Current Affairs

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) NETAJI SUBHASH CHANDRA BOSE Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – HISTORY Context: Since 2021, January 23, Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose’s birth anniversary, has been observed as “Parakram Diwas,” or the Day of Valour. This year marks Netaji’s 128th birth anniversary. Background: – The government decided to celebrate Parakram Diwas to inspire the people of the country, especially the youth, to act with fortitude in the face of adversity as Netaji did and to infuse them with a spirit of patriotic fervour. Key takeaways  Born to an upper-class Bengali family in 1897 in Cuttack. Attended Presidency College and Scottish Church College in Kolkata. Cleared the Indian Civil Services (ICS) examination in 1920 but resigned in 1921. In 1938, he was elected Congress president in the Haripura session, where he tried to push for swaraj as a “National Demand” and opposed the idea of an Indian federation under British rule. He stood for re-election in 1939 and defeated Dr Pattabhi Sitaramayya, the Gandhi-backed candidate. Bose tried to set up another working committee, but after being unable to do so, was forced to resign and was replaced by Rajendra Prasad. Within a week, he proposed the creation of the “Forward Bloc” within the Congress Party, in order to bring the radical-left elements of the party together. He was arrested in 1940 before he could launch a campaign to remove the monument dedicated to the victims of the Black Hole of Calcutta, an incident when a number of European soldiers died while imprisoned in 1756. Gandhi and Bose Gandhi was willing to wait a long time for Independence, Bose wanted immediate action, if not immediate results. Gandhi was anti-materialistic and hostile to modern technology, Bose saw technology and mass production as essential. Gandhi wanted a decentralized society and disliked the modern state; Bose wanted a strong central government and saw the modern state as the only solution to India’s problems. And finally, Bose did not share Gandhi’s dedication to non-violence. Bose was well aware of the significance of Gandhi. He was the first to call him the “father of the nation” during an address from the Azad Hind Radio from Singapore in July 1944. The INA and Bose The INA was formed on February 17, 1942, two days after the British surrendered to Japanese forces in Singapore. It mostly comprised Indian prisoners of war (PoWs) captured by the Japanese during their Southeast Asia campaign. Bose arrived in Singapore in July 1943 and took charge of INA on July 4. He gave the call of “Delhi Chalo” to INA to march on Delhi and liberate India. The INA crossed the Indo-Burma border and marched towards Imphal and Kohima in March 1944. The Chalo Delhi campaign ended at Imphal. By 1945, the British had launched their own campaign to retake Burma, and the INA once again found itself in retreat. After the atomic bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945, the war came to an end. Bose wanted to stay with his troops for the surrender but was persuaded to leave by his subordinates. He died in a plane crash three days later. Source: Indian Express TRUMP TO END BIRTHRIGHT CITIZENSHIP Syllabus: Mains – GS 2 Context: Starting his second term with a flurry of executive orders, US President Donald Trump has sought to revoke birthright citizenship – automatic citizenship of children born in the US to non-citizen parents. Background: – The Indian-American community, which is one of the fastest-growing immigrant populations in the US, will be profoundly impacted by this change as and when it comes through. Key takeaways Under birthright citizenship, anyone born on American soil is automatically granted US citizenship, regardless of the citizenship or immigration status of the parents. This provision was enacted in 1868.  Trump’s new order would deny US citizenship, including passports, to those children born in the US starting 30 days from now, if at least one parent isn’t an American citizen. Children born to Indian nationals who are on temporary work visas (like the H-1B visa) or waiting for the Green Card would no longer automatically acquire US citizenship. Children born to Indian students on non-immigrant visas would face challenges in securing US citizenship, at a time when Indian students make up one of the largest groups of international students in the US. Such a move would discourage many Indian professionals & students from seeking opportunities in the US, opting for more immigration-friendly countries like Canada or Australia instead. It could also affect the US economy, as the Indian community significantly contributes to the tech industry, healthcare and education. US-born children could no longer petition to bring their parents to the US after turning 21 if they do not get birthright citizenship. The policy will also curb “birth tourism” from countries like India and Mexico, a practice of women travelling to the US specifically to give birth, so their children can claim citizenship. Source: Indian Express INDUS WATER TREATY Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: The Neutral Expert (NE) appointed under terms of the Indus Water Treaty (IWT), 1960, decided that he was “competent” to decide on differences between India and Pakistan on the design of hydroelectric projects built on the Indus Treaty-rivers. Background: The dispute resolution mechanism laid out under the terms of the IWT says that disputes must first attempt to be resolved by the Permanent Indus Commission  (PIC). If they do not succeed, the matter would be weighed by the World Bank-appointed Neutral Expert. If this fails too, the matter would be decided by a Court of Arbitration. Key takeaways  The Indus Water Treaty (IWT) is a landmark water-sharing agreement between India and Pakistan, brokered by the World Bank.  Negotiations, mediated by the World Bank, began in the 1950s and culminated in the signing of the Indus Water Treaty in Karachi on September 19, 1960 by Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and Pakistani President Ayub Khan. It governs the use and distribution of the waters of the Indus River and its tributaries. Rivers Covered: Western Rivers (allocated to Pakistan): Indus, Jhelum, Chenab. Eastern Rivers (allocated to India): Ravi, Beas, Sutlej. Water Allocation:

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) SCHEMES RELATED TO GIRL CHILD Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: National Girl Child Day, an initiative of the Ministry of Women and Child Development, is celebrated every year on January 24. Background: – The day is aimed at promoting awareness about the rights of the girl child and to increase awareness on the importance of girls’ education, their health and nutrition. It also aims at promoting the position of girls in the society to make their living better. Key schemes for girl child NPS Vatsalya Scheme The scheme was launched in 2024. It is a new pension scheme for children in the age group of 0 to 18 years.  A parent can deposit a minimum of 1000 per month and a maximum with no limit. This account will be operated by the parents until the child turns 18, after which the account will be in the name of the children.  Once the child turns 18, the account can be seamlessly converted into a regular NPS account or a non-NPS scheme. It is regulated and administered by the Pension Fund Regulatory Authority of India (PFRDA). Beti Padhao, Beti Bachao:  On January 22, the BBBP scheme completed 10 years since its launch in 2015. The Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao Scheme, launched to address the decline in Child Sex Ratio and related issues of empowerment of girls, is implemented by states with 100% central assistance.  It set several targets concerning the nutritional status of girls, their attendance in schools, the provision of adequate infrastructure in schools and so on. Sukanya Samriddhi Yojana:  Launched in 2015 as part of the Indian government’s ‘Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao’ campaign, Sukanya Samriddhi Yojana is a small savings scheme designed to help parents of girl children accumulate a corpus for their daughter’s education and marriage. Parents of a girl child aged 10 years or younger can invest in this scheme. The scheme allows for a minimum and maximum annual deposit of Rs.250 and Rs.1.5 lakh, respectively.  Deposits to the account can be made for 15 years from the account opening date. The account, however, has a lock-in period of 21 years, implying that deposits mature after 21 years. CBSE Udaan Scheme:  Launched in 2014 by Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) under the guidance of the Ministry of Education aims to address low enrollment of women in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics), specifically in the Indian engineering colleges.  The CBSE provides free tutorials for students of class 11 and class 12 to crack engineering entrance exams including the Joint Entrance Exam (JEE). Source: Indian Express PREAMBLE Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – POLITY Context: As India prepares to celebrate its 76th Republic Day under the theme “Swarnim Bharat: Virasat aur Vikas” (Golden India: Legacy and Progress), the day also marks a historic moment to reflect on the core values of the Indian Constitution as reflected in the preamble. Background: – The idea of “constitutional patriotism,” first introduced by German social theorist Jürgen Habermas in the 1990s within a primarily European context, has taken on a unique and dynamic character in India. The Preamble, embodying the nation’s core values of justice, liberty, equality, and fraternity, holds a deeply symbolic and aspirational status, making constitutional patriotism in India a spirited and vibrant expression of loyalty to democratic principles. Key takeaways The preamble begins with the words, “We, the people of India”. This invocation is significant as it stands in sharp contrast to the often unchecked and emotional invocation of “the people” by populist movements.  The people invoked in the Preamble are presented with a sense of sobriety, as a constitutionally mediated entity, which prevents any possibility of such populist invocation of the people from easily descending into tyranny. Sovereign: The term refers to three aspects:  first, sovereignty connotes a supremacy of power that the state claims and tolerates no power above it;  second, there is no possibility or threat of insubordination below the state that could threaten its integrity;  and third, this sovereignty is crystallised in the form of popular representation in Parliament, which represents the will of the people through universal adult franchise. Socialist:  The term was not present in the original version. It was introduced into the Preamble in 1976 through the 42nd constitutional amendment along with the term “secular”.  There has been controversy around the term socialist being part of the Preamble. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar was against the inclusion as he felt that its presence would unfairly constrain future governments.  Secular:  The word secular does not imply a lack or negation of religion. Instead, it simply means that in the interests of maintaining religious harmony among India’s numerous religions and belief systems, the state shall maintain a secular stance. Republic:  The term republic in the Preamble of the Constitution connotes that the head of the state has to be an elected figure and not a hereditary monarch, which continues to be the case to this day in the United Kingdom. The landmark Keshavananda Bharati case (1973) ruled that the Preamble is a part of the Constitution. The Keshavananda Bharati judgement is particularly significant as it gave rise to the “basic structure” doctrine of the Constitution and included the Preamble in it.  This judgement marked a departure from an earlier judgement in the Berubari Union Case (1960) that did not view the Preamble as part of the Constitution. Source: Indian Express GLOBAL PLASTIC ACTION PARTNERSHIP (GPAP) Syllabus: Prelims – CURRENT EVENT Context: The Global Plastic Action Partnership (GPAP) has recently reached a significant milestone by expanding its network to include 25 countries. Background: With a combined population of over 1.5 billion people, the expansion highlights a growing global effort to address the urgent issue of plastic pollution. Seven new countries — Angola, Bangladesh, Gabon, Guatemala, Kenya, Senegal, and Tanzania — have joined this collaborative effort. Key takeaways The Global Plastic Action Partnership (GPAP) is a multistakeholder platform launched by the World Economic Forum in 2019.  Its primary goal is to accelerate the transition to a circular economy for plastics and tackle plastic pollution

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) NATIONAL VOTERS’ DAY Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: January 25 is celebrated annually as National Voters’ Day to mark the foundation day of the Election Commission of India (ECI), which was founded on January 25, 1950. Background: – This year we are celebrating the 15th National Voters’ Day with the theme “Nothing Like Voting, I Vote for Sure” emphasising the importance of participation in the electoral process, and encouraging voters to take pride in exercising their franchise. Key things to know about elections In democracies, voting is seen as a basic exercise that shows people’s faith in the political process. Voting is a crucial part of exercising one’s citizenship. In 2013, the Indian Supreme Court allowed for the option ‘None of the Above’ to be introduced in Lok Sabha and state Legislative Assembly elections to allow such views to be expressed. “Not allowing a person to cast a vote negatively defeats the very freedom of expression and the right ensured in Article 21, i.e. the right to liberty… a provision of negative voting would be in the interest of promoting democracy as it would send clear signals to political parties and their candidates as to what the electorate think about them. The mechanism of negative voting, thus, serves a very fundamental and essential part of a vibrant democracy,” the court said at the time. Postal Ballots ‘Postal ballot’ allows voters who cannot be physically present in polling stations to vote remotely, as specified in Section 60 of the RPA. As per Rule 18 of The Conduct of Election Rules, 1961, the following classes of persons are entitled to vote by postal ballot: Special voters: Individuals holding declared office under Section 20(4) of RPA, including the President, Vice President, Governors, Cabinet Ministers, other high-ranking dignitaries, etc. and their spouses. Service voters: Members of the Indian armed forces, paramilitary forces, an armed state police member serving outside their state, or a government employee stationed abroad and their spouses residing with them. Voters on election duty: This includes all Commission’s observers, presiding officers, polling officers and agents, police personnel, and public servants assigned official tasks on polling day. Private individuals and non-government staff, such as videographers, control room staff, drivers, conductors, cleaners, helpline staff, etc., are also covered. Electors subjected to preventive detention Absentee voters under Section 60 (c) of RPA, 1951: In 2019, the Election Commission created the ‘Absentee Voters’ category. This includes senior citizens aged 85+, persons with disabilities having at least 40% disability, Covid-19 suspect or affected persons, and persons employed in essential services. Source: Indian Express ESSENTIAL RELIGIOUS PRACTICES DOCTRINE Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – POLITY Context: Observing that use of loudspeakers is not essential part of any religion, the Bombay High Court directed the Maharashtra government to have an in-built mechanism to control decibel levels in loudspeakers, public address system (PAS) or any other sound-emitting gadgets used at places of worship, or institutions, irrespective of religion. Background: – The court passed these directives on a plea alleging failure to take action against use of loudspeakers and amplifiers by religious places beyond prohibited hours and permissible decibel limits. Key takeaways The court referred to the 2016 HC judgement that issued several directives for the strict implementation of Noise Pollution (Regulations and Control) Rules, 2000.  The HC in 2016 observed that “use of loudspeakers is not an essential part of any religion and therefore protection under Article 25 (freedom of religion) of constitution is not available” to violating institutions. The doctrine of “essentiality” was invented by a seven-judge Bench of the Supreme Court in the ‘Shirur Mutt’ case in 1954. The court held that the term “religion” will cover all rituals and practices “integral” to a religion, and took upon itself the responsibility of determining the essential and non-essential practices of a religion. The ‘essentiality doctrine’ of the Supreme Court has been criticised by several constitutional experts. Scholars of constitutional law have argued that the essentiality/integrality doctrine has tended to lead the court into an area that is beyond its competence, and given judges the power to decide purely religious questions. As a result, over the years, courts have been inconsistent on this question — in some cases they have relied on religious texts to determine essentiality, in others on the empirical behaviour of followers, and in yet others, based on whether the practice existed at the time the religion originated. Freedom of religion was meant to guarantee freedom to practice one’s beliefs based on the concept of “inward association” of man with God. The apex court in ‘Ratilal Panachand Gandhi vs The State of Bombay and Ors’ (March 18, 1954) acknowledged that “every person has a fundamental right to entertain such religious beliefs as may be approved by his judgment or conscience”. Scholars have argued that the essentiality test impinges on this autonomy. The apex court has itself emphasised autonomy and choice in its Privacy (2017), 377 (2018), and Adultery (2018) judgments. Source: Indian Express AD HOC JUDGES IN HIGH COURTS Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – POLITY Context: Recently, the Supreme Court suggested temporarily appointing retired judges on an ad hoc (as required) basis to address the growing backlog of pending criminal cases before several High Courts. Background: In 2021, the SC noted there have only been three recorded instances of ad hoc judges being appointed under Article 224A, calling it a “dormant provision”. Key takeaways Article 224A of the Indian Constitution allows the Chief Justice of a High Court to request retired HC judges to perform the duties of a judge again, with the permission of the President of India.  Such appointees are entitled to allowances as determined by the President’s order and have all the jurisdiction, powers and privileges of a Judge of that High Court. However, they cannot be “deemed” as such. Further, both the retired judge and the President of India are required to consent to the appointment. The detailed procedure can be found in the 1998 Memorandum of Procedure (MOP) for the appointment of High Court judges, prepared following

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) FISCAL HEALTH INDEX Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – ECONOMY Context: The Chairman of the 16th Finance Commission, Dr. Arvind Panagariya, launched the inaugural issue of NITI Aayog’s report titled “Fiscal Health Index (FHI) 2025”. Background: – The FHI aims to throw light on the fiscal status at the sub-national level and guide policy reforms for sustainable and resilient economic growth Key things to know about elections The report ranks 18 major States on the basis of composite fiscal index, which is based on five major sub-indices –  Quality of Expenditure: Assesses how effectively states allocate their expenditures. Revenue Mobilisation: Evaluates the ability of states to generate revenue. Fiscal Prudence: Measures the fiscal discipline of states in managing their finances. Debt Index: Assesses the debt burden and sustainability of states. Debt Sustainability: Evaluates the long-term sustainability of state debt. With a cumulative score of 67.8, Odisha tops the ranking in fiscal health among 18 major States, followed by Chhattisgarh and Goa with scores of 55.2 and 53.6, respectively. Goa, Telangana and Odisha are leading in revenue mobilization and fiscal prudence.  It was observed that Odisha, Jharkhand, Goa, and Chhattisgarh have effectively mobilised non-tax sources, with Odisha relying heavily on mining-linked premiums and Chhattisgarh benefitting from coal block auctions. Punjab emerged as the biggest laggard, followed by Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Kerala, and Haryana.  Kerala and Punjab struggle with low quality of expenditure and debt sustainability, while West Bengal faces revenue mobilization and debt index issues. Andhra Pradesh has high fiscal deficits, and Haryana has a poor debt profile. Source: PIB IRON AGE Syllabus: Prelims – ANCIENT HISTORY Context: In an announcement that challenges long-held assumptions about the origins of the Iron Age, a new study has found evidence that the use of iron in the area that is now Tamil Nadu dates back to the first quarter of the 4th millennium BCE. Background: – Globally, the Iron Age has long been attributed to the Hittite Empire in Anatolia, where iron technology is believed to have emerged around 1300 BCE. However, the Tamil Nadu findings challenge this and positions the region as a pioneering hub of early metallurgy, surpassing global timelines by nearly two millennia. Key takeaways The new findings, which provide evidence that iron technology in Tamil Nadu dates as far back as 3345 BCE, are supported by Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) and Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) analyses conducted on samples from sites such as Sivagalai, Adichanallur, Mayiladumparai, and Kilnamandi. Until recently, the Iron Age in India was believed to have emerged between 1500 and 2000 BCE, closely following the Indus Valley Civilisation. However, new data pushes this timeline back.  A paddy sample from a burial urn in Sivagalai was dated to 1155 BCE, while charcoal and potsherds (broken pieces of ceramic material) from the same site provided dates ranging from 2953 BCE to 3345 BCE, making it the earliest recorded evidence of iron technology globally. At Mayiladumparai, samples were dated to 2172 BCE, surpassing earlier benchmarks of iron usage in the region. Kilnamandi, meanwhile, yielded a sarcophagus burial dated to 1692 BCE, marking a significant milestone as the earliest-dated burial of its kind in Tamil Nadu. Study establishes that Tamil Nadu was not merely a participant in the evolution of metallurgy but an innovator, as the smelted iron findings have been dated to the middle of the third millennium BCE for the first time in the world. When cultural zones located north of Vindhyas experienced the Copper Age, the region south of Vindhyas might have entered into the Iron Age due to the limited availability of commercially exploitable copper ore. Thus, the Copper Age of North India and the Iron Age of South India are probably contemporary.  Archaeological sites in Tamil Nadu also revealed varied metallurgical techniques. Three types of iron-smelting furnaces were identified, showcasing early innovations in extracting iron. Circular furnaces in Kodumanal, for instance, reached temperatures of 1,300°C, sufficient to produce sponge iron. The study explains that the people in the area mastered the complex technology of smelting iron, which requires temperatures between 1,200°C and 1,400°C, as far back as 5,300 years ago. Source: Indian Express INLAND WATERWAYS AUTHORITY OF INDIA (IWAI) Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: For effective implementation of Inland Water Transport activities in National Waterway-1 (NW-1), River Ganga, the Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI) has upgraded its existing sub-office at Varanasi to a full-fledged Regional Office.  Background: IWAI, presently has five regional offices in Guwahati (Assam), Patna (Bihar), Kochi (Kerala), Bhubaneswar (Odisha) and Kolkata (West Bengal). It will now have its sixth regional office in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. Key takeaways The Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI) is the statutory body responsible for the development, maintenance, and regulation of inland waterways for shipping and navigation across the country.  Established on October 27, 1986, under the IWAI Act of 1985, it operates under the Ministry of Ports, Shipping and Waterways.  The headquarters of IWAI is located in Noida, Uttar Pradesh. Key Functions of IWAI: Infrastructure Development: IWAI is tasked with building and enhancing infrastructure on national waterways, including the construction of terminals, jetties, and navigational aids to facilitate smooth and efficient water transport. Regulation and Maintenance: The authority ensures the maintenance of navigable channels, conducts dredging operations, and implements measures to maintain desired depth and width for safe vessel movement. Project Feasibility Studies: IWAI conducts economic feasibility studies for new projects, assessing the potential and viability of developing additional waterways to expand the inland water transport network. National Waterways in India: To promote and develop inland water transport, several waterways have been designated as National Waterways (NWs). Some of the prominent NWs include: National Waterway 1 (NW-1): Extending from Prayagraj to Haldia over a length of 1,620 kilometers along the Ganges-Bhagirathi-Hooghly river system. National Waterway 2 (NW-2): Covering an 891-kilometer stretch from Sadiya to Dhubri on the Brahmaputra River. National Waterway 3 (NW-3): A 205-kilometer route from Kollam to Kottapuram in Kerala, encompassing the West Coast Canal along with Champakara and Udyogmandal canals.

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) DEEPSEEK Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: Chinese startup DeepSeek’s launch of its latest AI models, which it says are on a par or better than industry-leading models in the United States at a fraction of the cost, is threatening to upset the technology world order.  Background: – DeepSeek is a Hangzhou-based startup whose controlling shareholder is Liang Wenfeng, co-founder of quantitative hedge fund High-Flyer, based on Chinese corporate records. What sets DeepSeek models apart is their performance and open-sourced nature with open weights, which essentially allows anyone to build on top of them. Key takeaways The release of OpenAI’s ChatGPT in late 2022 caused a scramble among Chinese tech firms, who rushed to create their own chatbots powered by artificial intelligence. But after the release of the first Chinese ChatGPT equivalent, made by search engine giant Baidu, there was widespread disappointment in China at the gap in AI capabilities between U.S. and Chinese firms. The quality and cost efficiency of DeepSeek’s models have flipped this narrative on its head. The two models, DeepSeek-V3 and DeepSeek-R1, are on par with OpenAI and Meta’s most advanced models. They are also cheaper to use. DeepSeek-V3 stands out because of its architecture, known as Mixture-of-Experts (MOE). The MOE models are like a team of specialist models working together to answer a question, instead of a single big model managing everything. The DeepSeek-V3 has been trained on a meager $5 million, which is a fraction of the hundreds of millions pumped in by OpenAI, Meta, Google, etc., into their frontier models. DeepSeek developed its AI models amidst US sanctions on China for Nvidia chips, which were intended to restrict the country’s ability to develop advanced AI systems. Source: The Hindu GUILLAIN-BARRE SYNDROME Syllabus: Prelims – CURRENT EVENT Context: Pune on January 27 reported nine more suspected cases of Guillain-Barré Syndrome (GBS), taking the tally in Maharashtra’s second largest city to 110. Background: – Earlier, a man suspected to have contracted Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS)died in Maharashtra’s Solapur district. The 40-year-old, a native of Solapur, had come to Pune, where he is believed to have contracted the disease. This is possibly the first death in Maharashtra suspected to have been caused by GBS. Key takeaways Guillain-Barré Syndrome (GBS) is a rare autoimmune disorder where the body’s immune system mistakenly attacks the peripheral nerves. Cause: GBS is often triggered by an infection, such as respiratory or gastrointestinal infections, including Campylobacter jejuni, influenza, and Zika virus. Symptoms: The syndrome typically starts with tingling and weakness in the feet and legs, which can spread to the upper body. Severe cases can lead to paralysis. Onset: Symptoms usually develop rapidly over days to weeks. Symptoms Initial Symptoms: Tingling and weakness in the extremities, often starting in the feet and legs. Progression: Weakness can spread to the upper body, leading to difficulty walking, climbing stairs, or performing daily activities. Severe Symptoms: In severe cases, GBS can cause paralysis, difficulty breathing, and changes in heart rate and blood pressure. Diagnosis Clinical Evaluation: Diagnosis is based on symptoms, medical history, and physical examination. Tests: Nerve conduction studies and examination of cerebrospinal fluid can help confirm the diagnosis. Treatment Supportive Care: Treatment focuses on managing symptoms and preventing complications. Immunotherapy: Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) and plasmapheresis are used to reduce the severity and duration of GBS. Recovery: Most people recover fully, but recovery can take weeks to years, and some may have lasting effects such as weakness or fatigue. Prevention Infection Control: Preventing infections that can trigger GBS is crucial. This includes practicing good hygiene, safe food handling, and staying up-to-date with vaccinations. Source: The Hindu WETLAND ACCREDITED CITIES Syllabus: Prelims – ENVIRONMENT Context: Indore and Udaipur have become the first two Indian cities to join the global list of accredited wetland cities under the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands. Background: Indore, known for its cleanliness and innovative policies, is home to Sirpur Lake, a Ramsar site. Udaipur, renowned for its picturesque lakes, has five major wetlands: Pichola, Fateh Sagar, Rang Sagar, Swaroop Sagar, and Doodh Talai. Key takeaways The Wetland City Accreditation (WCA) is a voluntary scheme established by the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands in 2015.  It aims to recognize cities that have a positive relationship with wetlands, promoting their conservation and wise use. This accreditation encourages urban areas to integrate wetlands into their planning and decision-making processes, highlighting the benefits these ecosystems provide to urban communities. Eligibility Criteria: To be formally accredited, a candidate for the Wetland City Accreditation of the Ramsar Convention should satisfy the standards used to implement each of the following international criteria: It has one or more Ramsar Sites, or other wetland conservation sites fully or partly situated within its jurisdiction, which provide(s) a range of ecosystem services to the city;  It has adopted measures for conservation of wetlands and their ecosystem services;  It has implemented wetland restoration and/or management measures;  It considers the challenges and opportunities of integrated spatial/land-use planning for wetlands under its jurisdiction;  It has raised public awareness about the values of wetlands by delivering locally adapted information, and enabled participation of local stakeholders in decisionmaking processes;  It has established a local committee with appropriate knowledge and experience on wetlands and representation of and engagement with stakeholders to support the preparation work to apply for the Wetland City Accreditation and the implementation of proper measures to maintain the city’s qualifications for the accreditation. Benefits of Accreditation: International Recognition: Accredited cities gain global acknowledgment for their sustainable practices concerning wetlands. Enhanced Public Awareness: The accreditation promotes increased awareness among residents about the importance of wetlands. Tourism and Economic Opportunities: Recognition can boost eco-tourism and related economic activities. Source: Times of India NAMDAPHA NATIONAL PARK AND TIGER RESERVE Syllabus: Prelims – ENVIRONMENT Context: An elephant has been camera-trapped in India’s easternmost tiger reserve after 12 years, fuelling conservation hopes. Background: – According to the Arunachal Pradesh Forest Department, elephants have traditionally migrated between the Namsai area of the State and Myanmar through the Namdapha National Park

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) PROMISE OF NUCLEAR FUSION Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: An experimental nuclear fusion reactor in China triggered a lot of excitement by keeping its operational state maintained for more than 1,000 seconds, or over 17 minutes, which is a new record. Background: – Nuclear fusion is what produces the energy in the Sun, or any other star. Scientists across the world have been trying to recreate this process to produce electricity. The technology can eliminate the world’s energy crisis, and the problem of climate change, but it has not been mastered yet. Key takeaways Nuclear fusion is a process where two light atomic nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus, releasing a tremendous amount of energy. This is the same process that powers the Sun and other stars. How Does It Work? Fusion Fuel: The most common fusion reaction involves hydrogen isotopes: Deuterium (²H) and Tritium (³H) When these isotopes fuse under extremely high temperature and pressure, they form helium (⁴He) and release a neutron along with a vast amount of energy. Conditions for Fusion – To achieve fusion, the following conditions are required: High Temperature: Atomic nuclei are positively charged, so they naturally repel each other due to the electrostatic force. To overcome this repulsion, extremely high temperatures (millions of degrees Celsius) and pressures are required. High Pressure: The plasma must be confined at high density to increase the likelihood of collisions. Confinement Time: The plasma must be held together long enough for fusion reactions to occur. Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak (EAST) reactor The Chinese reactor did not produce electricity or carry out a fusion reaction. However, the reactor managed to maintain plasma in a steady state of confinement for a long time, longer than it had previously been possible. Fusion require very high temperatures. At such temperatures, matter exists only in the plasma state. But such hot plasma cannot be handled by or contained in any material. Within the reactor, this plasma needs to be kept suspended in a confined space, surrounded by very strong magnetic fields acting as walls. Charged particles respond to magnetic fields, and this property is used to guide the flow of plasma within an enclosed space, separated from any matter. This condition, necessary for facilitating fusion reactions, is extremely delicate. Scientists have not been able to maintain these conditions for longer than a few seconds. Real-life electricity-generating reactors would require this state to be maintained for hours, even days, at a stretch. Advantages of Fusion The fusion process produces far greater amounts of energy than any other source — one gram of fuel can yield as much energy as burning about eight tonnes of coal.  It uses cheap input materials, available in almost limitless supply (deuterium and tritium, two heavier isotopes of hydrogen that are used as fuel, are easily available in nature), has a zero emission footprint.  Unlike the fission process, it does not leave dangerous nuclear waste. International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) The largest fusion reactor, an international collaborative project called ITER, is coming up in southern France.  More than 30 countries are participating with India being one of the seven member countries contributing to the reactor’s construction and research. According to its current timeline, it would begin deuterium-tritium fusion reactions by 2039, producing 500 MW of fusion power. Source: Indian Express FEMINISATION OF AGRICULTURE Syllabus: Mains – GS 2 & GS 3 Context: Women contribute around 63 per cent of the agricultural labour force in India, yet they lack access to key resources such as land ownership, finance, and advanced farming technologies. Background: – Women’s involvement in agriculture does not necessarily equate to empowerment.  Key takeaways The female workforce participation rate in India reached its peak at 40.8 % in 2004-05 but has declined since. However, since 2017, the female labour force participation rate (FLPR) has seen a rising trend after years of decline.   The rural FLPR increased from 41.5% in 2022-23 to 47.6% in 2023-24, while the urban FLPR increased from 25.4% to 28% over the same time period. This growth in FLPR could be attributed to the economic recovery following covid, which prompted many women who were previously not part of the labour force to seek employment. In addition, the sudden rise in FLPR in the last few years has also been linked to economic distress. The rise in FLPR is largely driven by the rise in self-employment among women, especially in agriculture. This highlights the lack of non-farm job opportunities for women, with most employment opportunities for rural women remaining confined to agriculture. This leads to feminisation of agriculture.  Feminisation of agriculture can be interpreted  in two ways.  First, it refers to an increase in the proportion of farm related work undertaken by women, including their responsibilities as smallholder cultivators or casual agricultural wage workers.  Second, feminisation of agriculture can also imply an understanding of women’s control, ownership, and participation in agricultural resources and social processes. This includes women’s ownership of farmland, land rights, and decision-making powers. Factors such as declining production and productivity, increasing cost of inputs, higher risks of crop damage due to climate change and the growing aspirations of youth in rural areas have fueled male migration out of rural areas. As a result, women who are left behind take on farm work. Gender disparity in land ownership The Agriculture Census of 2015-16 reported that while 73% of rural women workers are engaged in agriculture, only about 11.72% of the total operated area in the country is managed by female operational holders. Additionally, women’s landholdings are predominantly small and marginal. In India, women can acquire land through inheritance, gift, purchase, or government transfers. However, these systems are often skewed. For instance, women are more likely to be financially constrained than men to purchase land, making inheritance the major means of ownership. Yet, social biases make it difficult for women to inherit. Towards gender equity in agriculture Women’s participation in paid work should not be confused with their empowerment. Women often face a

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) TRUMP AND GREENLAND Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: US President-elect Donald Trump has once again expressed interest in buying Greenland, and Greenland has again stated it is not for sale. Background: – Greenland, though geographically part of North America, has been under Denmark’s control—located nearly 3,000 km (1,860 miles) away—for around 300 years. Why Greenland matters to US? Greenland’s strategic importance rose during the Cold War, and the US has an air base there, the Pituffik Space Base, earlier the Thule Air Base. From Greenland, the US can monitor and prevent any missile coming towards it from Russia, China, or even North Korea. Similarly, it can launch missiles and ships towards Asia or Europe more easily from Greenland. Second, Greenland is rich in rare earth minerals. At present, China is a major supplier of these minerals. Third, as global warming leads to melting of ice, new waterways can open in the Arctic region, and all major powers are keen to boost their presence here. The US would want to pre-empt a larger Russian or Chinese role in Greenland and its neighbourhood. US bought territories In 1803, the US bought more than 2 million sq km of land from France in what is known as the Louisiana Purchase. US paid $ 15 million for the deal. Another example is Alaska, which the Russian empire transferred to the US in 1867, for $7.2 million. In 1917, the US bought the Danish West Indies, a group of islands in the Caribbean, and called them the US Virgin Islands. About Greenland Greenland, the largest island on Earth, is situated in the Arctic and is the most sparsely populated territory in the world. It is home to approximately 56,000 residents, primarily indigenous Inuit people. Around 80% of Greenland is covered by ice, with most of its population concentrated along the south-western coast near the capital, Nuuk. As an autonomous territory of Denmark, Greenland hosts both Danish and U.S. military bases. Its economy relies heavily on fishing, while substantial subsidies from the Danish government contribute about 20% of its GDP. Source: Indian Express ALGAL BLOOM Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – ENVIRONMENT Context: A groundbreaking study, spearheaded by director of the Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS), identified nine key algal bloom hotspots along India’s east and west coasts. Background: – The research, done using cutting-edge satellite data and field reports, showed that factors driving these algal blooms range from nutrient flux during monsoons to coastal upwelling (cooler and nutrient-rich water rising to the ocean surface). Key takeaways India’s coastline, rich in biodiversity, is grappling with a growing phenomenon of algal blooms. These events, caused by a sudden surge in phytoplankton biomass, are becoming more frequent and intense owing to environmental and human factors. Causes of Algal Blooms Nutrient Pollution: Excessive nutrients, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus, from agricultural runoff, wastewater, and industrial discharges, fuel the growth of algae. This process is called eutrophication. Warm Water Temperatures: Algal blooms are more common in warm water, which is why they often occur in summer or in regions with higher temperatures. Stagnant Water: Slow-moving or stagnant water bodies, such as lakes or ponds, are more prone to algal blooms because nutrients accumulate and are not flushed out. Climate Change: Rising global temperatures and changes in precipitation patterns can exacerbate the conditions that lead to algal blooms. Human Activities: Urbanization, deforestation, and agricultural practices contribute to nutrient runoff, increasing the likelihood of blooms. Types of Algal Blooms Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs): These blooms produce toxins that can harm aquatic life, humans, and animals. Examples include cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) blooms, which produce toxins like microcystins and anatoxins. Non-Toxic Blooms: Some algal blooms are not harmful but can still disrupt ecosystems by depleting oxygen levels in the water when the algae die and decompose. Examples of Harmful Algal Blooms Red Tide: Caused by dinoflagellates (a type of algae) in marine environments, leading to fish kills and respiratory issues in humans. Common in coastal areas like the Gulf of Mexico. Cyanobacteria Blooms: Often occur in freshwater lakes and ponds, producing toxins that can harm humans and animals. Source: The Hindu ANNUAL STATUS OF EDUCATION REPORT (ASER) Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: The Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) 2024 was released, revealing improvements in basic reading and arithmetic among students of classes 3 and 5 in rural areas reverting back from the post-pandemic damage. Background: Unlike most other large-scale learning assessments, ASER is a household-based rather than school-based survey. This design enables all children to be included – those who have never been to school or have dropped out; those who are in government schools, private schools, religious or other types of schools; as well as those who are absent from school on the day of the assessment. Key takeaways The Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) is a nationwide household survey conducted by Pratham Foundation, an NGO, to assess the status of children’s enrollment and learning outcomes in rural India. The ‘basic’ ASER survey tracks enrollment for children aged 3-16 and assesses basic reading and arithmetic of children aged 5-16. It was conducted every year from 2005 to 2014 in almost all rural districts of India.  Beginning in 2016, an alternate-year model was introduced, where the ‘basic’ ASER survey is conducted in alternate years and in the gap years, a different lens is employed to examine different age groups and/or new aspects of children’s learning. Key findings from ASER 2024 Significant improvement in learning levels: The proportion of Class III students in government schools who can read a Class II textbook rose to 23.4 per cent in 2024, up from 16.3 per cent in 2022. Basic arithmetic levels among Class III students improved to 33.7 per cent in 2024, from 28.1 per cent in 2018, across both government and private schools. Enrolment trends: Government school enrolment, which surged during the pandemic, is now returning to pre-pandemic levels. It rose to 72.9 per cent in 2022, from 65.6

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) BENNU SAMPLE UNLOCKS SECRETS OF LIFE’S ORIGINS Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: Studies of rock and dust from asteroid Bennu delivered to Earth by NASA’s OSIRIS-REx spacecraft have revealed molecules that, on our planet, are key to life, as well as a history of saltwater that could have served as the “broth” for these compounds to interact and combine. Background: – The findings do not show evidence for life itself, but they do suggest the conditions necessary for the emergence of life were widespread across the early solar system, increasing the odds life could have formed on other planets and moons. Asteroids like Bennu are remnants from the formation of the solar system, offering a snapshot of conditions that existed more than 4.5 billion years ago. Key takeaways Scientists have revealed that rocks from Bennu contain key components of life: Amino acids, nucleobases and traces of ancient saltwater — the essential ingredients for biological processes. Among the most striking discoveries in the Bennu samples are 14 of the 20 amino acids that life on Earth uses to build proteins, as well as all five nucleobases needed for genetic material like DNA and RNA.  However, its amino acids show something unusual. Life on Earth mostly uses ‘left-handed’ amino acids, but Bennu has nearly equal amounts of both left- and right-handed types. The presence of ammonia and formaldehyde — compounds that can react to form more complex molecules — further strengthens the case for asteroids as potential incubators for prebiotic chemistry. Beyond the molecular building blocks, Bennu’s samples also contain traces of water in the form of mineral salts. Scientists detected 11 different evaporite minerals. These minerals suggest that Bennu once harboured briny water that evaporated over thousands, if not millions, of years. Similar salty water reservoirs have been detected elsewhere in the solar system, such as beneath the icy crust of Saturn’s moon Enceladus and on the dwarf planet Ceres. The presence of these minerals on Bennu further supports the idea that watery environments, which could facilitate chemical reactions leading to life, were once widespread. Origins, Spectral Interpretation, Resource Identification, and Security–Regolith Explorer (OSIRIS-REx) The Origins, Spectral Interpretation, Resource Identification, and Security–Regolith Explorer (OSIRIS-REx) is a NASA mission designed to study and return samples from the near-Earth asteroid 101955 Bennu. Key Milestones: Arrival at Bennu: OSIRIS-REx reached Bennu on December 3, 2018, initiating detailed mapping and analysis of the asteroid’s surface.  Sample Collection: On October 20, 2020, the spacecraft successfully collected surface material from Bennu using the Touch-And-Go Sample Acquisition Mechanism (TAGSAM).  Return to Earth: The sample capsule re-entered Earth’s atmosphere and landed in Utah on September 24, 2023, marking the United States’ first successful asteroid sample return mission. Following the successful delivery of Bennu’s samples, the spacecraft was renamed OSIRIS-APEX (Apophis Explorer). It is now tasked with a new mission to study the asteroid 99942 Apophis during its close approach to Earth in 2029. Source: Down To Earth HIMACHAL LAUNCHES PROJECT FOR CANNABIS FARMING Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: In the wake of popular demand for cultivation of cannabis in the Himalayan state, Chief Minister Sukhvinder Singh Sukhu-led Himachal Pradesh government approved a pilot project for cannabis or hemp cultivation.  Background: – Cannabis is a naturally occurring weed found throughout Himachal Pradesh, yet its cultivation had been banned under the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (NDPS) Act, 1985. With this decision, Himachal Pradesh becomes one of the states, along with Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, and Manipur, to grant controlled permission for the cultivation of cannabis for medical and industrial purposes. Key takeaways What does the law say about cannabis cultivation? Cannabis cultivation is largely prohibited in India due to its psychoactive properties.  Section 2 of the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (NDPS) Act, 1985, prohibits the production and sale of cannabis resin and flowers. It defines charas as the separated resin, in any form (crude or purified), obtained from the cannabis plant. It also includes concentrated preparations such as hashish oil or liquid hashish. However, it provides exceptions for cannabis cultivation and use for industrial and medicinal purposes under government regulation.  Section 10 of the Act allows state governments to regulate, permit, or prohibit cannabis cultivation for medicinal and scientific purposes. Additionally, Section 14 grants the Central government the power to authorise and regulate cannabis cultivation for research or other approved purposes. What is controlled cannabis cultivation? It is the regulated cultivation of specific cannabis varieties having minimal intoxicating properties, along with strict monitoring to prevent misuse. Such varieties are commonly known as hemp. The tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) cannabinoid content (a kind of chemical that has an intoxicating effect) in controlled cannabis should be less than or equal to 0.3 per cent. Under controlled cannabis cultivation, authorities focus on its non-narcotic applications, particularly in the pharmaceutical and industrial sectors.  Hemp’s stalks, leaves, and seeds can also be converted into textile, paper, food, cosmetics, biofuel and more. Additionally, cannabidiol (CBD) compounds in the plant are effective in treating chronic pain. Before the tightening of restrictions in 2000, cannabis farming was a common practice in Himachal. Despite the ban, illegal cultivation continues in several districts. Countries like Canada, the United States, Japan, France, Italy, Hungary, China, Denmark, and Australia are leaders in cannabis farming and its processing. Source: Indian Express KARA SEA Syllabus: Prelims – GEOGRAPHY Context: Amid a rapid expansion of Russian activity in the Arctic region, a nuclear-powered icebreaker suffered damage after colliding with a cargo vessel in the Kara Sea. Background: During the winter, nuclear icebreakers frequently accompany oil tankers and LNG carriers across the waters of the Arctic. Key takeaways The Kara Sea is a marginal sea of the Arctic Ocean, located to the north of Siberia, Russia. Location: The Kara Sea is bordered by the Novaya Zemlya archipelago to the west, the Severnaya Zemlya archipelago to the east, and the Franz Josef Land to the northwest. Climate Ice Cover: The Kara

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) ECONOMIC SURVEY FOR 2024-25 Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – ECONOMY Context: The Economic Survey for 2024-25 was tabled by Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman in Parliament on Friday.  Background: – The Survey is a report of the state of the Indian economy in the financial year that is coming to a close. It is prepared by the Department of Economic Affairs in the Union Finance Ministry, under the guidance of the Chief Economic Advisor (CEA). Key takeaways from Economic Survey Real Gross Domestic Product, which maps economic activity from the demand side of the economy, in the current financial year (FY25) is pegged at 6.4%; in the coming year (FY26), the Survey expects it to lie between 6.3% and 6.8%. The goal of a ‘Viksit Bharat’ in the 100th year of Independence, the Survey’s authors emphasised, will require about 8% growth for at least a decade — with the investment rate rising from the current rate of 31% of GDP to 35% of GDP. The survey noted that while the labour share of GVA (gross value added) shows a slight uptick, the disproportionate rise in corporate profits — predominantly among large firms — raises concern about income inequality. A higher profit share and stagnant wage growth risk are slowing the economy by curbing demand. The Economic Survey warns that excessive financialisation, driven by rising household savings in the stock market and increased retail investor participation, could harm the economy, especially in a low-middle-income country like India.  It highlights the risk of financial markets dominating policy decisions, making economic growth overly dependent on asset price inflation and leverage, which could widen inequality and unduly influence regulatory policies. India’s equity market has rapidly grown particularly after the pandemic, but its debt market remains undercapitalised, according to the Economic Survey. Corporate bond issuances in India for the period April to December 2024 rose to 7.3 lakh crore rupees. Still, the size of India’s corporate bond market stands at just 18% of the country’s total GDP as against 80% in Korea and 36% in China, the Survey noted. A majority of these funds were gathered by firms through private placements, thus deterring the participation of retail investors. India will need to focus on indigenisation of technology and raw materials as an “urgent task” to achieve the transition to electric mobility, even as the global automobile industry looks to reduce its dependence on China, the Economic Survey said. Pointing towards a decrease in regular jobs, the Survey found that the proportion of self-employed workers in the workforce has risen from 52.2% in 2017-18 to 58.4% in 2023-24. This shift reflects growing entrepreneurial activity and a preference for flexible work arrangements, the Survey claimed. It added that the agriculture sector still remains dominant in employment, with its share rising from 44.1% in 2017-18 to 46.1% in 2023-24. The share of workers (male and female) in regular or salaried jobs decreased from 22.8% to 21.7% during the same period. The decline in casual workers, from 24.9% to 19.8%, also indicates a shift toward more structured forms of self-employment. Micro, Small and Medium-scale Enterprises (MSMEs) that employ 23.24 crore people in the country continue to face challenges in the regulatory environment, the Survey noted. Regulatory compliance burden holds back formalisation and labour productivity, limits employment growth, chokes innovation and depresses growth, it said. There is an observed tendency for MSMEs in India to remain small. So, they lose access to capital, talent, and technology infusion and often operate outside the formal supply chains. This creates a parallel, informal economy, the Survey noted. The logic for staying small often is to remain under the regulatory radar and steer clear of the rules and labour and safety laws. Overexposure to social media, lack of exercise, not spending enough time with one’s family and overwork (hours exceeding 55-60 per week) have all worsened mental well-being among Indians, said the Economic Survey 2024-25. Establishing a link between good mental health and clean eating habits, the Survey noted that individuals who rarely consume ultra-processed or packaged junk food have better mental well-being than those who regularly do so. Source: The Hindu MURDER OF MAHATMA GANDHI Syllabus: Prelims – HISTORY Context: On January 30, 1948, at exactly 5.17 pm, Nathuram Godse fired three shots at Mahatma Gandhi from his Beretta M1934. The Mahatma died on the spot. Background: – During his trial, Godse tried to take sole responsibility for the crime. But his arguments were rejected. Key takeaways A Bench of the Punjab High Court in Shimla in 1949 upheld the convictions and sentences of five people for the larger conspiracy: Godse, his younger brother Gopal, Narayan Apte, Vishnu Karkare, and Madanlal Pahwa. Apart from these five convicts, the other accused were Savarkar, Shankar Kistayya, and Dattatraya Parchure. Digambar Badge confessed to his role in the conspiracy and became an approver in return for a pardon. The conspiracy Godse and Apte conceived of the plan to kill Gandhi in December 1947. The duo left Poona for Bombay on January 13. The same day, Badge, accompanied by his servant, Shankar Kistayya, also left for Bombay with a bag containing two gun-cotton slabs and four hand-grenades. Godse, Apte, and Badge were joined in Bombay by Pahwa and Karkare at the Hindu Mahasabha office, where the plan was chalked out. After some money was raised for the project — ostensibly to help Hindus in Hyderabad — Godse and Apte travelled to Delhi by plane. They stayed at the Marina hotel till January 20. The rest of the conspirators too arrived in Delhi by January 19. In the morning of January 20, Apte, Karkare, Badge and Shankar reconnoitered Birla House, where Gandhi was staying. The first attempt to kill Gandhi was made on January 20. The plan was to throw a grenade to disperse the crowd — and then throw another at Gandhi. However, Badge lost his courage and the second grenade was never thrown. Pahwa was arrested and interrogated by the police. The plan had failed. Subsequently, Godse decided to

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) MAKHANA Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: Union Finance Minister, while presenting the Union Budget, said that a “Makhana Board” will be set up in Bihar to boost the cultivation and marketing of fox nuts. Background: – Bihar accounts for approximately 90% of India’s makhana production. This production is primarily concentrated in northern and eastern Bihar. Key takeaways Makhana (fox nut), is the dried edible seed of the prickly water lily or gorgon plant (Euryale ferox). This plant is found in freshwater ponds throughout South and East Asia. It is recognized for its violet and white flowers, as well as its large, round, and prickly leaves, which can often exceed a meter in diameter. The edible part of the Makhana plant consists of small, round seeds that have an outer layer ranging from black to brown. This has led to it being referred to as the ‘Black Diamond.’ After processing, these seeds are often consumed as popped snacks known as ‘lava.’ Makhana is highly nutritious and provides an excellent source of carbohydrates, protein, and minerals. Due to its versatile applications in medicine, healthcare, and nutrition, this plant can be consumed in various forms. In 2022, ‘Mithila Makhana’ was conferred a Geographical Indication tag. In addition to Bihar, makhana is cultivated in smaller quantities in the states of Assam, Manipur, West Bengal, Tripura, and Odisha, as well as in neighboring countries like Nepal, Bangladesh, China, Japan, and Korea. Climatic Conditions for Cultivation Makhana (Gorgon Nut or Foxnut) is an aquatic crop and is mainly grown in tropical and subtropical regions.  It is traditionally cultivated in stagnant water bodies such as ponds, land depressions, lakes, ditches, or wetlands with shallow water depths of up to 4-6 feet. For optimal growth and development, Makhana requires a temperature range of 20-35°C, relative humidity of 50-90%, and annual rainfall between 100-250 cm. Source: Indian Express DOMESTIC WORKERS Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: Domestic workers and those who work towards the well-being of this vulnerable segment of the workforce have found hope with the Supreme Court’s recent direction to the Union government to look into a law to regulate the sector. Background: – SC ordered the government to form an inter-ministerial committee to consider the desirability of recommending a legal framework for the benefit, protection and regulation of the rights of domestic workers. India is yet to ratify the ILO Convention 189 on domestic workers. Key takeaways The court noted that the poor conditions of domestic workers are largely due to the lack of appropriate regulations. The court highlighted the exclusion of these workers from many labour legislation, including the Minimum Wages Act and the Equal Remuneration Act.  While acknowledging existing state-specific regulations, SC noted the importance of having national-level legislation that is binding on all states. Domestic work is a feminised occupation, with migrants from marginalised communities constituting a considerable proportion.  Low wages, unfair working conditions, the obligation to attend to additional tasks, increased workload without additional compensation are the key features that mark the sector.  Job insecurity and complete absence of social security measures force the workers to accept vulnerable conditions of work. Why domestic workers needs separate legislation The Code on Wages (2019), unlike the Minimum Wages Act, by definition covers the sector. But the intricacies, complexities and hierarchies of the occupation which intersects with gender, caste, and class makes the sector distinct.  The different systems of employment of workers — part-time/full-time, live in/live out — have contributed to the complexity of the sector.  The asymmetric relationship between employer and employee, where the workplace is the former’s private space and the latter’s workplace is an issue that makes the sector qualitatively different.  Further, the work undertaken — mundane cleaning tasks and cooking or care work — are all socially devalued. Challenges and way forward The definition of what constitutes domestic work needs to be carefully worked out.  One of the prerequisites for enforcement of any labour regulation is proof of employment. Most employers do not view themselves as “employers” or their homes as “workplaces”. The recent attempts in the direction of the states of Kerala and Delhi could be looked at for learning. Source: Indian Express ELS COTTON Syllabus: Prelims – CURRENT EVENT Context: Union Finance Minister, while presenting the Union Budget, announced a five-year mission to “facilitate significant improvements in productivity and sustainability of cotton farming, and promote extra-long staple (ELS) cotton varieties”. Background: Currently, India’s per acre yields are significantly lower than others. Brazil boasts an average yield of 20 quintals per acre, while China boasts a yield of 15 quintals.  Better seeds, timely agronomic advice, and adoption of technology would help India improve in this regard, and grow premium varieties such as ELS cotton. Key takeaways What is Extra-long Staple cotton? Cotton is classified, based on the length of its fibres, as long, medium, or short staple.  Gossypium hirsutum, which constitutes roughly 96% of the cotton grown in India, falls in the medium staple category, with fibre lengths ranging from 25 to 28.6 mm. On the other hand, ELS varieties boast fibre lengths of 30 mm and above. Most ELS cotton comes from the species Gossypium barbadense, commonly known as Egyptian or Pima cotton. ELS cotton today is mainly grown in China, Egypt, Australia, and Peru. In India, some ELS cotton is grown along rain fed parts of Maharashtra and around Coimbatore in Tamil Nadu. Fabric produced using ELS cotton is of the highest quality. Brands producing top-of-the-line fabrics mix a small quantity of ELS with medium staple cotton to improve quality. Why is ELS cotton not grown in India? For the 2024-25 season, the Minimum Support Price (MSP) of medium staple cotton was Rs 7,121 (per quintal) while that of long staple cotton was Rs 7,521. Nonetheless, farmers in India have thus far been reluctant to adopt ELS cotton. This is mainly due to lower than average per acre yields. While the medium staple variety yields between 10 and 12 quintals per acre, ELS cotton has a yield of only 7-8 quintals. Additionally, farmers