Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) THREE – LANGUAGE FORMULA Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: In a strongly worded letter to the Prime Minister, Tamil Nadu Chief Minister M K Stalin sought the release of Rs 2,152 crore pending for the centrally-sponsored Samagra Shiksha scheme meant to support the provisions of the RTE Act. Background: – The Centre has withheld funds for the Samagra Shiksha scheme in Tamil Nadu due to the state’s refusal to implement the New Education Policy (NEP) of 2020. At the heart of the clash between the Centre and Tamil Nadu is the so-called “three-language formula” that is a part of the NEP. While the Centre maintains that this policy is meant to ensure that youth get employment across regions, Tamil Nadu has long viewed it as an attempt to impose Hindi on the state. Key takeaways Tamil Nadu has an almost century-old history of anti-Hindi agitations. Unlike most other states — including southern states such as Kerala and Karnataka — it follows a two-language formula in which students are taught only Tamil and English In the past, Centre has maintained that education is in the Concurrent List of the Constitution, and that the implementation of the three-language formula is the responsibility of the states. However, now, the Ministry of Education has linked the release of Samagra Shiksha funds to the implementation of the NEP. Evolution of 3 language policy The debate over language policy in education — regarding both the medium of instruction and teaching of languages — has existed since Independence. The University Education Commission of 1948-49, chaired by Dr Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, who went on to become the second President of India, examined this topic in detail. The Radhakrishnan Commission favoured Hindi (Hindustani) as India’s federal language, to be used for all federal activities — administrative, educational and cultural — while regional languages would serve the provinces. At the same time, the Commission recognised that immediately abandoning English would be impractical. It stated that English would have to continue as “the medium for Federal business” till such time that all provinces are ready for the change, having “spread the Federal language adequately”. It was this Commission that first proposed what would later become the three-language formula for school education. This proposal was accepted by the National Education Commission of 1964-66 (Kothari Commission), and was incorporated into the National Policy on Education, 1968 passed by the Indira Gandhi government. For secondary education, the formula proposed that students learn “a modern Indian language, preferably one of the southern languages, apart from Hindi and English in the Hindi-speaking States” and “Hindi along with the regional language and English in the non-Hindi speaking States.” The National Policy on Education of 1986, passed by the Rajiv Gandhi government, and the latest NEP of 2020, too retained this formula. Source: Indian Express PHILANTHROPY IN INDIA Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: Over the next five years, private funding in India’s social sector is expected to see a 10%–12% annual growth, largely driven by family philanthropy from high-net-worth individuals (HNIs), according to a new report. Background: – Generally, the share of private funds allocated towards philanthropy in India has been low compared to other major economies. Key takeaways As of FY24, the total size of the country’s social sector funding – on education, healthcare, gender equality, etc. – is around Rs 25 lakh crore ($300 billion). Public spending accounted for 95% of total funding at Rs 23 lakh crore, including schemes such as MGNREGS and the Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana. On the other hand, private spending stood at around Rs 1.3 lakh crore, according to the India Philanthropy Report (IPR) 2025 from venture philanthropy firm Dasra and management consultancy Bain & Co. Currently, family giving accounts for approximately 40% of philanthropy, including personal giving and corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives from family-owned/run businesses.  HNIs and philanthropy The India Philanthropy Report 2022 found that “Relative contributions (giving as a percentage of wealth) among Indian UHNIs (Ultra-high-net-worth individuals) range from 0.1% to 0.15% compared with 1.2% to 2.5% in the United States, 0.5% to 1.8% in the UK, and 0.5% to 1.4% in China.” As defined in the 2025 report, UHNIs refer to ultra-high-net-worth individuals (UHNIs) with a net worth of Rs 1,000 crore and more. HNIs have a net worth of Rs 200 to 1,000 crore, while the “Affluent” category includes those ranging between Rs 7 to 200 crore. In comparison, a tradition of philanthropy has long existed in the US. According to a 2024 analysis from Forbes, American billionaires such as Warren Buffett, Bill Gates, Melinda French Gates, and MacKenzie Scott have donated at least 20% of their wealth. What do projections say about philanthropy in India? One reason behind the projected rise in the share of private spending in the next five years is the high growth in HNIs and the affluent givers segment. CSR growth is also expected to grow by 10-12%, driven by an uptick in compliance by firms.  It is mandated that any firm with a net worth of at least Rs 500 crore or annual turnover surpassing Rs 1,000 crore or net profits exceeding Rs 5 crore must spend a minimum of 2% of their average net profit of preceding three financial years on CSR activities. The report also noted the growth in family offices, which are firms that manage HNIs and their families’ assets and wealth. It said that tapping into family offices and developing structured services for channelling funds towards the nonprofit ecosystem can help the larger cause of Indian philanthropy. Source: Indian Express OCELOT Syllabus: Prelims – CURRENT EVENT Context: Amazon Web Services (AWS) announced Ocelot, its first-generation quantum computing chip, as it enters the race against fellow tech giants in harnessing the experimental technology. Background: Quantum research is seen as a critical emerging field, and both the United States and China have been investing heavily in the area, with Washington also placing restrictions on exports of the sensitive technology. Key takeaways Ocelot is a nine-qubit

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) DRAMATIC PERFORMANCES ACT, 1876 Syllabus: Prelims – HISTORY Context: Prime Minister Narendra Modi recently asked why a colonial law, Dramatic Performances Act, 1876, continued to exist even 75 years after independence.  He was speaking of  government’s efforts to repeal archaic and obsolete laws. Background: – The repeal of obsolete laws has been a flagship exercise by the Modi government. Since 2014, it has repealed more than 2,000 such laws. Obsolete laws, by definition, are laws which are no longer in use. Key takeaways Under the Dramatic Performances Act, “any play, pantomime or other drama performed or about to be performed in a public place” could be banned if the government was of the “opinion” that the play was “of a scandalous or defamatory nature”, was “likely to excite feelings of disaffection to the Government established by law”, or “to deprave and corrupt persons present at the performance”. This law was among those enacted by the British to clamp down on the budding Indian nationalist sentiment following the visit of the Prince of Wales, Albert Edward, to India from 1875 to 1876. Other laws enacted during this period were the draconian Vernacular Press Act, 1878, and the sedition law of 1870. The law was formally repealed in 2018 as part of the Modi government’s exercise to weed out obsolete laws. However, the Dramatic Performance Act had not been a “valid law” since at least 1956. In a ruling in 1956, the Allahabad High Court ruled that the law was inconsistent with the Constitution of India. Why  India continue to have  colonial laws? Article 372 of the Constitution states that laws in operation at the time of Independence would continue to be in operation. However, colonial laws do not enjoy the presumption of constitutionality – which means that when a colonial law is challenged, the government must defend the law for it to be valid. Other laws – those enacted by the Parliament of independent India – are deemed constitutional unless declared otherwise, which means that when challenged in court, the onus is on the petitioner to prove that the legislation violates the Constitution. Source: Indian Express OFFSHORE MINING Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: The coastal communities in Kerala are currently caught in a wave of unrest following the Centre’s plans for offshore mining, which they believe will ravage the fragile marine ecosystem and bring an end to their traditional way of life. Background: – Strong opposition erupted when proceedings to auction offshore mineral blocks began after an amendment to the Offshore Areas Mineral (Development and Regulation) Act, 2002. Key takeaways The 2023 amendment to the Offshore Areas Mineral (Development and Regulation) Bill introduced reforms allowing private sector participation in offshore mining. This includes granting production leases and composite licences through competitive auctions. Surveys conducted by the Geological Survey of India revealed lime mud within the Exclusive Economic Zone off the Gujarat and Maharashtra coasts, construction-grade sand off Kerala coast, heavy mineral placers in the inner-shelf and mid-shelf off Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Maharashtra, as well as polymetallic ferromanganese (Fe-Mn) nodules and crusts in the Andaman Sea and Lakshadweep Sea.  At present, bids have been invited for 13 offshore areas under Tranche 1, including three blocks of lime mud off the Gujarat coast, three blocks of construction sand off the Kerala coast, and seven blocks of polymetallic nodules and crusts off the coast of Great Nicobar Island.  The three blocks selected for mining off the Kerala coast are located in ‘Kollam Parappu’ also known as Quilon Bank, one of the richest fishing zones in the southwest coast. The fishing hub is frequented by mechanised vessels, mesh gill net boats, and fishers using hook and line from both Kerala and Tamil Nadu.  An ongoing study by the University of Kerala’s Department of Aquatic Biology & Fisheries warns that mining operations can cause catastrophic damage to ecosystems, harming the livelihood of fishers.  Study observes that the diversity of solitary and soft corals in the Kollam region will be threatened by sand mining, as the extraction process will cause sediment plumes, increasing turbidity and impacting the composition of the water column. This means declining water quality, disruption of food webs, and deterioration of spawning grounds.  Apart from this, there is the need to evaluate the economic costs associated with using freshwater to wash extracted sand. Source: The Hindu AVALANCHE Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – GEOGRAPHY Context: Four more bodies were found on Sunday at the site of the Border Roads Organisation (BRO) project in Uttarakhand’s Chamoli district, which was struck by an avalanche on Friday. This takes the death toll in the avalanche to eight. Background: There were 54 workers at the project site when the avalanche buried the containers that the workers were using as living quarters. Forty-six of them were safely rescued. Key takeaways An avalanche is a sudden and rapid flow of snow, ice, and debris down a mountain slope. It is typically triggered by natural or human-induced factors and can cause widespread destruction in mountainous regions. Types of Avalanches: Loose Snow Avalanche – Begins at a single point and gathers mass as it moves down. Slab Avalanche – A large chunk of snow breaks away from the slope, making it the most dangerous type. Powder Snow Avalanche – A mix of loose snow and air, moving at high speeds. Wet Snow Avalanche – Occurs due to melting snow and is slower but destructive. Causes of Avalanches: Natural Causes: Heavy snowfall – Increases the weight of snow layers. Temperature variations – Weakens the snow structure. Rainfall or melting snow – Reduces the binding strength of snow layers. Earthquakes or volcanic eruptions – Triggers movement in snowpacks. Human-Induced Causes: Deforestation and land-use changes – Destabilize mountain slopes. Vibrations from construction, mining, or explosives – Can trigger avalanches. Adventure tourism and skiing – Disturbs snow layers in avalanche-prone regions. Impacts of Avalanches: Loss of Life & Infrastructure – High-risk areas include Himalayan regions (Jammu

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) CITIES COALITION FOR CIRCULARITY (C-3) Syllabus: Prelims – CURRENT EVENT Context: India launched the Cities Coalition for Circularity (C-3) at the 12th Regional 3R and Circular Economy Forum in Asia and the Pacific, held in Jaipur. Background: – Prime Minister Modi, in a special written message to delegates at the launch, said India follows and strongly advocates the P (Pro-Planet People) approach and highlighted the role of 3Rs (reduce, reuse and recycle) and circular economy principles in ensuring sustainable urban development and resource efficiency. Key takeaways The Cities Coalition for Circularity (C-3) is a multinational alliance established to promote city-to-city collaboration, knowledge-sharing, and partnerships with the private sector, focusing on advancing circular economy principles. Key Objectives of C-3: City-to-City Collaboration: Facilitate cooperation among cities globally to share best practices and strategies for implementing circular economy models. Knowledge Sharing: Create a platform for exchanging technical expertise, innovative solutions, and successful case studies related to resource efficiency and waste management. Private Sector Partnerships: Engage businesses and industries in developing and adopting sustainable practices that contribute to a low-carbon economy. About Regional 3R and Circular Economy Forum in Asia and the Pacific The Regional 3R and Circular Economy Forum in Asia and the Pacific is an annual platform established in 2009 by the United Nations Centre for Regional Development (UNCRD) to promote the principles of Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle (3R) and advance circular economy initiatives across the Asia-Pacific region. The Forum serves as a collaborative space for policymakers, industry leaders, researchers, and development partners to discuss and implement sustainable solutions for waste management and resource efficiency. The 12th edition of the Forum was inaugurated on March 3, 2025, in Jaipur, India, focusing on the theme “Realizing Circular Societies Towards Achieving SDGs and Carbon Neutrality in Asia-Pacific.” Source: The Hindu GANGETIC DOLPHINS Syllabus: Prelims – ENVIRONMENT Context: The first estimate of Gangetic dolphins, the only riverine dolphins in India, has found 6,327 of them in the Ganga and its tributaries. Background: – For the survey, researchers travelled by boat at a constant speed using acoustic hydrophones — essentially underwater microphones — that pick up sounds emitted by the dolphins. The animals are blind and rely on echolocation to communicate and move. Key takeaways The Gangetic Dolphin (Platanista gangetica) is a freshwater dolphin species endemic to the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna and Karnaphuli-Sangu river systems of India and Bangladesh, and the Sapta Koshi and Karnali Rivers in Nepal. It is India’s National Aquatic Animal and plays a crucial role in the river ecosystem. Conservation Status –  IUCN Red List: Endangered Wildlife Protection Act, 1972: Schedule I (Highest protection) CITES: Appendix I (Strict trade restrictions) CMS (Bonn Convention): Appendix II Characteristics Blind due to poorly developed eyes; relies on echolocation for navigation and hunting. Can only survive in freshwater and requires deep, slow-flowing rivers. Indicator species for healthy river ecosystems. Threats Habitat Degradation: Dams, barrages, and pollution (industrial, agricultural, and domestic waste) disrupt their natural habitat. Poaching: Hunted for oil and meat. Accidental Catch: Often gets entangled in fishing nets. Water Pollution: High levels of toxic metals, pesticides, and industrial effluents impact their survival. Conservation Efforts in India Project Dolphin (2020): Launched under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) to protect river and marine dolphins. Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary (Bihar): India’s only dolphin sanctuary. Source: The Hindu VIRTUAL DIGITAL ASSETS Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – ECONOMY Context: For the first time in India, the Income Tax Bill, 2025 explicitly treats Virtual Digital Assets (VDAs) as property and capital assets. Background: The bill categorically states that VDAs, which include crypto assets, Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs), and similar digital assets, should be considered property. This move aligns India with global practices, where digital assets are either classified as securities (like in the U.S.) or property (like in the U.K., Australia, and New Zealand). Key takeaways VDAs are classified as capital assets. This means that any gains arising from their sale, transfer, or exchange will be taxed under capital gains provisions, similar to real estate, stocks, and bonds.  For example, if an individual purchases Bitcoin at ₹10 lakh and sells it for ₹20 lakh, the ₹10 lakh profit will be subject to capital gains tax — either short-term or long-term, depending on the holding period.  By treating VDAs as capital assets, the government ensures that transactions are subject to standard asset taxation principles, preventing their misuse as unregulated financial instruments. Continuing the precedent set in 2022, the bill imposes a 30% tax on income from VDA transfers. Unlike traditional capital assets, no deductions (other than the cost of acquisition) are allowed. This means that expenses related to mining, transaction fees, platform commissions, and gas fees cannot be deducted when calculating taxable income. For instance, if an investor buys Ethereum for ₹5 lakh and sells it for ₹7 lakh, the ₹2 lakh profit is taxed at a flat 30% — with no relief for transaction costs.  Another crucial provision is the inclusion of VDAs in undisclosed income taxation and asset seizure regulations. If an individual fails to report VDA holdings in their tax filings, they can be classified as undisclosed income and taxed accordingly.  Furthermore, Bill allows tax authorities to seize VDAs during investigations or tax raids, similar to how cash, gold, or real estate is confiscated in cases of tax evasion. As per the bill, any entity dealing in crypto assets — including exchanges, wallet providers, and even individual traders — is required to report transactions in a prescribed format. Source: The Hindu WORLD WILDLIFE DAY & CITES : THINGS TO KNOW Syllabus: Prelims – ENVIRONMENT Context: March 3 is observed each year as World Wildlife Day to highlight the importance of conserving flora and fauna.  Background: – In 2013, the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) proclaimed March 3 as the UN World Wildlife Day to celebrate and raise awareness of protecting the world’s wild animals and plants. This was as the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) GANDHI AND BHAGAT SINGH Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – HISTORY Context: Among the various criticisms levelled at the Gandhi-Irwin Pact, signed on March 5, 1931, is that it failed to secure the commutation of Bhagat Singh’s death sentence. Background: – Some argue that it is unfair to claim that the Mahatma was indifferent to Bhagat Singh, as he had repeatedly appealed to Irwin on behalf of the revolutionaries. This assertion is not entirely incorrect. Key takeaways Bhagat Singh was arrested for bombing the Central Assembly in Delhi on April 8, 1929. But it was the Lahore Conspiracy Case for which he would eventually be sentenced to death by a Special Tribunal set up by Viceroy Lord Irwin. The Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA), led by Bhagat Singh and Chandra Shekhar Azad, had killed British police officer John P Saunders on December 17, 1928 to avenge the death of Lala Lajpat Rai. Three HSRA members — Bhagat Singh, Shivram Rajguru, and Sukhdev Thapar — were sentenced to death on October 7, 1930 after a controversial trial. Because of the way the Tribunal was set up, little legal recourse was available after the sentencing. A political settlement was the only plausible way to save Bhagat Singh from the gallows. Gandhi, Irwin, and a pact to end Civil Disobedience In 1930, Gandhi launched the Civil Disobedience Movement with his 24-day march to Dandi. After he broke the salt laws, protests erupted across the country. Police launched a crackdown, and thousands of freedom fighters including Gandhi were arrested. On January 25, 1931, Viceroy Irwin announced the unconditional release of Gandhi and other leaders to facilitate negotiations. The Gandhi-Irwin Pact was followed by the release of all political prisoners who were not convicted of violence, remission of fines, and return of some confiscated lands. Government employees who had resigned from service were treated leniently. The Congress agreed to end the Civil Disobedience Movement and take part in the Second Round Table Conference later that year. Bhagat Singh: A glaring omission in Gandhi-Irwin Pact Gandhi’s talks with Irwin began less than a week after Bhagat Singh’s final appeal was rejected. As the negotiations progressed, there was expectation that Gandhi would ensure that the young revolutionary did not hang. In his autobiography Sinhavalokan (1951-55), Bhagat Singh’s comrade Yashpal wrote: “Gandhi considered it moral to put government pressure on the people for prohibition [of alcohol] but he considered it immoral to put people’s pressure on a foreign government to commute the sentence of Bhagat Singh.” Gandhi and Bhagat Singh Gandhi described the bombing of the Central Assembly in Delhi as the “criminal act of two mad youth”. At the Congress’ Karachi session, held three days after Bhagat Singh’s execution on March 23, 1931, Gandhi spoke of the revolutionary’s “error”. Gandhi and Irwin discussed Bhagat Singh on multiple occasions. As early as May 4, 1930, Gandhi had objected to the creation of the Special Tribunal. During the negotiations for the Gandhi-Irwin Pact, he brought up the case of Bhagat Singh on February 18, 1931, although he did not take a particularly strong position.But Gandhi never officially asked for commutation, and the Viceroy refused to suspend the execution. On the morning of March 23, the day of Bhagat Singh’s execution, Gandhi once again wrote to the Viceroy asking for a suspension of the sentence. But his pleas were rejected. Source: Indian Express EUTELSAT Syllabus: Prelims  – CURRENT EVENT Context: Suggestions that Ukraine could lose access to Elon Musk’s Starlink satellite Internet system, which has been vital in maintaining its military communications, have focused investor interest on Starlink’s smaller European rival Eutelsat. Background: – The stock price of Eutelsat, a Franco-British company, has more than quadrupled since the February 28 public showdown between Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy and US President Donald Trump. Key takeaways Starlink users access the Internet for data or voice communication by using a small satellite dish to bounce signals off a constellation of satellites overhead. Ukraine’s fixed-line and mobile networks have been badly damaged by bombing since Russia invaded in February 2022, and Starlink has helped Kyiv fill the void by sending tens of thousands of its dishes with terminals. Some are made available to civilians, but most are used by Ukraine’s armed forces. Ukrainian units often talk to each other via Starlink, and its services have become virtually indispensable for battlefield command and control. Initially, SpaceX helped to fund the provision of Starlink to Ukraine. The US government then took over, though last month Poland said it had been paying Ukraine’s Starlink subscription and would continue to do so. Eutelsat and Starlink Eutelsat already supports government and institutional communications in Ukraine, and can provide an alternative for certain government and defence applications, according to the company. Since its merger in 2023 with Britain’s OneWeb, Eutelsat controls the only operational global-coverage constellation, besides Starlink, of satellites in low earth orbit (LEO). Starlink’s more than 7,000 LEO satellites, suited to real-time communication, allow it to reach more users around the world and offer higher data speeds. But Eutelsat says that even with only 630 LEO satellites, backed up by 35 linked satellites in higher, geostationary orbit, it offers the same capabilities as Starlink in Europe. Starlink promises broadband at up to 200 megabits per second, Eutelsat 150. OneWeb terminals, however, cost as much as $10,000, plus a monthly subscription. Starlink charges Ukrainian users a one-time payment of $589 in addition to a monthly subscription of $95-$440, depending on the usage. Source: Indian Express PRADHAN MANTRI SHRAM YOGI MAANDHAN YOJANA Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: Pradhan Mantri Shram Yogi Maandhan Yojana (PM-SYM) completes six years. Background: The scheme is a tribute to the workers in the Unorganized sectors who contribute around 50 per cent of the nation’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Key takeaways Pradhan Mantri Shram Yogi Maandhan (PM-SYM), is a voluntary and contributory pension scheme launched by the Government of India to provide social security to unorganised workers. The scheme is administered by the Ministry of Labour and Employment in collaboration with Life Insurance Corporation of India (LIC) and Common Service

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) RATNA STATUS Syllabus: Prelims – CURRENT EVENT Context: The Centre approved the upgradation of Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation (IRCTC) and Indian Railway Finance Corporation (IRFC) as the country’s 25th and 26th Navratna companies respectively. Background: – All seven listed Central Public Sector Enterprises (CPSEs) of the Indian Railways now have Navratna status. The Indian Railways have a total 12 CPSEs. Key takeaways The Government of India classifies Central Public Sector Enterprises (CPSEs) into Maharatna, Navratna, and Miniratna categories to grant them varying degrees of financial and operational autonomy. This classification aims to enhance efficiency, competitiveness, and decision-making powers in India’s public sector enterprises. Criteria for grant of Maharatna status to CPSEs The CPSEs meeting the following criteria are eligible to be considered for grant of Maharatna status. Having Navratna status Listed on Indian stock exchange with minimum prescribed public shareholding under SEBI regulations An average annual turnover of more than Rs. 25,000 crore during the last 3 years An average annual net worth of more than Rs. 15,000 crore during the last 3 years An average annual net profit after tax of more than Rs. 5,000 crore during the last 3 years Should have significant global presence/international operations. Criteria for grant of Navratna status to CPSEs Navratnas are the second category of the central government-owned ‘Ratna’ companies, placed between the Maharatnas and the Miniratnas. The Department of Public Enterprises (DPE) of the Ministry of Finance picks the CPSEs for Navratna status. Six indicators are considered: (i) ratio of net profit to net worth, (ii) ratio of manpower cost to total cost of production or services, (iii) ratio of profit before depreciation, interest, and tax (PBDIT) to capital employed or return on capital employed, (iv) ratio of profit before interest and taxes (PBIT) to turnover, (v) earning per share, and (vi) inter-sectoral performance of the company. The six indicators carry weights from 10 (for earning per share) to 25 (for ratio of net profit to net worth). If a CPSE has a composite score of 60 or higher for all six indicators, and has obtained an Excellent or Very Good MOU rating in three of the last five years, it is eligible to be considered for Navratna status. Criteria for grant of Miniratna status to CPSE  Miniratna Category-I status: – The CPSEs which have made profit in the last three years continuously, pre-tax profit is Rs.30 crores or more in at least one of the three years and have a positive net worth are eligible to be considered for grant of Miniratna-I status. Miniratna Category-II status: – The CPSEs which have made profit for the last three years continuously and have a positive net worth are eligible to be considered for grant of Miniratna-II status. Miniratna CPSEs should have not defaulted in the repayment of loans/interest payment on any loans due to the Government. Miniratna CPSEs shall not depend upon budgetary support or Government guarantees. Source: Indian Express AGRICULTURE INFRASTRUCTURE FUND (AIF) SCHEME Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – AGRICULTURE Context: Punjab has utilised 100% of the Rs 4,713 crore allocated to it by the Centre under the Agriculture Infrastructure Fund (AIF) scheme. Background: – As of February 28, with 21,740 projects, Punjab is at the No.1 position in the country for the highest number of sanctioned projects, said the state government. Key takeaways The Agriculture Infrastructure Fund (AIF) is a central sector scheme, started in 2020 with an aim to provide medium to long-term financing for agriculture infrastructure projects at the post-harvest stage. When the scheme was started, it was meant for post-harvest management and processing at the primary level, but now, integrated processing at the secondary level has also been included.  For example, a kinnow farmer could earlier get funds under the scheme for grading, waxing, and packaging of the crop (primary post-harvest processes), but since 2024, can also avail money to make and sell juices, jams, etc. out of his kinnow produce (secondary level). However, the secondary level funds are available only to those involved in the primary processing too. This scheme offers credit guarantees and interest subvention. Farmers, agripreneurs, primary agriculture cooperative societies, farmers producer organisations, start-ups, state sponsored public-private partnerships, state-agencies can apply for funds under this scheme. All loans under this financing facility have interest subvention of 3% per annum up to a loan limit of ₹2 crores. This interest subvention is available for a maximum period of 7 years. In case of loans beyond ₹2 crores, interest subvention is limited up to ₹2 crores. Under the AIF, one can take benefits of other state and central subsidies as well. Credit guarantee support is through the Credit Guarantee Fund Trust for Micro and Small Enterprises (CGTMSE) and National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABSanrakshan) Scheme. Source: The Hindu RARE EARTH MINERALS Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: A proposal by the Trump administration to secure $500 billion worth of profits from Ukraine’s rare earth minerals as compensation for U.S. wartime assistance highlights the strategic importance of these resources. Background: World’s 5% critical raw materials are currently present in Ukraine. 19 million tonnes of proven reserves of graphite are found in Ukraine. Lithium deposits, one third of all of Europe’s, lie in Ukraine. Ukraine also had 7% of world’s titanium production which is utilised in manufacturing aeroplanes to power stations. Ukraine is also the host of significant deposits of rare earth metals. Key takeaways Rare Earth Elements (REEs) or Rare Earth Metals are a set of 17 chemical elements in the periodic table — the 15 lanthanides, plus scandium and yttrium, which tend to occur in the same ore deposits as the lanthanides, and have similar chemical properties.  Despite their name, most rare earth elements are relatively abundant in the Earth’s crust, but they are rarely found in concentrated, economically exploitable forms. REEs are classified as light RE elements (LREE) and heavy RE elements (HREE). The 17 Rare Earths are cerium (Ce), dysprosium (Dy), erbium (Er),

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) POPULISM AND GOOD GOVERNANCE Syllabus: Prelims – GS 2 Context: The Vice-President of India, Shri Jagdeep Dhankhar, called for a national debate on the shift from democracy to Emocracy, saying, “National debate is required so that we take note of shift from Democracy to Emocracy. Emotion-driven policies, emotion-driven debates, discourses threaten good governance.” Background: – “Historically, populism is bad economics. And once a leader gets attached to populism it is difficult to get out of the crisis. The central factor must be the good of the people, the largest good of the people, the lasting good of the people”, V P said. Relationship between populism and good governance The relationship between populism and good governance is complex, with both positive and negative implications. Understanding Populism :A political ideology that seeks to represent the interests of the common people against a perceived elite. Characteristics: Direct appeal to the masses Charismatic leadership Anti-establishment rhetoric Simplified solutions to complex problems Types of Populism: Left-Wing Populism: Advocates wealth redistribution and state intervention (e.g., Latin American leaders like Hugo Chávez). Right-Wing Populism: Focuses on nationalism, cultural identity, and anti-immigration policies (e.g., Donald Trump, European right-wing parties). Understanding Good Governance: Governance that ensures efficient, accountable, participatory, and transparent administration. Key Features (As per UNDP): Transparency: Open decision-making and information availability. Accountability: Responsibility of public institutions towards citizens. Rule of Law: Fair legal framework enforced impartially. Inclusiveness: Equal participation of all groups in governance. Effectiveness and Efficiency: Best use of resources for public welfare. Populism vs. Good Governance: Conflict and Challenges Short-Term Popularity vs. Long-Term Institutional Strengthening: Populist leaders may focus on immediate benefits rather than sustainable policies. Erosion of Institutional Autonomy: Populists may undermine democratic institutions and weaken democratic Norms. Fiscal Populism: Excessive subsidies, loan waivers, and unsustainable welfare schemes burden the economy. Undermining Expertise and Bureaucracy: Populists often bypass expert opinions, leading to flawed policy decisions. Positive Aspects of Populism in Governance Increased Political Participation: Populist leaders mobilize the masses, bringing political awareness. Focus on Marginalized Groups: Populist movements often highlight the concerns of the underprivileged. Policy Innovation: Pressure from populist movements can lead to new welfare policies. Way Forward Institutional Checks and Balances: Strengthening judiciary and autonomous bodies to prevent executive overreach. Evidence-Based Policymaking: Ensuring policy decisions are backed by data rather than populist rhetoric. Strengthening Democratic Norms: Promoting media freedom, civil society participation, and deliberative democracy. Fiscal Responsibility: Ensuring populist welfare policies are financially sustainable. Public Awareness: Educating citizens about the long-term impacts of populist policies. Source: PIB AIKOSHA Syllabus: Prelims  – CURRENT EVENT Context: Union Minister for Electronics & Information Technology, Railways, and Information & Broadcasting, Shri Ashwini Vaishnaw marked a major milestone in India’s AI journey with the launch of several key initiatives under the IndiaAI Mission during its anniversary celebration. Key among the newly introduced initiatives is AIKosha: IndiaAI Datasets Platform. Background: – The launch of AIKosha signifies a major step in democratizing AI access, enabling research-driven innovation, and strengthening India’s global AI leadership. Key takeaways AIKosha, launched by India’s Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY), is a comprehensive platform designed to streamline access to high-quality, non-personal datasets, AI models, and development tools, thereby fostering AI innovation across the nation. Key Features of AIKosha: Extensive Repository: The platform hosts over 300 datasets and more than 80 AI models from 12 organizations, providing a rich resource for model builders and developers to create India-centric AI solutions.  AI Sandbox Capabilities: AIKosha offers integrated development environments equipped with tools and tutorials, enabling users to experiment, develop, and refine AI applications effectively.  Secure and Accessible: The platform ensures data security through features like data encryption (both at rest and in motion), secure APIs, and firewalls for real-time threat filtering. It also emphasizes content discoverability and AI readiness scoring of datasets to assist users in selecting appropriate resources.  Objective and Impact: By providing a unified portal for seamless access to datasets, models, and tools, AIKosha aims to democratize AI development in India. It supports students, startups, researchers, academia, and government departments in building AI applications tailored to India’s diverse linguistic and cultural landscape.  This initiative is part of the broader IndiaAI Mission, which seeks to establish a comprehensive ecosystem catalyzing AI innovation through public-private partnerships. Source: PIB REAL ESTATE REGULATORY AUTHORITY (RERA) Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: The Supreme Court criticised the functioning of the Real Estate Regulatory Authority (RERA) and termed it as “disappointing”. Background: This isn’t the first time the court has criticised RERA’s performance. In September 2024, the Supreme Court described RERA as a “rehabilitation centre for former bureaucrats,” accusing it of undermining the Act’s purpose.  Key takeaways The Real Estate Regulatory Authority (RERA) was established under the Real Estate (Regulation and Development) Act, 2016 to regulate and promote transparency in the real estate sector. RERA is applicable to residential and commercial real estate projects, including plotted developments. Objectives of RERA Regulate the real estate sector and improve accountability. Ensure timely completion of projects and prevent delays. Promote transparency in property transactions. Protect buyers’ rights by setting grievance redressal mechanisms. Encourage investment by creating a reliable framework. Key Provisions of the RERA Act, 2016 Establishment of RERA States and Union Territories must establish a Real Estate Regulatory Authority for grievance redressal. Functions include project registration, dispute resolution, and policy implementation. Mandatory Project Registration : Developers must register real estate projects (above 500 sq. m. or 8 apartments) before advertising or selling. Projects without RERA registration are illegal. Escrow Account Requirement : Builders must deposit 70% of funds collected from buyers into a separate escrow account to ensure funds are used for the same project. Timely Completion & Compensation : Developers must complete projects on time, failing which they face penalties or compensation liabilities. Consumer Protection & Rights Buyers have the right to full project details, possession timeline, and compensation for delays. False advertising by developers can lead to refunds or penalties. Establishment of Real Estate Appellate Tribunal : If dissatisfied with RERA decisions,

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) WOMEN’S DAY 2025 Syllabus: Prelims  & Mains – HISTORY Context: International Women’s Day (IWD) is celebrated globally on March 8 each year to recognize women’s achievements, promote gender equality, and advocate for women’s rights. Background: – The occasion offers an opportunity to recall the struggle of female revolutionaries for the cause of women’s education in India.  Pre Independence Women Activists  In the pre-independent times, several female revolutionaries struggled hard for the cause of women’s education, including Savitribai Phule, Fatima Sheikh, Pandita Ramabai, Chandraprabha Saikiani, Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain, Sarala Ray, Anasuya Sarabhai, and Abala Bose.  Savitribai Phule Savitribai Phule was a Dalit woman who challenged the upper caste hegemony of education.  She opened India’s first school for girls in Vishrambag Wada, Pune, Maharashtra in 1848 along with her husband Jyotirao Phule. Her school was open to all castes.  Savitribai Phule not only promoted education for girls but also stood in opposition to existing social evils like untouchability and prohibition on widow remarriage. Fatima Sheikh and Pandita Ramabai Another notable figure, Fatima Sheikh, widely celebrated as India’s first Muslim woman educator, was an associate of Jyotirao and Savitribai Phule in Pune. Unfortunately, not a lot is known about her. Pandita Ramabai, from Mangalore (then Madras presidency but now part of Karnataka), challenged the caste system by marrying a man from the lower caste.  She was also a staunch advocate for women’s education and actively spoke out against the plight of widows, especially child widows, and child marriage.  Ramabai founded the Arya Mahila Samaj in 1882 to promote women’s education, which was seen as instrumental in eradicating child marriage.  Chandraprabha Saikiani Chandraprabha Saikiani was a social reformer and active proponent of women’s education from Assam. Saikiani demonstrated her commitment to the cause by starting a school for girls at the young age of 13, where she imparted whatever knowledge she had to other girls.  Her activism extended beyond education. At a large public gathering, she called for a ban on opium – an unusual act for a woman in that era when women speaking in public gatherings was unconventional.  In 1926, Saikiani founded the Assam Pradeshik Mahila Samiti and dedicatedly worked for women’s education. Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain and Sarala Ray Begum Rokeya, born in Pairaband, Rangpur, Bengal (part of Bangladesh now), advocated for Muslim women’s education through her visionary women-centric writings.  Her most famous short story, Sultana’s Dream, imagines a gender-reversed society where women run the world and men are confined indoors. Having never been allowed to earn a formal education, she started schools for Muslim girls in Bhagalpur (1909) and Kolkata (1911).  Sarala Ray, an educator from Bengal, founded the Gokhale Memorial Girls’ School in 1920 in Kolkata, where all girls were encouraged to learn three languages – Hindi, Bengali and English – as part of the school’s innovative curriculum.  Later, she extended her efforts towards women’s higher education and established the Gokhale Memorial Girls’ College in 1938.  Source: Indian Express WORLD SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT SUMMIT 2025 Syllabus: Prelims  – CURRENT EVENT Context: Union Minister for Environment, Forest, and Climate Change, Bhupender Yadav, inaugurated the World Sustainable Development Summit (WSDS) 2025 in New Delhi on Wednesday.  Background: – Union Minister stressed that under the leadership of Prime Minister Modi, India has taken transformative steps with initiatives like the International Solar Alliance (ISA), the Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI), and Mission Lifestyle for Environment (LiFE). Key takeaways The World Sustainable Development Summit (WSDS) is an annual event organized by The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), serving as a global platform to discuss and advance sustainable development and climate solutions.  Established in 2001 as the Delhi Sustainable Development Summit (DSDS), it was rebranded to WSDS to reflect its broader international scope. WSDS 2025 Theme: ‘Partnerships for Accelerating Sustainable Development and Climate Solutions’ This 24th edition emphasizes the critical role of collaborations among governments, businesses, civil society, and other stakeholders in driving meaningful progress toward sustainability goals. Key Components of WSDS: Sustainable Development Leadership Award (SDLA): Since 2005, this award has honored global leaders for their contributions to sustainable development. Ministerial and High-Level Sessions: Panels featuring policymakers, business leaders, and academics discussing pressing environmental issues. Thematic Tracks: Focused discussions on specific sustainability challenges, engaging domain experts to propose actionable solutions. CEO Forum: A platform for industry leaders to brainstorm sustainable business practices. Youth Connect: Initiatives to engage young students in sustainability dialogues, fostering awareness and involvement. Source: DD News CONVENTION ON CLUSTER MUNITIONS Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: Lithuania quit an international convention banning cluster bombs, citing security concerns over neighbouring Russia in a move that has drawn criticism from human rights groups. Background: NATO member Lithuania has said it wants to strengthen its defences following Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, fearing it could be next if Moscow succeeds. Key takeaways The Convention on Cluster Munitions (CCM) is an international treaty that prohibits the use, production, transfer, and stockpiling of cluster bombs, which pose severe risks to civilians. Key Features of the Convention Adoption: 30 May 2008 in Dublin, Ireland. Entry into Force: 1 August 2010 (after 30 countries ratified it). Signatories: 123 countries (as of 2023), but major powers like the USA, Russia, China, and India have not signed. Main Provisions: Total Ban on cluster munitions. Stockpile Destruction within 8 years. Clearance of Affected Areas within 10 years. Assistance to Victims (healthcare, rehabilitation, and reintegration). Why Cluster Munitions are Controversial? Wide Area Effect: Cluster bombs release multiple submunitions over large areas, causing indiscriminate damage. Failure Rate: Unexploded bomblets become de facto landmines, harming civilians for decades. Humanitarian Crisis: Countries like Laos, Vietnam, Syria, and Ukraine suffer from past cluster munition use. India’s Stand on CCM Not a Signatory: India has not signed or ratified the CCM. Reasons for Non-Signature: Believes in the legitimate defense use of cluster munitions. Calls for a balance between security and humanitarian concerns. Reluctant to accept legally binding disarmament treaties without universal participation (as major powers like the USA and Russia are not part of it). Source: The Hindu BANGUS

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) INDIA-MAURITIUS RELATIONS Syllabus: Mains – GS2 Context: Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s visit to Mauritius (March 11-12), will be a celebration of the deep and long-standing ties between the two countries. Background: – Newly elected Prime Minister Navinchandra Ramgoolam (Labour Party) shares a historic connection with India. His father, Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam, led Mauritius to independence and worked with Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose. Key takeaways People to people ties Nearly 70% of Mauritius population is of Indian origin, mainly descendants of indentured laborers brought by colonial rulers. About 50% trace their ancestry to Bihar and Uttar Pradesh and still speak the Bhojpuri dialect.  There are smaller communities of Tamil, Telugu-, and Marathi-speaking communities. In 1976, India inaugurated the Mahatma Gandhi Institute as a premier institution for promoting Indian languages and culture.  The Indian Cultural Centre in Mauritius is the largest of anywhere in the world. The island hosts the World Hindi Secretariat that is supported by India. Economic and Trade Cooperation Bilateral trade reached $554 million in 2022-23. Mauritius serves as a business gateway to Africa, being part of the African Union. Due to a favourable Double Taxation Avoidance Agreement (DTAA) with India, Mauritius is also a major channel for foreign investment into India.  Mauritius has emerged as a successful international financial centre. Maritime Security Cooperation Mauritius is strategically located in the western Indian Ocean. The Colombo Security Conclave brings together India, Sri Lanka, the Maldives, Mauritius and Bangladesh to ensure regional maritime security.  Mauritius has a vast EEZ of 2.3 million sq. km, making surveillance vital. India has set up a chain of coastal radar stations, redeveloped the Mauritian island of Agaléga to serve as a joint surveillance facility and given Mauritius access to the Information Fusion Centre for the Indian Ocean Region (IFC-IOR) in Gurugram, to significantly advance domain awareness in its vast EEZ.  India’s oceanographic survey ship, INS Sarvekshak, has completed the survey of 25,000 sq.km of Mauritius’ ocean territory.  At a time when China’s footprint in the Indian Ocean is expanding, India-Mauritius maritime security cooperation has assumed special importance. Source: The Hindu MADHAV NATIONAL PARK Syllabus: Prelims  – ENVIRONMENT Context: The Centre declared the Madhav National Park in Madhya Pradesh as the country’s 58th tiger reserve on Sunday (March 9, 2025). Background: – Three tigers, including two females, were introduced to the Madhav National Park in 2023 as part of the tiger reintroduction project in the State.  Madhav National Park is country’s 58th tiger reserve and also the ninth from the State of Madhya Pradesh. Notably, on December 2, 2024 India got its 57th tiger reserve in the Ratapani Wildlife Sanctuary of Madhya Pradesh. Key takeaways Madhav National Park is a protected area located in the Shivpuri district of Madhya Pradesh, India.  Established in 1959, Madhav National Park was originally a hunting ground for the erstwhile Scindia royal family. the park was named after Madho Rao Scindia, the Maharaja of Gwalior. Madhav National Park is situated in the northern part of Madhya Pradesh. It lies on the northern fringe of the Central Highlands of India, forming part of the Upper Vindhyan Hills intermixed with plateaus and valley sections. Notable lakes within the park include Sakhya Sagar and Madhav Sagar, both created by damming the Manihar River. Fauna: Madhav National Park hosts a variety of wildlife, including: Mammals: Species such as the Indian gazelle (Chinkara), Chital (Spotted deer), Nilgai (Blue bull), Sambar deer, Four-horned antelope (Chousingha), Sloth bear, Leopard, Indian wolf, Jackal, Bengal fox, Dhole (Wild dog), Wild boar, and Porcupine.  Reptiles: The park is home to reptiles like the Mugger crocodile, various turtle species, and snakes.  Birds: The lakes attract numerous migratory birds during winter, including species of geese, ducks, and waders. Historical Significance: George Castle: At the park’s highest point (484 meters), George Castle was built in 1911 by Madho Rao Scindia for an anticipated visit by King George V, although the king never stayed there. Conservation Efforts: Ramsar Site: In January 2022, a 248-hectare area around Sakhya Sagar Lake within the park was designated as a Ramsar site, recognizing its importance as a wetland of international significance.  Source: The Hindu INDIA’S SEMICONDUCTOR MANUFACTURING Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: India is set to roll out its first domestically manufactured semiconductor chip in 2025. Background: This initiative aims to reduce India’s dependency on semiconductor imports, which have risen significantly over the past decade. Key takeaways Semicon India Programme The Semicon India Programme, launched in 2021, aims to develop the semiconductor and display manufacturing ecosystem. Key Initiatives: Five manufacturing facilities are under construction for the manufacturing and assembly of semiconductor chips, backed by the Semicon India Programme. Notable projects: Tata Semiconductor Assembly and Test Facility – Morigaon, Assam. Dholera Semiconductor Fabrication (Fab) Facility – Tata Electronics in collaboration with Taiwan’s Powerchip Semiconductor Manufacturing Corporation. However, the actual spending under the Semicon India Programme has consistently fallen short of budgeted allocations. India’s Semiconductor Import Dependency India heavily relies on semiconductor imports, with key imports including: Monolithic Integrated Circuits (ICs) – Used in CPUs, smartphones, automobiles, medical devices, and industrial automation. Memory Chips – Includes volatile (RAM) and non-volatile (NAND flash). Amplifiers – Used in wireless communication and audio equipment. Import trends (FY16-FY24): Monolithic IC imports increased by 2,000%. Memory chip imports surged by 4,500%. Amplifier imports rose by 4,800%. Semiconductor imports now constitute a higher share of total imports, with monolithic ICs forming 2.09% of total imports in FY25, up from 0.19% in FY16. Major Semiconductor Suppliers to India Top Supplier: China (except FY19). Other key sources: Hong Kong, Japan, South Korea, Singapore, and Taiwan. Challenges in India’s Semiconductor Ecosystem With the new facilities, India will be able to add value in the assembly, testing, and packaging, and fab segments of the global value chain for semiconductors, but it is yet to make major strides in –  EDA (Electronic Design Automation) software – Critical for chip design. Core IP (Intellectual Property) – Patents for semiconductor technology. Wafers – Key raw material for chip fabrication.

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT (ICC) Syllabus: Prelims – CURRENT EVENT Context: Former Philippine President Rodrigo Duterte was arrested on March 10th on a warrant issued by the International Criminal Court (ICC), which was investigating allegations that “crimes against humanity” had been committed during his so-called “war on drugs”. Background: – During his six-year term, 6,000 suspects were gunned down as part of his “war on drugs” campaign. A UN report subsequently revealed that most of the victims were young, poor urban males, and that “the police who do not need search or arrest warrants to conduct house raids, systematically forced suspects to make self-incriminating statements or risk facing lethal force,”. Key takeaways The International Criminal Court (ICC) is a permanent international tribunal established to prosecute individuals for serious crimes like genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity, and aggression. The Rome Statute, the treaty that established the ICC, was adopted on 17 July 1998 and entered into force on 1 July 2002 after being ratified by 60 countries. As of January 2025, 125 countries are party to the Rome Statute, including Britain, Japan, Afghanistan, and Germany. India, China, and the United States are not members. So far, 32 cases have come before the ICC, which is composed of 18 judges who are elected by the member states and serve 9-year, nonrenewable terms.  The ICC is composed of four main organs: The Presidency: Responsible for the administration of the Court, except for the Office of the Prosecutor. Judicial Divisions: Pre-Trial Division: Handles preliminary examinations, investigations, and issuance of arrest warrants. Trial Division: Conducts trials and issues verdicts. Appeals Division: Reviews appeals against decisions made by the Trial Division. Office of the Prosecutor (OTP): Responsible for conducting investigations and prosecutions. Registry: Provides administrative and operational support to the Court, including victim and witness protection, legal aid, and public outreach. The ICC has jurisdiction over the following crimes: Genocide: Acts committed with the intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnic, racial, or religious group. Crimes Against Humanity: Widespread or systematic attacks directed against civilians, including murder, enslavement, torture, and sexual violence. War Crimes: Serious violations of international humanitarian law during armed conflicts, such as targeting civilians, using child soldiers, and destroying property. Crime of Aggression: The use of armed force by a state against the sovereignty, territorial integrity, or political independence of another state. Key Principles Complementarity: The ICC acts as a court of last resort, intervening only when national courts are unwilling or unable to prosecute. Individual Criminal Responsibility: The ICC prosecutes individuals, not states or organizations. Non-Retroactivity: The Court can only prosecute crimes committed after the Rome Statute entered into force (1 July 2002). Jurisdiction: The ICC can exercise jurisdiction if the crimes were committed by a State Party national, or in the territory of a State Party, or in a State that has accepted the jurisdiction of the Court; or the crimes were referred to the ICC Prosecutor by the United Nations Security Council (UNSC). Source: Indian Express THE DANDI MARCH AND BEYOND Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – HISTORY Context: Today (12 March) marks the 95th anniversary of the historic salt march led by Mahatma Gandhi from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi in Gujarat. The 24-day march from  ended with the defiance of the law after he made salt at Dandi marking the inauguration of the civil disobedience movement. Background: – The 1882 Salt Act gave the British a monopoly in the manufacture and sale of salt. Even though salt was freely available on the coasts, Indians were forced to buy it from the colonisers. Gandhi decided that if there was any one product through which civil disobedience could be inaugurated, then it was salt. Key takeaways On 6 April 1930, Gandhi along with his followers defiantly broke the salt law by manufacturing salt from the sea. With this, the movement spread throughout the countryside. The British government declared the Indian National Congress as illegal. Gandhi informed the Viceroy that he was going to raid the government salt works at Dharasana. Before he could proceed, he was arrested and sent to Yeravda Central Jail. After Gandhi’s arrest, Mr. Abbas Tyabji, took over the march to Dharsana but he was also arrested. Sarojini Naidu succeeded Abbas Tyabji who led the march but was met with police brutality.  Several Colonial laws were broken along with a boycott of foreign cloth and liquor.  In Bengal, volunteers led by Satish Chandra Dasgupta walked from Sodepur Ashram to the village of Mahisbathan to make salt. K.F Nariman in Bombay led another group of marchers to Haji Ali Point where they prepared salt at a nearby park. The anti-chowkidari (village police) tax along with non-payment of rent was followed in the raiyatwadi areas. There were many violent confrontations with the police and massive tribal invasions of forests in Central Provinces, Maharashtra, and Karnataka. In the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP), Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, popularly known as the Frontier Gandhi, raised a band of non-violent volunteers known as the Khudai Khidmatgars (Red Shirts), who played an active role in the movement. In Chittagong, revolutionaries headed by Surjaya Sen launched a campaign against the British. They seized the local armoury and an Independence Proclamation was made in the name of the ‘Independent Republican Army’ and fought a pitched battle on the Jalalabad hill leading to the death of several revolutionaries. C. Rajagopalachari led the Civil Disobedience movement in Tamil Nadu. He organised a march from Trichinopoly to Vedaranniyam on the Tanjore coast to break the salt law in April 1930. In Malabar, Congress leader, Kelappan, organised the salt march.  Similarly, in Orissa, the Civil Disobedience movement was carried out under the leadership of Gopabandhu Chaudhary. In Bihar, leaders like Ram Briksha Benipuri, Prof Abdul Bari and Acharya Kripalani led the movement. Source: Indian Express DELHI’S AIR WORST AMONG CAPITALS Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – ENVIRONMENT Context: According to the World Air Quality Report 2024 by Swiss air quality monitoring company IQAir, Delhi has been ranked as the world’s most polluted national capital for the sixth consecutive year. The report also highlights that 13 of the 20 most

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) THE STORY OF CHAGOS Syllabus: Prelims – CURRENT EVENT Context: Ahead of Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s two-day visit to Mauritius this week, India affirmed its support for the island country’s claim over the Chagos archipelago. Background: – Chagos has long been the subject of a dispute between Mauritius and the UK, which held on to these islands for decades after granting independence to Mauritius in 1968. Key takeaways The Chagos archipelago comprises more than 60 low-lying islands in the Indian Ocean roughly 1,600 km to the northeast of the main island of Mauritius. Diego Garcia is the largest island of the Chagos Archipelago. Chagos was uninhabited for most of its history. The Portuguese used the Chagos islands as a stopover in voyages around the Cape of Good Hope to India. But it was only in the 18th century that the first permanent settlements emerged. France became the first power to officially plant its flag on Chagos. The French had earlier set up Indian Ocean colonies in Île Bourbon (now Réunion) in 1665, Isle de France (now Mauritius) in 1715, and the Seychelles in 1744. By 1786, a number of fishing settlements and coconut plantations was established. The labour for these enterprises was supplied by slaves from Mauritius, the Seychelles, Madagascar, and East Africa. In 1814, after the fall of the Napoleonic Empire, France formally ceded Mauritius, including Chagos, and the Seychelles to Britain. After Britain abolished slavery in its colonies in 1833, indentured labour from India and Malaya was brought to the plantations. The Chagossian population today traces its origins to freed African slaves, and the Indian and Malayan labourers who arrived in the 18th and 19th centuries. Under international law, they are the indigenous people of the Chagos archipelago. British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT) & Diego Garcia base Mauritius became independent on March 12, 1968. But Britain kept control of Chagos.  In 1965, the UK had created a new administrative entity — the British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT) — which included the Chagos islands from Mauritius, and the islands of Aldabra, Farquhar, and Desroches from the Seychelles (these were restored to the Seychelles when the country received its independence in 1976). In 1966, the UK and the US signed a secret agreement to establish a military base in Diego Garcia. In 1971, when the US began to construct the Diego Garcia base, islanders were forcibly deported to Mauritius and the Seychelles. The roughly 2,000-strong native population was expelled. The 2024 agreement In 2017, the UN General Assembly voted to ask the International Court of Justice to examine the legal status of the archipelago. The ICJ concluded that the UK is under an obligation to bring to an end its administration of the Chagos Archipelago. A deal was struck between the UK and Mauritius in 2024. Britain recognised Mauritius’ claim over all of Chagos, including Diego Garcia — however, the deal said that the UK would, for a 99-year initial period, exercise “the sovereign rights [over Diego Garcia] and authorities of Mauritius are required to ensure the continued operation of the base well into the next century”. Source: Indian Express NATIONAL BOARD FOR WILDLIFE Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – ENVIRONMENT Context: More than 10 years after assuming office, Prime Minister Narendra Modi chaired his first-ever meeting of the National Board for Wildlife (NBWL) last week. Background: – The last full-body NBWL meeting was held on September 5, 2012, chaired by then PM Manmohan Singh. The PM is the ex officio chairman of the NBWL. Key takeaways The present-day National Board for Wildlife was created in 2003 after amending The Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972. The NBWL is the country’s apex body on matters of framing wildlife policy, conservation of wildlife and forests, and on giving recommendations to set up new national parks and sanctuaries. The NBWL consists of 47 members with the Prime Minister as its chairperson and the Union environment minister its vice-chairperson. The NBWL has a standing committee, to which are delegated key tasks such as appraising projects situated on forest lands inside and around national parks and sanctuaries as well as projects within 10-km of protected areas.  The standing committee’s decisions are recommendatory, which the environment ministry can overrule. Why has the board recently faced criticism? Over the past decade, the NBWL has cleared several controversial projects in and around wildlife habitats. These include the Ken Betwa river linking project’s Daudhan Dam, which will submerge nearly 100 sqkm of Panna Tiger Reserve, and an oil exploration project of Vedanta in the eco-sensitive zone of the Hollongapar Gibbon sanctuary, home to the endangered Hoolock Gibbon, India’s only ape species. Also, in 2021, the Galathea Bay Sanctuary in Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a nesting site of leatherback sea turtles, was denotified. After the BJP came to power in 2014, the NBWL was reconstituted. The move faced allegations of dilution of powers, as only three non-governmental members were appointed. The last standing committee of the UPA era had seven members not linked to the government — four conservation experts, and three representing non-governmental organisations. Source: Indian Express RECESSION Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – ECONOMY Context: US stocks have plunged, the constant talk of tariffs has caused uncertainty, and a survey has shown that mood among American consumers is pessimistic, even as an economic adviser to President Donald Trump has dismissed talks of a recession in the US economy. Background: At its simplest, in any economy, a recessionary phase is the counterpart of an expansionary phase. Key takeaways When the overall output of goods and services — typically measured by the GDP — increases from one quarter (or month) to another, the economy is said to be in an expansionary phase. And when the GDP contracts from one quarter to another, the economy is said to be in a recessionary phase. Together, these two phases create what is called a “business cycle” in any economy. A full business cycle could last anywhere between one year and a decade. When a recessionary phase sustains for long enough, it