used globally by economists, policymakers, and institutions like the World Bank and UNDP to assess income distribution. Helps compare inequality across countries or over time. Limitations: Does not capture non-income inequalities (e.g., gender, digital access). Insensitive to the location of inequality (whether at the top or bottom of the income scale). Similar Gini scores may mask very different economic structures. Source: THE HINDU Atmanirbhar Oil Seeds Abhiyan Category: POLITY Context: Launched in 2024-25, this mission aims to make India self-reliant in oilseed and edible oil production by 2030-31 Key Objectives: Achieve self-sufficiency in key oilseeds like mustard, soybean, groundnut, sunflower, sesame, and others. Enhance research in high-yield, climate-resilient varieties. Promote modern farming practices and digital technologies. Provide financial incentives and input subsidies. Strengthen post-harvest management, market linkages, and processing infrastructure. Expand crop insurance coverage. Boost secondary oil extraction from sources like rice bran, cottonseed, and tree-borne oilseeds. Implementation & Targets: Duration: 2024-25 to 2030-31 Budget: ₹10,103 crore Target: Raise oilseed production from 39 to 69.7 million tonnes Goal: Meet 72% of projected domestic edible oil demand Support Measures: Launch of SATHI portal for seed supply coordination. Increased MSP and schemes like PM-AASHA to ensure fair pricing. Higher import duties to protect domestic producers. Emphasis on environmental sustainability and rural employment. Learning Corner: Oilseeds Production in India: India is one of the largest producers of oilseeds globally but remains a net importer of edible oils, meeting over 50% of its domestic demand through imports. Major oilseeds grown include: Groundnut, Soybean, Mustard/Rapeseed, Sunflower, Sesame, Linseed, Niger, Safflower, and Castor. Cultivated mainly in rain-fed areas; productivity is often lower due to climate variability, low input use, and limited irrigation. Key Government Schemes: National Mission on Edible Oils – Oilseeds (NMEO–Oilseeds) (2024–25 to 2030–31) Aims to make India self-reliant in edible oils. Targets to increase oilseeds production to 69.7 million tonnes by 2030–31. Key components: High-yielding seeds, climate-resilient varieties Financial incentives, input subsidies Crop insurance, SATHI portal for seed coordination Post-harvest management and value addition Focus on both primary and secondary sources (e.g., rice bran, cottonseed) National Food Security Mission (NFSM – Oilseeds & Oil Palm) Promotes productivity and area expansion for oilseed crops. Provides financial support for inputs, training, and cluster demonstrations. Price Support Scheme (PSS) Under PM-AASHA, ensures Minimum Support Price (MSP) procurement for oilseeds by government agencies. Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY) A flexible scheme to fund state-led initiatives, including support for oilseeds based on local needs. Source:  PIB Ladakh’s hot springs Category: GEOGRAPHY Context : Ladakh’s hot springs and the origin of life Why They Matter: Unique Carbonate Chemistry: Unlike global focus on silica, Ladakh’s hot springs (notably in Puga Valley) show rapid calcium carbonate (travertine) formation, which preserves organic molecules like amino acids and fatty acids—key to prebiotic chemistry. Natural Laboratory: These springs offer a real-world setting resembling early Earth, ideal for studying how life might have formed. Extremophile Insights: Harsh conditions (UV radiation, temperature extremes) mirror early Earth and Mars. Microbes here produce protective substances, offering clues to how life adapts and survives in extreme environments. Astrobiological Significance: Mars Analog: Similarities to Martian hydrothermal systems make Ladakh valuable for space science. Biomarker Clues: Helps identify where and how to search for biosignatures on Mars, guiding missions by ISRO and NASA. Key Takeaways: Carbonates are crucial for preserving life’s building blocks. Supports new directions in astrobiology, synthetic biology, and Mars exploration. Strengthens India’s contribution to the search for life beyond Earth. Learning Corner: Hot Springs: Definition: A hot spring is a natural discharge of geothermally heated groundwater at the Earth’s surface. Formed when groundwater seeps deep into the Earth, gets heated by magma or hot rocks, and rises back to the surface. Temperatures can vary — from lukewarm to boiling. Found in tectonically active regions, especially volcanic zones. Notable Indian examples: Manikaran (Himachal Pradesh) Tapovan (Uttarakhand) Bakreshwar (West Bengal) Geysers: A geyser is a special type of hot spring that erupts periodically, shooting steam and hot water into the air. Occur when pressure builds in underground chambers filled with boiling water and steam. Require: Intense geothermal heat Abundant groundwater A unique plumbing system with narrow conduits Much rarer than hot springs. Famous geysers: Old Faithful in Yellowstone National Park (USA) El Tatio in Chile No significant true geysers in India. Geological Importance: Indicators of geothermal energy potential Support unique microbial ecosystems Sites of tourism and religious importance Source:  PIB Pralay missile Category: SCIENCE