Current Affairs

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) TASHKENT DECLARATION Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – HISTORY Context: Lal Bahadur Shastri, India’s second Prime Minister, died in Tashkent, Uzbekistan, on January 11, 1966 after he signed the Tashkent Declaration, ending the 1965 India-Pakistan War. Background: – The official cause of death was a heart attack. However, the circumstances surrounding his death remain a mystery, with persistent rumors of poisoning. Key takeaways The 1965 war started when the Pakistan Army began to wage an undeclared war in Jammu and Kashmir in August of that year, believing India would not be able to fight back after its 1962 loss to China. On September 1, Pakistan launched an attack in the Akhnoor sector near Jammu. In retaliation, the Indian Army launched an attack across the International Border in Punjab after Lal Bahadur Shastri gave a go-ahead for it. The Tashkent Declaration is the peace agreement signed between India and Pakistan on January 10, 1966, marking the end of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965. Mediation: The Tashkent Declaration was facilitated by the Soviet Union, with Premier Alexei Kosygin acting as the mediator. The summit was held in Tashkent, then part of the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic, from January 4 to January 10, 1966. The declaration was signed by Lal Bahadur Shastri (Prime Minister of India) and Ayub Khan (President of Pakistan). Provisions of the Declaration Restoration of Peace: Both nations agreed to restore pre-war positions by withdrawing troops to positions held before 5 August 1965. Non-Interference: Agreed not to interfere in each other’s internal affairs. Improved Relations: Commitments were made to restore economic and diplomatic relations, including communications, trade, and cultural exchanges. Respect for Sovereignty: Pledged to work towards maintaining international peace and respecting each other’s territorial integrity. Resolution of Disputes: Both sides agreed to resolve disputes through peaceful means, avoiding the use of force. Repatriation of Prisoners of War: Ensured the humane treatment and repatriation of all prisoners of war. Source: Indian Express Z-MORH TUNNEL Syllabus: Prelims – CURRENT EVENT Context: Prime Minister Narendra Modi is set to visit Sonamarg on Monday to inaugurate the Z-Morh Tunnel. Background: – The Z-Morh will lead towards the Zojila tunnel, which is being constructed nearby. The Zojila, Asia’s longest tunnel, will cut through the Himalayan range at Zojila Pass to reach the Kargil district in Ladakh. Key takeaways The Z-Morh Tunnel is a significant infrastructure project in Jammu and Kashmir, India, aimed at enhancing connectivity between the Kashmir Valley and the strategically important region of Ladakh. Length: The main tunnel is approximately 6.4 kilometers long. Location: The tunnel connects Gagangir and Sonamarg in the Ganderbal district along the Srinagar-Leh highway. It is situated at an altitude of around 8,652 feet (2,637 meters). Structure: The project also includes an escape tunnel for emergencies and approach roads, bringing the total project length to about 12 kilometers. Strategic and Economic Importance All-weather Access: The tunnel provides year-round connectivity to Sonamarg, a popular tourist destination, which was previously cut off during winter months due to heavy snowfall and avalanches. Military Logistics: Z-Morh Tunnel plays a crucial role in enhancing strategic military logistics, ensuring uninterrupted access to Ladakh, an area of significant strategic importance for India’s defense. Future Prospects The Z-Morh Tunnel is a crucial part of the broader Zojila Tunnel project, which aims to establish uninterrupted connectivity between Srinagar and Ladakh.  While the Z-Morh Tunnel connects Sonamarg to the rest of Kashmir year-round, the Zojila Tunnel—under construction at an altitude of approximately 12,000 feet—will connect Sonamarg with Drass in Ladakh.  The Zojila Tunnel, which is expected to be completed by December 2026, will provide all-weather access to Ladakh’s strategic border regions, including Kargil and Leh. Source: Indian Express GADDI DOG Syllabus: Prelims – CURRENT EVENT Context: The Indian Council of Agricultural Research- National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources (ICAR-NBAGR) has recognised the Gaddi, an indigenous dog breed from the Himalayas. Background: The Gaddi will be joining the Rajapalayam, Chippiparai and Mudhol breeds that have already been recognised by the ICAR-NBAGR. The move by the government body is expected to help in conserving the Gaddi, a species that is not recognised by any kennel club at the moment. Key takeaways The Gaddi Dog, also known as the Gaddi Kutta or Himalayan Sheepdog, is a native breed from the Himalayan regions of India, particularly in Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, and Uttarakhand. The breed is named after the Gaddi shepherds of Himachal Pradesh and has been used by them to guard their flocks of sheep and goats from predators. Its ability to fight and fend off carnivores such as the Snow Leopard has also earned it the nickname of the ‘Indian Panther Hound’ or ‘Indian leopard Hound’. Size: Gaddi Dogs are medium to large-sized dogs, typically standing around 28 inches tall and weighing about 40 kg. Coat: They have a thick, weather-resistant double coat, predominantly black with some white markings on their feet, chest, and neck. This coat is suited for the harsh, cold environments of the Himalayas. Source: Down To Earth POLAR VORTEX Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – ENVIRONMENT Context: At least five people have died in the United States after a winter storm hit a large swathe of the country over the weekend. The extreme weather has been caused by the expansion of the polar vortex southwards. Background: – Some 60 million people are under weather alerts across 30 states. Seven of them have declared emergencies. The National Weather Service has warned that severe thunderstorms, with the possibility of tornadoes and hail, would also take place in some regions over the next few days. Key takeaways The polar vortex is a large area of low-pressure and cold air that swirls like a wheel around both of the Earth’s polar regions. There are two types of polar vortex: tropospheric and stratospheric. The tropospheric polar vortex occurs at the lowest layer of the atmosphere — it extends from the surface up to about 10 km to 15 km — where most weather phenomena occur. The stratospheric polar vortex occurs at

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) APPOINTMENT OF CHIEF ELECTION COMMISSIONER Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – POLITY Context: Traditionally, the senior-most Election Commissioner has been appointed as the next Chief Election Commissioner (CEC). However, for the first time, the Chief Election Commissioner and Other Election Commissioners (Appointment, Conditions of Service, and Term of Office) Act, 2023, allows for a wider range of candidates to be considered for the role. Background: – This comes against the backdrop of the EC facing the heat from the Opposition parties over a range of issues. Key takeaways As per Section 5 of the Chief Election Commissioner And Other Election Commissioners (Appointment, Conditions of Service And Term of Office) Act, 2023, the candidates for the post would be current or former Secretary-level officers. According to Sections 6 and 7 of the Act, the Ministry of Law will set up a Search Committee chaired by the Law Minister to prepare a panel of five names for the Selection Committee. Section 6 states, “A Search Committee headed by the Minister of Law and Justice and comprising two other members not below the rank of Secretary to the Government of India, shall prepare a panel of five persons for consideration of the Selection Committee, for appointment as the Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners.” The Selection Committee, comprising the Prime Minister, a Cabinet minister and the Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha, can select from this panel or consider “any other person” from outside. This Act was brought after an intervention from the Supreme Court, following a clutch of petitions filed challenging the Centre’s exclusive powers in picking the Election Commissioners. The court had noted that the Constitution’s founders never intended to give the Executive exclusive appointment powers. In March 2023, the Court ruled that the appointment of the CEC and ECs would be done by the President on the advice of a committee comprising the Prime Minister, the Leader of the Opposition and the Chief Justice of India. This arrangement was to prevail until the Parliament enacted a law for the appointments. The Union government eventually brought a law in December 2023, which made it mandatory to appoint the CEC and ECs by way of a shortlist panel and a selection committee. However, the Chief Justice of India was dropped as a member of the Selection Committee. Source: Indian Express COMPTROLLER AND AUDITOR GENERAL OF INDIA (CAG) Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – POLITY Context: The Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG) is again in the spotlight amid a political row triggered by its report on the cost of renovation at the office and residence of former Delhi Chief Minister Arvind Kejriwal. Background: – The CAG has submitted a dozen audit reports to the Lieutenant Governor of Delhi in recent years. But the AAP government has not laid them in the Assembly, triggering a backlash from the BJP whose MLAs have approached the High Court. Key takeaways Articles 148 to 151 in part 5 of the Constitution are on the appointment, duties, and audit reports of the Comptroller and Auditor-General , who is appointed by the President. The Comptroller and Auditor General’s (Duties, Powers and Conditions of Service) Act, 1971, determines the CAG’s service conditions and prescribes the duties and powers of their office. The CAG conducts three kinds of audits: compliance audit, or an assessment of whether the provisions of the applicable laws, rules, and regulations, and various orders and instructions issued by the competent authority are being followed; performance audit, or an assessment of the implementation of schemes or programmes; and financial audit, or certification of government’s accounts and the accounts of Public Sector Undertakings. How does the CAG select audit subjects? Before finalising a subject, it follows a risk assessment procedure that accounts for various factors such as the size of the outlay of a project, what is being written in newspapers about the issue, and its own inspection reports over the years. It also consults the guidelines laid down by the International Organization of Supreme Audit Institutions, that spell out what is of relevance to citizens. Based on these criteria, the CAG’s office approves an annual audit plan that is implemented in the field offices. There is also an Audit Advisory Board that meets twice a year and suggests subjects and methodologies for audit. The government or courts can also recommend CAG audits. What happens after the CAG selects a subject? Once a subject is chosen, the CAG holds an entry conference with the department or organisation that is being audited. At this conference, CAG officials inform the body concerned about matters such as their plans for the audit, the methodology to be followed, and a tentative timeline. After the audit, the officials from the auditor general’s office hold an exit conference to share their findings with the department or organisation and seek their reply. The entry and exit conferences are held for every performance and compliance audit. The CAG shares a draft report with the department audited. Normally, the department has to respond within six weeks. Thereafter, the CAG signs the report and sends it to the government (the President or the Governor). Then the government lays the report before the legislature. Tabling of a CAG report Article 151 provides for laying CAG reports in Parliament or state legislatures but no time limit is specified. This is why governments often do not lay CAG audit reports on time. A CAG report becomes public only after it is laid in the House. The Public Accounts Committee examines the selected reports and seeks a response from the government. The PAC also asks the government to take action on the recommendations and submit an Action Taken Report. Do CAG reports have any impact ? The audit reports highlight losses to the exchequer and procedural losses and also provide recommendations that play a key role in changing rules and procedures. For instance, the Telangana government made changes in the Engineering Procurement Contract mode a few years ago after a CAG audit.  Among

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) ELECTORAL ROLLS Syllabus: Mains – GS 2 Context: The Aam Aadmi Party (AAP) and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) have accused each other of manipulating electoral rolls before the Delhi elections. This has reignited the debate about linking voter IDs/Election Photo Identity Card (EPIC) with respective Aadhaar numbers. Background: – EPIC linkage with the respective Aadhaar number would definitely help in weeding out duplicate entries; but there are concerns. Key takeaways The Election Commission (EC) launched the National Electoral Rolls Purification and Authentication Program (NERPAP) to address the issue of duplicate entries in the electoral roll.  In order to achieve this, the EC began authenticating EPIC data by linking it with the Aadhaar. However, the Supreme Court in an interim order, in August 2015, held that the mandatory use of Aadhaar should only be for welfare schemes and PAN linking. Following this, the NERPAP was discontinued. After the Supreme Court’s final order in Puttaswamy in September 2018, that upheld the constitutional validity of the Aadhaar Act, the EC sought amendments to the Representation of the People Act, 1950 (RP Act, 1950).  The Parliament amended the RP Act, 1950 and The Registration of Electors Rules, 1960 in December 2021 to enable the linking of EPIC with Aadhaar. However, in order to keep these amendments voluntary in nature, the word ‘may’ have been used in the amendments.  Further, the amendment also specifies that no application for inclusion in the electoral roll shall be denied and no entries shall be deleted due to the inability to furnish or intimate the Aadhaar number due to ‘sufficient cause.’ Such individuals may furnish alternate documents like PAN card, Driving Licence, Passport, Bank passbook etc. Pros and cons of linking Aadhar Firstly, the errors in the Aadhaar database, may result in wrongful rejection or deletion of entries from the electoral roll.  Secondly, Aadhaar is only a proof of residence and not a proof of citizenship. Thus, it may not help in removing voters who are not citizens from the electoral roll. Finally, while the linkage is to happen at the back end and a mere mention of the Aadhaar number on the EPIC/electoral roll may not by itself be a violation of right to privacy, it may still result in misuse as the electoral rolls are widely circulated. Way forward There must be wide publicity about the benefits of linking EPIC and Aadhaar to clean up the electoral roll of duplicate entries, which in turn strengthens the electoral process.  Any misplaced concern amongst voters about the secrecy of their vote being compromised because of this linking should be assuaged. Source: The Hindu GENOME INDIA PROJECT Syllabus: Prelims – SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: After completing India’s baseline map by sequencing 10,000 genomes, the Genome India project is set to move into its second phase during which samples of individuals with specific diseases would also be sequenced. Background: – Launched in 2020, 10,000 sequences from healthy individuals were collected in the first phase of the project. Key takeaways Genome India is a visionary national project funded by the Department of Biotechnology, Government of India. It is aimed at decoding the genetic blueprint of the diverse Indian population. More than 20 prominent research institutions across India are involved, including the Indian Institute of Science (IISc), CSIR-Center for Cellular and Molecular Biology, and the National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences. Goals and impact of genome India Develop a reference set of genetic variations for Indians by carrying out whole genome sequencing of 10000 samples from 99 communities. Develop a biobank of 20000 blood samples for future genome analyses. Make available genomic data for public access (digital public goods) for research purposes through IBDC (Indian Biological Data Center). Design genome-wide and disease-specific genetic chips for low-cost diagnostics and research. First big step towards developing genome-based precision medicine in India. An inspiration for India’s young minds and young researchers to explore the exciting area of genomics research and innovation for the health of Indian population. 2nd Phase of Genome India The second phase seeks to expand the database to one million sequences, including genetic information of people with specific diseases. A comparison of the healthy and diseased genome can help researchers identify targets for developing treatments and diagnostic tests. It is a step towards personalised treatment and medicine. The diseases that would most likely be included in the list would be different types of cancers, chronic conditions such as diabetes, and various neurological or neurodegenerative diseases.  Rare diseases that are found in Indian populations are also likely to be included in the list of diseases to be studied for the next phase of Genome India project. Source: Indian Express GENERATION BETA Syllabus: Prelims – CURRENT EVENT Context: The year 2025 marks a generational shift: children born between January 1, 2025, and December 31, 2039, will comprise Generation Beta.  Background: This generation succeeds Generation Alpha, also dubbed the iPad Generation, with its members born between 2010 and 2024. Key takeaways How are different generations named? Before embracing the Greek alphabet, generations were grouped in periods of 15-20 years and named after defining societal events.  Baby boomers were named after the baby boom post-World War II, Generation X which succeeded them were named for their anti-establishmentarian mindset, and millennials for those who became adults at the turn of the millennium. Baby Boomers (1946 – 1964) This generation is usually associated with idealism and a mistrust of authority. In India, this is a generation that largely grew up in independent India and saw the country embrace a socialist economic model. The country fought wars and witnessed the nationalisation. This generation grew up watching the impact of the Green Revolution and a decade later, the Emergency. Gen X (1964 – 1979) This generation in the US internalised the idea that many of the long-standing institutions could be challenged, with the X representing a mistrust of the establishment, be it marriage or corporate employment. Known as the “sandwich generation,” balancing care for both parents and children.

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) INDIA BANGLADESH BORDER Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: The Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) summoned the Head of Mission at the High Commission of Bangladesh to convey that fencing works on the India-Bangladesh border was being carried out in accordance with “all protocols and agreements”. Background: – The conversation took place a day after Bangladesh Foreign Secretary expressed deep concern to Indian High Commissioner in Dhaka about the construction works by the Border Security Force (BSF) along the border. Key takeaways The India-Bangladesh border is approximately 4,096.7 km, making it the longest international border that India shares with any country. States Sharing the Border: West Bengal (2,216.7 km), Assam (263 km), Meghalaya (443 km), Tripura (856 km), Mizoram (318 km) Geography: The border passes through plains, rivers, hills, and densely populated areas. Major rivers like the Ganga, Brahmaputra flow across this region. The border was drawn during the partition of India, based on the Radcliffe Line, dividing Bengal into West Bengal (India) and East Bengal (later East Pakistan, now Bangladesh). The current issue Border Guards Bangladesh (BGB) attempted to obstruct the construction of a barbed wire fence on the international border in West Bengal’s Malda and Cooch Bihar ditsrict. According to the 1975 Joint India-Bangladesh Guidelines for Border Authorities, no defence structure can be constructed within 150 yards from the zero line or the international boundary by either side. India does not consider wire fencing as a defense structure, but Bangladesh and Pakistan do. Bangladesh’s objections to single row fencing (SRF) are essentially two pronged: the first argument, which is most commonly cited, is the 1975 agreement on no fencing within 150 yards of the international border. The second argument is that fencing causes inconvenience to residents along the international border. Source: Indian Express MAKAR SANKRANTI Syllabus: Prelims – CURRENT EVENT Context: Makar Sankranti was celebrated on January 14. Background: – This festival marks the arrival of the harvest season and the end of winter. It is also associated with different traditions like flying kites and taking holy dip in rivers. Key takeaways When the Sun begins its northward journey after reaching its southernmost point, it is said to enter Uttarayan. Conversely, when the Sun started travelling southward from its northernmost position, it is said to enter Daksinayana. Considered one of the most ancient Hindu festivals, Uttarayan is celebrated in north India as Makar Sankranti, and is dedicated to the sun god.  In the states of Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and Rajasthan, Makar Sankranti is observed. In West Bengal and North-east region, Makar Sankranti is observed as Poush Sankranti. Tamil Nadu observes Pongal on this day, while Kerala observes this day as Makara Vilakku.  In Assam, Makar Sankranti is observed as Magh Bihu. In Punjab, Maghi is celebrated on this day. Source: Indian Express NATIONAL LIVESTOCK MISSION (NLM) Syllabus: Prelims – CURRENT EVENT Context: The Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying, under the Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry & Dairying, hosted an Entrepreneurship Development Conclave in Pune, Maharashtra, themed “Empowering Entrepreneurs: Transforming Livestock Economies.” Background: Government is implementing flagship schemes such as the Animal Husbandry Infrastructure Development Fund (AHIDF) and National Livestock Mission (NLM). By showcasing opportunities under NLM and AHIDF, the conclave aimed to drive inclusive growth and empower rural farmers and small enterprises. Key takeaways The National Livestock Mission (NLM), launched in 2014–15 by the Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying, Government of India, aims to ensure comprehensive development of the livestock sector, focusing on improving feed and fodder, breed development, and increasing per animal productivity. Objectives of NLM: Employment Generation: Through entrepreneurship development in small ruminant (sheep, goats), poultry, piggery, and fodder sectors. Increasing Productivity: Enhancement of per animal productivity through breed improvement. Production Increase: Upscaling the production of meat, eggs, goat milk, wool, and fodder. Fodder and Feed Availability: Strengthening the fodder seed supply chain and increasing the availability of certified fodder seeds. Fodder Processing Units: Encouraging the establishment of fodder processing units (e.g., hay bailing, silage making) to decrease the demand-supply gap. Risk Management: Promotion of livestock insurance and other risk management measures. Applied Research: Supporting research in prioritized areas like poultry, sheep, goat, feed, and fodder. Capacity Building: Strengthening the extension machinery to provide quality extension services to farmers and training livestock owners in skill-based practices. Sub-Missions under NLM: Breed Development of Livestock & Poultry: Support entrepreneurship and breed improvement in poultry, sheep, goat, and piggery sectors. Activities include establishing breed development farms and genetic improvement programs.  Feed and Fodder Development: Enhance the availability of quality fodder seeds and promote entrepreneurial activities in feed production. Focus on establishing fodder block units, hay bailing, and silage making units.  Innovation and Extension: Encourage research in livestock sectors, extension activities, livestock insurance, and innovative practices. Implementation and Funding: NLM is implemented through both Central Sector (CS) and Centrally Sponsored Schemes (CSS), with financial assistance provided to individuals, Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs), Self-Help Groups (SHGs), and State Governments. Source: PIB NANKAI TROUGH Syllabus: Prelims – GEOGRAPHY Context: Southern Japan was hit by a strong earthquake on Monday.  Background: – The Nankai Trough produces massive earthquakes about every 100-150 years. Strong quakes nearby are seen as a potential indication that a megaquake could be more likely. Key takeaways The Nankai Trough is an undersea subduction zone located off coast of Japan. It extends approximately 900 kilometers (559 miles), running parallel to Honshu, Japan’s main island. Nankai Trough is where the Philippine Sea Plate is slipping under the Eurasia Plate at the bottom of the sea off the southwest coast of Japan. The accumulating tectonic strains could result in earthquakes. The Nankai Trough is known for generating megathrust earthquakes, some of the most powerful types of quakes. The most recent notable event was in 1946, with a magnitude 8.0 earthquake and subsequent tsunami. It is part of the larger Pacific “Ring of Fire.” Additional Information The magnitude of an earthquake is related to the length of the fault on which it occurs, according to

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) INDIAN ARMY DAY 2025 Syllabus: Prelims – CURRENT EVENT Context: Indian Army Day is observed every year on January 15. Background: – Army Day is celebrated to mark the occasion when General (later Field Marshal) K M Cariappa took over the command of the Indian Army from General Sir F R R Bucher, the last British Commander-in-Chief, in 1949 and became the first Indian Commander-in-Chief of Independent India. Key takeaways Pune is hosting the Army Day parade for the first time, marking a historical event.  This will be the third occasion on which a city other than New Delhi will host the Army Day Parade, keeping in line with the Union government’s decision to hold events of national importance outside the national capital. This is the second occasion when the Pune-headquartered Southern Command is hosting the event in its area of responsibility after Bengaluru, where it was held in 2023. In addition to being home to the strategically significant Southern Command, Pune is also home to some major defence establishments. The over-200-year-old Bombay Engineer Group and Centre, which will coincidently host the Army Day Parade, stands as a major centre of military engineering. Premier defence training establishments like the National Defence Academy, Armed Forces Medical College, College of Military Engineering, Military Intelligence Training School and Depot, and INS Shivaji put Pune on the global map of military training. Additional Information – Year of Defence Reforms India has declared 2025 the year of defence reforms. The focus will be on rolling out integrated theatre commands to boost tri-services synergy and ensure simpler and time-sensitive military procurement, with a broader aim of transforming the military into a technologically advanced force. Source: Indian Express INTERNAL MIGRATION Syllabus: Prelims – CURRENT EVENT Context: According to the 2011 Census, 37% of India’s population comprises internal migrants, up from 31% in 2001. The Periodic Labour Force Survey 2020-21 estimated a migration rate of 28.9%. Recent report from Economic Advisory Council to the Prime Minister (EAC-PM) shows slowing domestic migration. Background: – Understanding India’s migration story requires a deeper engagement with data that captures its various dimensions. Key takeaways Rural-urban migration is the most dominant form of migration in India, often attributed to better employment opportunities, especially in the informal sector. At the same time, agricultural issues, poverty, unemployment, and environmental degradation in rural areas are also seen as drivers of rural-urban migration. Studies have found that in–migration in India is more prevalent in states with higher per capita Net State Domestic Product like Maharashtra, Karnataka, Gujarat, Haryana, and Punjab.  In contrast, states such as Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, Rajasthan, and Odisha send a large number of migrants to the economically advanced states.  Regional stories of migration Kerala has emerged as a “new Gulf of India” as internal migrants from the Northern, Eastern, and North-Eastern parts of the country come to the state for livelihood opportunities.  Interestingly, Kerala is also known for its high out-migration overseas. This outward migration is driven by the state’s high education and skill levels along with the reluctance of its youth to take up non-white collar jobs. The resulting labour gap in sectors like construction and blue-collar work is filled by in-migration from other states.  The example of Uttarakhand can also be noted to understand how migration patterns differ across regions. The 2011 Census data reveals a stark contrast in population growth between hill districts (0.7%) and plain districts (2.8%). A key reason behind this disparity can be attributed to the large-scale emigration from the hill districts, driven by dependence on the subsistence economy, lack of employment opportunities, and the impact of climate and natural disasters.  This has led to significant depopulation of villages and given rise to “ghost villages” –  villages that are not inhabited by a single person but still retain their land and houses. The paradox of internal migration For migrant-sending states, studies have also highlighted the role of remittances in improving the lives of those left behind.  It has been found that age has been a crucial determinant of both migration and remittance patterns. Around 25-60% of the total remittances in India are sent by individuals aged 15-45 years.  Furthermore, studies have also focussed on the experiences of left-behind women in migrant households and the emerging processes of “feminisation of agriculture” or “feminisation of labour”.  For migrant-receiving states, there is a need to understand how increasing in-migration places rising pressure on housing, water availability, sanitation, health, and education. The risks of urban poverty, the rise in urban slums, and the expansion of the urban informal economy need to be addressed more actively.  Why upward mobility remains elusive for migrant workers Studies have highlighted that caste and class hierarchies, along with landlessness and debt – factors that shape migrant’s political and socio-economic status in source areas – often accompany them to their destination areas. Therefore, upward mobility for migrants from marginalised groups becomes very difficult, with only a small fraction able to marginally improve their condition after settling in urban areas.  Migrant workers often become a “footloose” labour force, with little to no access to social protection mechanisms and social security benefits.  However, there are policies that aim to address the challenges faced by informal workers. These include the Unorganised Workers’ Social Security Act 2008, Maternity Benefits Act 1961 (Amendment 2017), Pradhan Mantri MUDRA Yojana, the Street Vendors (Protection of Livelihood and Regulations of Street Vending) Act, 2014, the Rajasthan Platform Based Gig Workers Act, and the Karnataka State Gig Workers Insurance Scheme.  Effective implementation of such policies can ensure that migrant-receiving states provide better opportunities and protection to their migrant informal workers.  Source: Indian Express RUPEE DEPRECIATION Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – ECONOMY Context: The rupee weakened to its all-time low on Tuesday, hitting a record low of 86.6475 before closing at 86.63 against the US dollar. Background: In the last three months, the Indian rupee has depreciated by around 3.2 percent against the US dollar. Key takeaways Rupee depreciation refers to a decline in the value of the Indian Rupee (₹) relative to foreign currencies, for example to the

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) BHARAT RANBHOOMI DARSHAN Syllabus: Prelims – CURRENT EVENT Context: In a historic move to showcase India’s military heritage, Defence Minister Rajnath Singh unveiled the Bharat Ranbhoomi Darshan on January 15, 2025, during the 77th Army Day celebrations in Pune. Background: – This initiative is a joint effort between the Ministry of Defence and the Ministry of Tourism to highlight India’s rich military heritage and honor the sacrifices made by the armed forces Key Aspects of Bharat Ranbhoomi Darshan: Historical Battlefield Sites: The initiative includes iconic war zones like Siachen (the world’s highest battlefield), Galwan (site of the 2020 India-China clash), and Longewala (highlighted in the 1971 India-Pakistan war), Kibithoo and Bum La Pass (locations in Arunachal Pradesh from the 1962 war with China) among others. Digital Tools: A dedicated app and website provide detailed insights into the historical significance of these sites, including virtual tours, historical narratives, and multimedia content. For those planning visits, the platform offers comprehensive travel information. Economic and Educational Benefits: By opening these regions to tourism, the initiative aims to boost local economies, provide educational opportunities, and inspire patriotism among visitors. The program aligns with the broader “Incredible India” campaign, merging tourism with educational experiences. Additional Information Most of these sites fall along India’s borders with China (Line of Actual Control) and Pakistan (Line of Control) that have had a history of wars after independence and other clashes in recent times. What is the Line of Actual Control? The LAC is the demarcation that separates Indian-controlled territory from Chinese-controlled territory. India considers the LAC to be 3,488 km long, while the Chinese consider it to be only around 2,000 km. It is divided into three sectors: the eastern sector which spans Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim, the middle sector in Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh, and the western sector in Ladakh. How is the LAC different from the Line of Control with Pakistan? The LoC emerged from the 1948 ceasefire line negotiated by the UN after the Kashmir War. It was designated as the LoC in 1972, following the Shimla Agreement between the two countries. It is delineated on a map signed by DGMOs of both armies and has the international sanctity of a legal agreement. The LAC, in contrast, is only a concept – it is not agreed upon by the two countries, neither delineated on a map or demarcated on the ground. Source: Indian Express EVOLUTION OF INDIAN AGRICULTURE Syllabus: Mains – GS 3  Context: As one of the oldest agrarian societies in the world, India’s farming practices have evolved over the years. However, agriculture today stands at a crossroads, with farmers grappling with challenges like climate change, shrinking arable land, depleting freshwater reserves, and rising input costs. Background: – While there has been a major shift in agriculture’s contribution to the Gross Value Added in the economy from 61.7% in 1950 to 16.3% in 2020, the proportion of the workforce engaged in agriculture remains high at 46.5% as of 2020 compared to 69.2% in 1950-51. From subsistence farming to market-oriented practices In subsistence farming, farmers usually raise crops or livestock to fulfil the needs of their families.  Subsistence agriculture can be broadly classified into two types – Primitive subsistence agriculture and Intensive subsistence agriculture.  Primitive subsistence agriculture or shifting cultivation involves clearing vegetation by fire and cultivating the land for 4-5 years before abandoning it. This practice is common in the northeastern states, where it is known as Jhuming, and Odisha and Telangana, where it is called Podu.  Intensive subsistence agriculture is prevalent in densely populated regions with monsoon climates. Subsistence farming is labour-intensive as it lacks mechanization due to the small size of holdings. Organic manure is commonly used and fertilizers and pesticides are rare, resulting in low productivity. In addition, there is a high dependence on the monsoon. Predominance of small and marginal land holdings and monsoon dependence According to the Agricultural Census 2015-16, small( 1-2 hectares) and marginal (<1 hectare) land holdings make up over 86% of the total agricultural land holdings in India. The average land holding size is just 0.38 hectares for marginal farmers and 1.4 hectares for small farmers.   As per NITI Aayog, 55% of the net cropped area in India is under irrigation, while the rest is dependent on the monsoon for irrigation. There are various issues associated with the dependence on the monsoon. These include insufficient rainfall in the events of El Nino, excess rainfall (La Nina) causing destruction of crops and flooding, untimely rainfall, and dry spells during the monsoon season.  Shift to profit-driven agricultural practices Over time, there has been a gradual shift towards market-oriented agricultural practices, including diversification and the cultivation of high-value crops.  Farmers are increasingly moving away from traditional food crops to non-food crops that offer higher returns, such as horticulture, floriculture, sericulture, viniculture, and apiculture. This shift reflects a structural change in the demand for high-value agricultural products like fruits, vegetables, and meat. Commercial farming in India is characterised by capital-intensive practices, the use of inorganic and modern inputs, advanced irrigation techniques, and larger landholdings. These trends indicate a move towards more specialised, profit-driven agricultural practices. Challenges and the way forward The evolving nature of Indian Agriculture presents it with various challenges, such as the need for modern techniques, greater awareness, and better access to extension services.  Overuse of fertilisers and inadequate soil conservation has resulted in soil degradation, underlining the potential and need for organic farming. Furthermore, the lack of adequate infrastructure, including storage facilities, cold chains, and poor road networks, causes substantial post-harvest losses.  Another pressing issue is the lack of credit to small and marginal farmers, which limits their ability to invest. The government has introduced various measures to improve agriculture. Some of the initiatives are PM-KISAN, Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana, the formation and promotion of 10,000 FPOs scheme, the Agriculture Infrastructure Fund, the Soil Health Card scheme, the Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana, Market Intervention Scheme, Micro Irrigation Fund, and Namo Drone Didi. Source: Indian Express MISSION MAUSAM Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: During the inaugural event

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) PAY COMMISSION Syllabus: Prelims – CURRENT EVENT Context: On 16 January, the Union government announced the constitution of the 8th Pay Commission. Background: – Since 1947, seven Pay Commissions have been constituted, with the last one constituted in 2014 and implemented on January 1, 2016. The 7th pay commission saw an expenditure increase of Rs 1 lakh crore for fiscal 2016-17. Key takeaways  A Pay Commission, set up by the government of India, decides the salary and compensation of Central government staffers and allowances of pensioners. Pay commissions consult with central and state governments, along with other stakeholders, before recommending salary structures, benefits, and allowances for government employees. The commission also suggests formulas for revising dearness allowance and dearness relief for central government employees and pensioners, aiming to offset the impact of inflation.  The recommendations are suggestive, there is no obligation on the government to accept the recommendations of the pay commission. There are over 49 lakh central government employees and nearly 65 lakh pensioners who will benefit.  Generally, every 10 years, the central government implements a pay commission to revise employee remuneration. As the 7th Pay Commission’s term concludes in 2026, initiating the process now ensures sufficient time to receive and review recommendations before its completion. Source: Indian Express RIVER INTERLINKING Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: India, with 17% of the world’s population but only 4% of its freshwater resources, faces uneven water distribution. The river interlinking project aims to address challenges from topography, climate, natural disasters, and water inequality. Background: – The idea of interlinking rivers goes back to 1858 when Captain Arthur Cotton, a British Army engineer, first proposed linking rivers through canals, mainly for inland navigation. River interlinking in India River interlinking is a large-scale water management strategy involving human-induced water redistribution from surplus areas to areas experiencing shortages. The strategy involves connecting two or more basins through a network of canals, reservoirs, pipelines, etc. In 1980, the Ministry of Irrigation (Now the Ministry of Water Resources) framed the National Perspective Plan (NPP) for inter-basin water transfer. The plan identified 30 link projects divided into two components:14 Himalayan and 16 Peninsular link projects.  Subsequently, in 1982, The National Water Development Agency (NWDA) was set up to study and implement river interlinking projects.  In 2002, in response to a Public Interest Litigation or PIL, the Supreme Court ordered the government to complete all river links within 12 years, bringing the issue to the forefront. Ken-Betwa Link Project On December 25, 2024, Prime Minister laid the foundation stone of the Ken-Betwa Link Project (KBLP) in Madhya Pradesh. The project aims to provide irrigation to Bundelkhand.  In this project, surplus water from the Ken River in Madhya Pradesh will be transferred to the Betwa River in Uttar Pradesh. Both of these rivers are right-bank tributaries of the Yamuna River.  The project will irrigate 10.62 lakh hectares (8.11 lakh ha in MP and 2.51 lakh ha in UP) of land annually and supply drinking water to about 62 lakh people. This project will generate 103 MW of hydropower and 27 MW of solar energy. The project passes through Panna Tiger Reserve.  KBLP is the first project under the National Perspective Plan that is currently being implemented. Significance of river interlinking The scheme aims to transfer about 200 billion Cubic Meters (BCM) of water annually from water-rich to drought-prone regions. It will irrigate 34 million hectares of agricultural land and generate 34,000 MW of substantial hydropower. It will ensure continuous and reliable water supply for irrigation, which can hugely increase the country’s agricultural productivity. Additionally, interlinking projects will lead to equitable access to water resources for drinking and industrial uses by reducing regional imbalances in current water availability. Equitable and reliable water supply will also support industries and help in employment generation.  They will also help mitigate floods’ impacts by storing excess water in reservoirs. Simultaneously, this stored water can be used to provide relief during droughts. Environmental and social concerns  The inter-basin water transfer will change the river morphology and also have an impact on the physical and chemical composition of the sediment load. Subsequently, it will also affect the water quality and ecosystem of the region. The large-scale diversion of water can disrupt the river’s natural ecosystem and affect the habitat of the various species. Canals and reservoirs can alter the migratory routes of fish and other species, which, as a result, will decline, eventually leading to biodiversity loss. Water transfer may also disturb the inter-relationship between rivers and climatic attributes such as temperature, precipitation and Humidity.  The construction activities will cause significant social disruptions mainly due to the displacement of populations. Water is a state subject, and conflicts exist among states regarding water-sharing. Moreover, these projects are excessively expensive. Also, such large-scale projects often suffer from time and cost overruns, diminishing their economic viability. Therefore, the economic feasibility of these projects needs to be assessed against more cost-effective, sustainable, and environment-friendly alternatives such as rainwater harvesting, local water conservation, and efficient irrigation. It may be more suitable to explore localised solutions alongside these large-scale projects. Source: Indian Express KASHI TAMIL SANGAMAM Syllabus: Prelims – CURRENT EVENT Context: Union Education Minister Dharmendra Pradhan announced that the main theme of the third edition of Kashi Tamil Sangamam, a cultural exchange programme scheduled to be held from February 14 to 25, will be Rishi Agastya. Background: The first edition of the programme was held in 2022. Key takeaways  Kashi Tamil Sangamam is an annual month-long programme organized by the Ministry of Education, Government of India to celebrate, reaffirm and rediscover the age-old links between Tamil Nadu and Varanasi. The event underscores the connections between these two ancient centers of learning and spirituality. The most recent third edition of the Kashi Tamil Sangamam is scheduled from February 15 to 24, 2025.  The main theme in this year’s event is highlighting the significant contributions of Sage Agasthyar to the Siddha System of Medicine (Bharatiya Chikitsa), Classical Tamil Literature, and also his contributions in the cultural unity of the Nation. In this edition, around 1000 people under 5 categories (Students, Teachers, Farmers & Artisans, Professionals and small Entrepreneurs,

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) GAZA CEASEFIRE DEAL TAKES EFFECT Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: After 15 months of devastating war between Israel and Hamas, a ceasefire took effect on Sunday. Background: – The ceasefire deal, brokered by Qatar, the US, and Egypt, promises to pause fighting for 42 days and includes the release of hostages held in Gaza in exchange for Palestinian prisoners in Israeli jails.   Key takeaways During a 42-day first phase beginning Sunday, Hamas will release 33 hostages and Israel will release between 900 and 1,650 Palestinian detainees, including all of those detained since October 7, 2023. The IDF will withdraw from central Gaza and the Netzarim Corridor — a 2-4-km-wide security clearing that it has created, cutting Gaza in half up to the Mediterranean — and eventually from the Philadelphi Corridor, the buffer zone along the Gaza-Egypt border. Negotiations for a second phase will begin on the 16th day after the ceasefire comes into effect, and is expected to produce almost a full Israeli withdrawal from the Strip, and the release of all remaining hostages by Hamas in return for a yet-to-be-decided number of Palestinian detainees. War that reshaped the Middle East The war has rippled across the Middle East, triggering conflict with Hezbollah in Lebanon and drawing Israel into direct confrontation with Iran.  Despite billions spent by Iran in building up a network of militants around Israel, its influence in the region has taken a significant hit. Hezbollah’s formidable missile arsenal has been largely destroyed, and much of its leadership has been killed. In Syria, the collapse of the Assad regime has further weakened Iran’s position in the region, leaving Israel militarily unchallenged but diplomatically isolated. Even as Israel emerges from the conflict militarily dominant, its international standing has suffered. Outrage over the humanitarian toll in Gaza has mounted, with Netanyahu now facing allegations of war crimes at the International Criminal Court (ICC) and accusations of genocide at the International Court of Justice (ICJ). Source: Indian Express MAHA KUMBH: A CONFLUENCE OF FAITH AND CULTURE Syllabus: Prelims – ART & CULTURE Context: Maha Kumbh is progressing in Prayagraj. Kumbh mela is listed as the largest peaceful congregation of pilgrims on earth by UNESCO. Background: – It is expected to have a footfall of 450 million this year, nearly twice the population of Uttar Pradesh, India’s most populous State. Key takeaways Kumbh, derived from a Sanskrit word which means a pitcher, is rotationally held every three years at the four riverside cities of Prayagraj, Haridwar, Ujjain and Nasik. Its schedule is based on the planetary alignments, mainly of that of Sun and Jupiter. The Ardh (half) Kumbh is held every six years at Haridwar and Prayagraj while the Purna (complete) Kumbh takes place in all four cities, every 12 years. The Maha Kumbh happens after 12 Purna Kumbhs in Prayagraj, once in 144 years and is considered the most auspicious. The mythological beliefs say that drops of Amrit (essence of immortality) were spilled at these sites from an urn which came out during the Samudra Mantha (churning of the ocean) done by the gods and demons. The central ritual of the fair remains bathing in waters of the sacred rivers where millions immerse themselves with the belief that the act will cleanse them of their sins and liberate them from the cycle of birth and death. A gathering of ascetics Religious texts also link Kumbh Mela’s origins to the 8th-century philosopher, Adi Shankaracharya, who established this practice of gatherings of ascetics from across the country, for discussion on religion. It was Shankaracharya who instituted the monastery system and the 13 Akharas (warrior-saint sects) — Nirvani, Atal, Niranjani, Anand, Juna, Awahan and Agni, Nirmohi, Digambar Ani and Nirvani Ani, the two Udasin Akharas (Naya and Bada) and the Nirmala Akhara. The saints from these sects are the main attraction at the Kumbh. The latest in the line of Akharas is the Kinnar (transgender) Akhara, established in 2015 by transgender rights activist Laxmi Narayan Tripathi. Source: The Hindu COMBATING SPAM Syllabus: Mains – GS 3 Context: The Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) will be using distributed ledger technology (DLT) to register spam preferences from customers, TRAI chairman said. Background: The TRAI regulates the telecom industry, and its main role is in regulating Unsolicited Commercial Communications (UCC), the official name for spam. Key takeaways Starting in 2007, TRAI implemented a do-not-disturb (DND) registry. If a telecom customer signs up to the DND registry, they are not supposed to get any spam calls or SMS messages. Under the Telecom Commercial Communication Customer Preference Regulation (TCCCPR), 2018, telemarketers who called or sent messages to DND-registered customers would receive warnings, and if enough warnings accumulate, they would be blacklisted from sending messages to telecom operators. In 2024, TRAI mandated that DND reporting be made available on every telecom provider’s app. What role does blockchain play? In order to fight the deluge of spam messages, TRAI mandated in the TCCCPR that telcos use a blockchain ledger, also known as a distributed ledger, in order to store a constantly-updated list of approved senders of SMS messages. Telcos would also be required to approve specific formats of messages. For instance, an OTP message that goes, “Your OTP is 433212,” would be stored in the blockchain as “Your OTP is …” with space for a variable. These messages have been required to be sent from sender IDs, and not phone numbers. This has been one of the most stringent rules that have been issued to fight SMS spam. In 2024, the regulations were tightened to ensure “traceability” of messages. This was aimed at plugging a crucial flaw in the system that would allow anyone to register on the blockchain solutions implemented by telecom operators and send out fraudulent or spam messages. Have these measures been effective? For those who have registered their DND preferences, communications from legitimate businesses that follow the rules have reduced. However, spam is constantly changing. Fraudulent calls have emerged, with frauds seeking to ensnare Indians in scams. Many of these operations

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) AFTER ELECTORAL BOND BAN, FUNDING THROUGH TRUST ROUTE UP Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – POLITY Context: After the Supreme Court’s decision to scrap electoral bonds last year, donations to political parties significantly increased through electoral trusts, as indicated by the electoral trust contribution reports released by the Election Commission of India (ECI) for the previous financial year. Background: – Nearly three-fourths of the donations to the Prudent Electoral Trust, which has received the highest contribution, were made after the Supreme Court’s decision on February 15. Key takeaways An Electoral Trust is a non-profit organization established in India to facilitate transparent funding to political parties. On 31st January, 2013, through ‘The Electoral Trusts Scheme, 2013’, the Central government specified the eligibility and procedure for registration of Electoral Trusts. Key Features of Electoral Trusts Purpose: To collect voluntary contributions from individuals, companies, and institutions. To distribute these funds to registered olitical parties. Legal Framework: Governed under Section 25 of the Companies Act, 1956 (as a non-profit). Electoral trust can receive contribution only from permitted people/ entities as given below An ET must distribute up to 95% of the voluntary contributions collected, with the surplus brought forward from the earlier year, to eligible political parties only. The remaining 5%, with a cap of ₹3 lakh, may be used for managing its own affairs. These trusts are not allowed to use any contribution for the direct or indirect benefit of its members or contributors.  Eligibility Criteria for Donations: Only registered political parties under Section 29A of the Representation of the People Act, 1951, are eligible to receive funds. Donations cannot be made to independent candidates or unregistered parties. Transparency and Reporting: Trusts must file an annual contribution report with the Election Commission of India (ECI). The accounts of any ET must be audited and the report must be furnished to the Commissioner of Income Tax, including the list of contributors, list of parties that funds were distributed to, and the amounts disbursed. Tax Benefits: Donors receive tax benefits under Section 80GGB and Section 80GGC of the Income Tax Act, 1961. Electoral trusts themselves are exempt from income tax on their income. Source: Indian Express ECONOMIC SLOWDOWN Syllabus: Mains – GS 3 Context: India’s Real Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is seen growing at a four-year low of 6.4 per cent in the current financial year 2024-25, the first advance estimates for FY25 released by the National Statistics Office (NSO) showed. Background: – The government seems to have placed the blame for what it believes to be a cyclical slowdown largely at the door of the RBI. While the RBI’s tight monetary policy and interference with the rupee’s value have hindered export competitiveness, the issues are deeper and structural, not resolvable through interest rate cuts alone. Key takeaways The high growth rates seen in the aftermath of the pandemic were driven in large part by the surge in services exports, specifically, the boom in Global Capability Centres (GCC).  However, this growth structure is biased in favour of the highly skilled who account for a very small section. With not many moving up the income ladder, the overall consumption base hasn’t been growing. Limited upward mobility has, however, been a feature of the Indian economy, reflecting the inability to generate productive forms of employment for the majority. But mobility seems to have become more restricted since the pandemic. Arguably, the clearest evidence of this can be found in the car market, specifically, the low-priced, small car market. Take the sub Rs 10 lakh segment. Cars in this segment are bought by first-time users or those upgrading from two-wheelers or used cars. In 2014-15, this category accounted for 73 per cent of all cars sold in the country. By 2024-25, the category accounted for just 46 per cent of all cars sold. The labour market is just not providing enough productive employment opportunities nor are real wages growing at a fast clip. While millions more have joined the workforce, more are now self-employed, either as unpaid help in household establishments or in one-man roadside shops or in agriculture. Informal establishments and employment continue to witness a expansion, indicating the absence of alternatives.  Formal employment, as per the EPFO payroll data shows, remains driven by expert services, which are nothing but manpower suppliers, normal contractors, and security services — segments that don’t require high-skill levels. The fallout of limited job creation and muted wage growth can be seen in the greater recourse to debt. Household debt had risen to 43 per cent by June 2024. But even this debt surge has failed to boost overall consumption significantly. With little demand visibility and uncertainty over government policy, investment activity continues to remain subdued. New project announcements have slowed down as per CMIE. Source: Indian Express OLIVE RIDLEY TURTLES Syllabus: Prelims – ENVIRONMENT Context: Over the past two weeks, numerous dead olive ridley turtles have washed ashore in Tamil Nadu, particularly in Chennai. Background: Olive ridley turtles arrive near the Tamil Nadu coast around September-October to breed. Their nesting season begins in late November and ends in March. Although deaths during nesting season are not unusual, the large number of turtle carcasses found this early in the nesting period has sparked concerns. Key takeaways Olive Ridley Sea Turtles (Lepidochelys olivacea) are one of the smallest and most abundant of all sea turtles found globally. Physical Characteristics: Size: Around 60–70 cm in length and 35–50 kg in weight. Shell: Olive-colored, heart-shaped, and flattened. Habitat: Found in warm waters of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans. Prefer coastal and shallow marine environments but occasionally venture into open seas. Diet: Omnivorous; feed on algae, fish, shrimp, crabs, and jellyfish. Lifespan: Typically live for 50–60 years. These turtles are known for their unique mass nesting events called “arribadas,” where thousands of females gather on the same beach to lay eggs. Significant nesting sites include the coasts of India, Mexico, and Costa Rica. Olive ridley turtles lay eggs across several coastal states

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) EXCAVATION IN RATNAGIRI Syllabus: Prelims – ART & CULTURE, HISTORY Context: The Archaeological Survey of India recently resumed excavations at Odisha’s Ratnagiri Buddhist complex, uncovering a colossal Buddha head, a massive palm, an ancient wall, and inscribed relics from the 8th-9th Century AD. Background: – The discoveries are significant, especially given Odisha’s historical relationship with Buddhism beginning with Mauryan Emperor Ashoka (304-232 BCE), one of Buddhism’s greatest patrons whose invasion of the kingdom of Kalinga – the ancient name for Odisha – led to him embracing the religion. Key takeaways  Ratnagiri — the centre of ancient Buddhist learning Located 100 km northeast of Bhubaneswar and part of the famous Diamond Triangle of Odisha along with Udaygiri and Lalitgiri, Ratnagiri – translated as the ‘Hills of Jewels’ – was first documented as a historical site in 1905. The last excavations carried out between 1958 and 1961 led to the discovery of many remains — including a brick stupa, three monastic complexes and over hundreds of votive and commemorative stupas. However, with the ASI eventually shifting focus on sites such as Lalitgiri, where the oldest Buddhist monastery in the state was found, the Ratnagiri excavation was put on the backburner. Experts date Ratnagiri to the 5th and 13th Century, although the peak period of construction is dated between the 7th and 10th centuries. Ratnagiri rivalled Nalanda as a learning centre. There are some studies that suggest that the renowned Chinese Buddhist monk and traveller, Hiuen Tsang, who visited Odisha, during 638-639 AD, might have visited Ratnagiri. Odisha, Southeast Asia and Buddhism Odisha has long enjoyed maritime and trade links with Southeast Asian countries: pepper, cinnamon, cardamom, silk, camphor, gold, and jewellery were popular items of trade between the ancient kingdom of Kalinga and Southeast Asia. Even though there was no evidence of Buddha visiting Odisha during his lifetime, Kalinga played a great role in popularising Buddhism, especially in Southeast Asia, because of its trade link: experts believe that Tapassu and Bhallika, the two merchant brothers who became the first disciples of Lord Buddha, having their origins from Utkala, another ancient name of Odisha. Mauryan Emperor Ashoka is believed to have invaded Kalinga in 261 BC but, deeply moved by the bloodshed, he embraced Buddhism, which he eventually helped spread not only to his own empire but also to Sri Lanka, and Central and Southeast Asia. In Odisha, Buddhism is stated to have particularly flourished under the Bhaumakara dynasty, which ruled parts of the state in between the 8th and 10th Century. Odisha annually holds Baliyatra, literally ‘voyage to Bali’ – a seven-day festival to commemorate the 2,000-year-old maritime and cultural links between Kalinga and Bali and other South and Southeast Asian regions such as Java, Sumatra, Borneo, Burma (Myanmar) and Ceylon (Sri Lanka). Source: Indian Express DEATH PENALTY Syllabus: Mains – GS 2 & GS 4 Context: A sessions court in Kolkata sentenced Sanjoy Roy, convicted of the rape and murder of a doctor at RG Kar Medical College, to life imprisonment. The CBI had argued strongly for the death penalty in the case that shook West Bengal and triggered several weeks of protests. Background: – The Supreme Court has held that a sentence of death should be passed only in the “rarest of rare” cases, after the court has considered possible “aggravating” and “mitigating” circumstances (Bachan Singh v. State of Punjab, 1980). Key takeaways In Bachan Singh, the SC considered a challenge to the constitutionality of the death penalty. It upheld the death penalty, but said it should be imposed only in the “rarest of rare” cases where there is no possibility of reformation. The five-judge Constitution Bench did not specify the standards to determine whether the death penalty should be imposed, but laid down non-exhaustive lists of “aggravating” and “mitigating” circumstances for courts to consider while making the decision. Aggravating circumstances, which could tilt the court’s decision towards the death penalty: If the murder is pre-planned, calculated, and involves extreme brutality; If the murder involves “exceptional depravity”; If the accused has been found guilty of murdering a public servant, police officer or a member of the armed forces while on duty, or because of anything they may have lawfully done while discharging their duty. Mitigating circumstances, which could tilt a case away from the death penalty: Whether the accused was “under the influence of extreme mental or emotional disturbance” at the time of the offence; Age of the accused; they would not be given death if they are very young or very old; Probability of the accused posing a continued threat to society; Probability of reforming the accused; If the accused was acting on the directions of another person; If the accused believed their actions were morally justified; If the accused suffers mentally and is unable to appreciate the criminality of their actions. The understanding of mitigating and aggravating circumstances has evolved over the years, and new factors have been added through several decisions.  In Machhi Singh v. State of Punjab (1983), the SC held that death could be given in cases where the “collective conscience” of society is so shocked that the judiciary is expected to impose the death penalty. In Santosh Bariyar v. State of Maharashtra (2009), the SC said “the court will have to provide clear evidence as to why the convict is not fit for any kind of reformatory and rehabilitation scheme”. The Law Commission of India noted in its 262nd Report (2015), The Death Penalty, age as a mitigating factor has been used very inconsistently. The Law Commission Report said the requirement for evidence was held as essential in Bariyar for introducing an element of objectivity into the sentencing process. When should the court consider these circumstances? In Bachan Singh, the SC said courts must conduct a separate trial after convicting, so that judges can be persuaded why the death sentence should not be imposed. In Dattaraya v. State of Maharashtra (2020), the court held that such a hearing did not take place, and that