Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   Hepatitis Syllabus Prelims – Science Context: India is one of the countries with the highest burden of viral hepatitis — with 2.9 crore people living with Hepatitis B infection and 0.55 crore living with Hepatitis C infection, according to the Global Hepatitis Report 2024 released by the World Health Organisation (WHO) Background:- There were over 50,000 new Hepatitis B cases and 1.4 lakh new Hepatitis C cases reported in 2022. And these infections killed 1.23 lakh people in India in 2022 as per the report. About Hepatitis: Hepatitis means inflammation of the liver. The liver is a vital organ that processes nutrients, filters the blood, and fights infections. When the liver is inflamed or damaged, its function can be affected. Heavy alcohol use, toxins, some medications, and certain medical conditions can cause hepatitis. However, hepatitis is often caused by a virus. There are five main strains of the hepatitis virus, referred to as types A, B, C, D and E. While they all cause liver disease, they differ in important ways including modes of transmission, severity of the illness, geographical distribution and prevention methods. Hepatitis B (HBV) is known to cause acute infection with nausea, vomitting and yellowing of the eye and skin for several weeks. Liver failure happens in severe cases. But the challenge is the chronic, life-long liver disease that it causes, especially when children get it. The chronic infection can lead to scarring of the liver called cirrhosis and increase the risk of liver cancer. Many people with the hepatitis C (HCV) virus don’t have symptoms or know they are infected. Those who do develop symptoms two to 12 weeks after exposure report yellow skin or eyes, loss of appetite, nausea, stomach ache, fever, dark urine, light-coloured stool, joint pain and exhaustion. Both infections are transmitted from mother to child during delivery, during transfusion of blood that hasn’t been screened properly, during contact with the blood of an infected person or while sharing needles by drug users.Both viruses can also be transmitted sexually. Since hepatitis B can be prevented through vaccination, the report highlights the need to ensure coverage. Hepatitis C is curable with medicines. Source: Indian Express Previous Year Question Q.1) Which of the following statements is not correct? (UPSC CSE 2015) Hepatitis B virus is transmitted much like HIV. Hepatitis B, unlike Hepatitis C, does not have a vaccine. Globally, the number of people infected with Hepatitis B and C viruses are several times more than those infected with HIV. Some of those infected with Hepatitis B and C viruses do not show the symptoms for many years. Lavender Cultivation Syllabus Prelims & Mains – Agriculture Context:When lavender cultivation was first introduced to Bhaderwah subdivision in Jammu and Kashmir’s Doda district in 2015, most farmers were sceptical and only a few adopted it. Today, these early adopters have significantly expanded cultivation, employ 30-40 people each on a full-time basis, have their own distillation units for making lavender oil, and market their products in different parts of the country. Background: The CSIR (Council Of Scientific and Industrial Research) – Aroma Mission is a flagship project of CSIR under which Lavender cultivation is being promoted in the temperate regions of J&K.The aim of the project is to increase the income of small and marginal farmers and develop agriculture-based Startups.Besides lavender, the Aroma Mission aims to inject scientific research and development into the cultivation of aromatic plants such as rose, lemon grass, rosemary and wild marigold. About Lavender Cultivation: Lavender, which can be grown in areas that experience snowfall and have a hilly terrain, blossoms and is ready for harvesting two-and-a-half years after it is planted. The same plant can bear flowers for 18-20 years, and does not require the amount of insecticides, pesticides, and other chemicals used on conventional crops like maize and paddy. The uses of lavender includes manufacturing perfumes, soaps, agarbatti, and room fresheners.Lavender oil has a calming effect and is a stress buster. CSIR developed an elite variety of lavender suitable for cultivation in temperate regions of J&K and provided free saplings and end-to-end agro-technologies to farmers and also installed distillation units for essential oil extraction in several regions of J&K. The success of Lavender cultivation in J&K earned it the sobriquet, ‘Purple Revolution’. The variety of Lavender is highly suitable for cultivation in the rainfed temperate regions of India. The crop was officially introduced in Bhaderwah by the Council Of Scientific and Industrial Research-Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine (CSIR-IIIM), Jammu, in 2015. According to officials, more than 700 acres of farmland has been brought under lavender cultivation in the area since 2017, and another 100 acres is set to be added. CSIR plans to distribute lavender plants to farmers in parts of Kathua, Rajouri, Poonch, and the Kashmir Valley, besides Uttrakhand, Himachal Pradesh and the Northeast. Source: Indian Express CREDIT-DEPOSIT RATIO Syllabus Prelims – Economy Context: Data from the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) reveals that the credit-deposit ratio has reached its highest level in at least 20 years. Background: This surge in the credit-deposit ratio indicates that more of the banks’ deposit base is being utilized for loans, including home loans and other consumption-related loans. About CREDIT-DEPOSIT RATIO The credit-deposit ratio is a financial metric that measures the proportion of a bank’s deposit base that is used for lending. It is calculated by dividing the total loans extended by the bank by its total deposits. A higher ratio indicates that a larger portion of the bank’s deposits is being lent out as credit, while a lower ratio suggests more deposits are being held in reserve or invested in other assets. For instance, if a bank has a credit-deposit ratio of 80%, it means that 80% of its deposits are being used to provide loans. This ratio is crucial for assessing a bank’s liquidity and lending capacity. Source: Livemint GULF COOPERATION COUNCIL (GCC) Syllabus Prelims – Current Event Context: Recently, for the first time since its inception, the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) announced its ‘Vision for

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   Tipu Sultan Syllabus Prelims & Mains – History Context: The BJP president of Kerala said the renaming of Sulthan Bathery in Kerala’s Wayanad district is “inevitable”.  He said, “Sulthan Bathery should be renamed as Ganapathyvattam. Background:- One of the three municipal towns in Wayanad, along with Mananthavady and Kalpetta, is Sulthan Bathery. Key takeaways Sulthan Bathery is home to a stone temple that was formerly known as Ganapathyvattam. The temple was established by Jains who came to Wayanad from regions in what is now Tamil Nadu and Karnataka in the 13th century. It is designed in the dominant Vijayanagara architectural style. The temple was partly destroyed during the invasions of Tipu Sultan, the ruler of Mysuru in the second half of the 18th century. It remained abandoned for nearly 150 years. Later, it was taken over by the Archaeological Survey of India, which declared it as a monument of national importance. About Tipu Sultan Tipu Sultan was born Sultan Fateh Ali Sahab Tipu on November 10, 1750 in Devanahalli, present-day Bangalore. He was born to Hyder Ali, who rose through the ranks of the army of the Wodeyars, the then Hindu rulers of Mysore. Hyder Ali ceased power in 1761 with Tipu succeeding his father in 1782. While fighting the British in 1767, Tipu first came in contact with European culture and lifestyle, something that would fascinate him. This fascination would be reflected in his rule of Mysore: Tipu undertook various policies and reforms which would modernise the princely state and go on to become a lasting aspect of his legacy. Hyder Ali died in 1782, during a period of conquest and expansion of his realm. Thus, Tipu inherited the throne under trying circumstances, with his primary motivation being to consolidate the territory he had inherited from his father. Over the past 20 years, the kingdom of Mysore had slowly expanded by capturing disputed areas at its borders. Tipu inherited rebellious provinces in Malabar, Kodagu, and Bednur, all of which were crucial to Mysore’s strategic and economic interests. The Mysuru ruler’s military used Ganapathyvattam as a battery for their ammunition and the town became known as ‘Sultan’s Battery’ in British records. Tipu Sultan died defending his fortress of Srirangapatna against British forces in the Fourth Anglo Mysore War in 1799. His forces were heavily outnumbered and his French allies had not been able to come to his aid. Source: Indian Express Import restrictions on solar PV cells Syllabus Prelims & Mains – Renewable Energy Context: Recent government orders on attempts to increase local sourcing of solar modules to support India’s renewables manufacturing ecosystem has been widely reported in the media as import restrictions. Background: Ministry of New and Renewable Energy’s (MNRE), on March 29 ordered to re-implement its 2021 notification of an ‘Approved List of Models and Manufacturers of Solar Photovoltaic [PV] Modules’, also called the ALMM list. Approved List of Models and Manufacturers of Solar Photovoltaic [PV] Modules: This list consists of manufacturers who “are eligible for use in Government Projects/Government assisted projects/ projects under Government schemes & programmes including projects set up for sale of electricity to the Central and State Governments.” However, this notification was “kept in abeyance” two years after it was issued, for the past financial year. While the government did not give an explicit reason for this, it has been reported that it stems from concerns and demands of renewable power producers who had secured sale contracts with the government before these rules were issued, when solar modules and cells were overwhelmingly imported from China at highly competitive rates. India’s domestic renewables sector, at the time, was unlikely to meet the spike in demand for solar power production equipment at rates offered by Chinese manufacturers. The government’s re-introduction of this rule has been premised on the estimation that following measures, such as the Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme, India’s domestic sector has boosted its production capacities and bettered price competitiveness to meet local demand. This is an import substitution effort, and not an attempt to restrict imports. Does India rely on solar PV imports? India is overwhelmingly import dependent to meet its demand for solar cells and modules — with China and Vietnam being the country’s major suppliers. According to a reply by the Minister for New and Renewable Energy in Parliament in February last year, India imported about $11.17 billion worth solar cells and modules in the past five years. And until January of 2023-24, data from the Ministry of Commerce’s Import-Export showed that China accounted for 53% of India’s solar cell imports, and 63% of solar PV modules. Ratings agency ICRA estimates that China commands more than 80% share of the manufacturing capacity across polysilicon, wafer, cell and modules. “In comparison, the manufacturing capacity in India is relatively low and is largely restricted to the last manufacturing stage,” ICRA stated in its report, adding that the PLI scheme is expected to change this, with integrated module units expected to come up in India over the next 2-3 years. How have our policies responded? To address this over dependence, India made three significant efforts over the past five years. It began with the notification of the ALMM order in January 2019. Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman proposed the ₹19,500 crore PLI scheme in the Union Budget of 2022-23. This was to scale domestic manufacturing of the entire solar supply chain — from polysilicon to solar modules. The government also introduced a steep 40% customs duty on PV modules and 25% on PV cells. These duties were halved as solar capacity additions slowed and as Reuters had reported, developers had quoted “aggressively low tariffs” to win power purchase contracts based on imports of Chinese equipment. Why is China a leading exporter? The International Energy Agency (IEA) noted that China was the most cost-competitive location to manufacture all components of the solar PV supply chains. This is mainly because of the lower cost of power supplied to the industry, the agency observed, as electricity accounts for more than 40%

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   Time Standard for Moon Syllabus Prelims – Science Context: The United States officially directed the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to create a time standard for the Moon, which different international bodies and private companies can use to coordinate their activities on the lunar surface. Background:- According to Reuters, the head of the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP) told the space agency to work with other parts of the US government to finalise the strategy by the end of 2026 for establishing what it called a Coordinated Lunar Time (LTC). Time Standard for Moon: Most of the clocks and time zones are based on coordinated Universal Time (UTC), which is set by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in Paris, France. UTC is essentially an internationally agreed upon standard for world time. It is tracked by a weighted average of more than 400 atomic clocks placed in different parts of the globe. If a country lies on the west of the Greenwich meridian, it has to subtract from the UTC, and if a country is located on the east of the meridian, it has to add. UTC cannot be used to determine time on the Moon because time on the Moon flows differently than it does on the Earth. Why do we need a time standard for the Moon? Time flows differently on the Moon, and cannot be determined using UTC. Time is not absolute and it ticks slightly faster on the Moon as compared to the Earth. It is due to Einstein’s theory of general relativity which tells us that gravity bends space and time. On the Moon, the Earth-based clock will appear to lose on average 58.7 microseconds per Earth day with additional periodic variations. Improper time standards can create problems for spacecraft trying to dock on the Moon, transfer of data at a specific time, navigation, and communication. There may be a problem with multiple spacecraft working together at the same time. For example, NASA’s Artemis program aims to send humans back to the Moon after September 2026, and China and India intend to send their own astronauts to the lunar surface by 2030 and 2040 respectively. According to a 2023 report by the journal Nature, there will be a need to place at least three atomic clocks on the lunar surface that will tick at the Moon’s natural pace, and whose output will be combined by an algorithm to generate a more accurate virtual timepiece. These clocks have to be placed on the Moon at different locations since the Moon’s rotation and even local lumps of mass, called mascons, beneath the crust of the Moon affect the flow of time ever so slightly. These effects are minor but the output from these clocks can be synthesised to give the Moon its own independent time, which can be tied back to UTC for seamless operations from Earth as well. What are atomic clocks? Atomic clocks measure time in terms of the resonant frequencies — the natural frequency of an object where it tends to vibrate at a higher amplitude — of atoms such as cesium-133. In atomic time, a second is defined as the period in which a caesium atom vibrates 9,192,631,770 times. Source: Indian Express The Azad Hind government Syllabus Prelims & Mains – History Context:  Kangana Ranaut, in a recent interview, claimed that Subhas Chandra Bose, not Jawaharlal Nehru, was the first prime minister of independent India. After being criticised for the historicity (or lack thereof) of her comments, Kangana doubled down, citing the provisional government setup by Bose in 1943 as evidence of her claim. Background: Notably, 28 years before the Azad Hind government came into existence, the Provisional Government of India was formed in Kabul by a group known as the Indian Independence Committee (IIC). About the Azad Hind government: Subhas Chandra Bose proclaimed the formation of the Provisional Government of Azad Hind (“Free India”) in Singapore on October 21, 1943. Bose was the Head of State of this provisional government, and held the foreign affairs and war portfolios. A C Chatterjee was in charge of finance, S A Ayer became minister of publicity and propaganda, and Lakshmi Swaminathan was given the ministry of women’s affairs. A number of officers from Bose’s Azad Hind Fauj were also given cabinet posts. The Azad Hind government claimed authority over all Indian civilian and military personnel in Britain’s Southeast Asian colonies (primarily Burma, Singapore, and Malaya) which had fallen into Japanese hands during World War II. It also claimed prospective authority over all Indian territory that would be taken by Japanese forces, and Bose’s Azad Hind Fauj, as they attacked British India’s northeastern frontier. To give legitimacy to his government, much like Charles de Gaulle had declared sovereignty over some islands in the Atlantic for the Free French, Bose chose the Andamans. “It [the Azad Hind government] obtained de jure control over a piece of Indian territory when the Japanese handed over the Andaman and Nicobar islands in late December 1943, though de facto military control was not relinquished by the Japanese admiralty,” Sugata Bose wrote. Diplomatically, Bose’s government was recognised by the Axis powers and their satellites: Germany, Japan, and Italy, as well as Nazi and Japanese puppet states in Croatia, China, Thailand, Burma, Manchuria, and the Philippines. Immediately after its formation, the Azad Hind government declared war on Britain and the United States. Notably, 28 years before the Azad Hind government came into existence, the Provisional Government of India was formed in Kabul by a group known as the Indian Independence Committee (IIC). Much like Bose allied with the Axis powers during World War II to fight the British, during World War I, Indian nationalists abroad (mostly in Germany and the US), as well as revolutionaries and Pan-Islamists from India, attempted to further the cause of Indian independence with aid from the Central Powers. The IIC, with the help of the Ottoman Caliph and the Germans,

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   Andaman and Nicobar Islands Syllabus Prelims & Mains – Geography, Security challenges Context: Various geopolitical events leading to the realisation of the critical importance of ocean power, the rapid enhancement in the capabilities of the Chinese PLA Navy, and the transformation of India’s Look East policy into a robust Act East policy have brought new thrust to developing Indian island territories in general and the Andaman and Nicobar groups in particular. Background:- The Andaman and Nicobar (A&N Islands) islands are located 700 nautical miles (1,300 km) southeast of the Indian mainland. Key takeaways Andaman and Nicobar islands share four of India’s international maritime zone delimitations with Myanmar, Thailand, Indonesia, and Bangladesh. They also give India substantial ocean space under the United Nations Conference on the Laws of the Sea (UNCLOS) in terms of exclusive economic zone and continental shelf. The Malacca Strait, the main waterway that connects the Indian Ocean to the Pacific, is less than a day’s steaming from Port Blair. The severe disruption and re-routing of shipping, occasioned by the Houthi attacks in the Red Sea, have served as yet another harsh and expensive reminder that “maritime choke points” constitute critical vulnerabilities for world trade and commerce. In this context, the Malacca Strait — more than 90,000 merchant ships carrying about 30 per cent of the world’s traded goods pass through it every year — presents a challenge as well as a latent opportunity for India. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are of great strategic importance since they straddle one of the busiest sea lanes in the world and give India the reach to monitor the flow of traffic from the South China Sea (Pacific Ocean) to the Andaman Sea (Indian Ocean) via the Strait of Malacca that’s key to trade and oil shipments in the Indo-Pacific. Of significance for Indian strategists is the location of the Great Nicobar Island, which sits astride the western entrance/exit of the Malacca Strait and can comprehensively dominate all shipping — merchant as well as naval — in transit. The A&N Islands should be the first line of offence against any attempt from the East to undermine India’s maritime security. While some effort was made to leverage this locational advantage with the Andaman and Nicobar Command (ANC) being constituted as a tri-services command in 2001, subsequent efforts have been grossly inadequate. Reasons for the Slow Pace of Infrastructural Development in the A&N Islands: Distance from the mainland and difficulties in developing infrastructure. Complex procedures for obtaining environmental clearances. Significant coordination challenges among ministries, departments, and agencies. Key areas to be focused on for the development of the A&N Islands: Development of separate airfields with long runways for monitoring and patrolling of sea areas by aircraft and surface platforms. Work on the Galathea Bay (Great Nicobar Island) transhipment port must be expedited. Maritime services such as repair and logistics must be developed for international and Indian shipping. Road networks, high-speed inter-island ferry services, and a seaplane terminal. Forest and environmental clearances must be accorded with minimum red tape. Planned habitation of uninhabited islands should be considered by providing incentives. Eco-friendly entrepreneurial efforts could be encouraged. Ports and fuel storages Source: Indian Express Marine Coldwaves Syllabus Prelims & Mains – Geography Context: The effects of ocean warming are profound and well-documented. But sometimes changes in the patterns of winds and ocean currents cause seawater to suddenly cool, instead. Background: When a “killer coldwave” manifested along South Africa’s southeast coast in March 2021, it killed hundreds of animals across at least 81 species. More worrying still was the fact these deaths included vulnerable manta rays and even specimens of notoriously robust migratory bull sharks. About Cold waves Sometimes changes in the patterns of winds and ocean currents cause seawater to suddenly cool. Surface temperatures can plummet rapidly — by 10ºC or more over a day or two. When these conditions persist for several days or weeks, the area experiences a “coldwave”. Certain wind and current conditions can cause the sea surface to cool, rather than warm. This happens when winds and currents force coastal waters to move offshore, which are then replaced from below by cold water from the deep ocean. This process is known as In some places, such as California on the US west coast, upwelling happens regularly along hundreds of kilometres of coastline. But localised upwelling can occur seasonally on a smaller scale, too, often at the edges of bays on the east coasts of continents due to interactions of wind, current and coastline. Previous research had shown climate change induced changes in global wind and current patterns. Studies reveal an increasing trend in the number of annual upwelling events over the past 40 years. We also found an increase in the intensity of such upwelling events and the extent to which temperatures dropped on the first day of each event – in other words, how severe and sudden these cold snaps were. During the extreme upwelling event along the southeast coast of South Africa in March 2021, at least 260 animals from 81 species died. These included tropical fish, sharks and rays. Overall, our oceans are warming. The ranges of tropical and subtropical species are extending towards the poles. But along some major current systems, sudden short-term cooling can make life difficult for these climate migrants, or even kill them. This really shows the complexity of climate change, as tropical species would expand into higher-latitude areas as overall warming continues, which then places them at risk of exposure to sudden extreme cold events. Source: The Hindu ASHWAGANDHA (WITHANIA SOMNIFERA) Syllabus Prelims – Environment Context: Ashwagandha is gaining global attention and popularity for its numerous health benefits. Background: Scientific research highlights its potential in stress management, cognitive function, physical performance, and more. About ASHWAGANDHA (WITHANIA SOMNIFERA) Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera), also known as Indian ginseng or winter cherry, is a prominent herb in Ayurveda, the traditional medicine system of India. It is renowned for its adaptogenic properties, which

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   Agroforestry Syllabus Prelims & Mains – Agriculture Context: Uptake of agroforestry remains restricted to farmers with medium or large landholdings.Small scale farmers are yet to adapt agroforestry.The adoption of agroforestry at scale in India must include smallholders, who hold most of India’s agricultural land. Background:- Agriculture in India has historically been a diversified land-use practice, integrating crops, trees, and livestock. This technique, broadly called agroforestry, can enhance farmer livelihoods and the environment and is slowly gaining in popularity after decades of the modus operandus of monocropping inspired by the Green Revolution. Small scale farmers and Agroforestry India’s efforts to promote agroforestry received an impetus nearly 10 years ago with the establishment of the National Agroforestry Policy (2014).Yet the uptake of agroforestry remains restricted to farmers with medium or large landholdings. This pattern is unsurprising since smallholder farmers seldom grow trees because of their long gestation, a lack of incentive or investment-based capital, and weak market linkages. Challenges: The Ministry of Agriculture recognised water availability as a challenge when it drafted the National Agroforestry Policy in 2014. Yet the problem remains relevant and is especially acute for smallholders, who need additional funding to secure water and/or who incur additional debt in doing so. Moreover, water availability is critical during the sapling stage but remains a constant concern if the trees compete with crops for water in water-constrained environments. Choosing the right species for the right place and the right reason is elemental for agroforestry to enhance the sustainability of livelihoods. Farmers, however, are drawn to tree species that are fast-growing and repel herbivores, but such species are also generally non-native and threaten soil health and human well-being. New and existing government policies and schemes that can facilitate transition to agroforestry are standardised, accounting neither for land-holding size nor, importantly, regional biophysical variabilities. As a result, these schemes inherently exclude smallholders. For example, the Indian Forest and Wood Certification Scheme 2023, which certifies agroforestry and wood-based products as sustainable, has an exhaustive list of eligibility criteria for farmers and industries.But it remains to be seen if its array of socio-economic and environmental parameters will place certification costs beyond the reach of smallholders. Source: Hindu Dubai floods and Cloud Seeding Syllabus Prelims & Mains – Geography Context: Following the floods, questions were raised whether cloud seeding, a process that the UAE frequently conducts, could have caused the heavy rains. Background: A storm hit the United Arab Emirates and Oman this week bringing record rainfall that flooded highways, inundated houses, grid-locked traffic and trapped people in their homes. Did cloud seeding cause the storm? Rainfall is rare in the UAE and elsewhere on the Arabian Peninsula, that is typically known for its dry desert climate. Summer air temperatures can soar above 50 degrees Celsius. Following Tuesday’s events, questions were raised whether cloud seeding, a process that the UAE frequently conducts, could have caused the heavy rains. Cloud seeding is a process in which chemicals are implanted into clouds to increase rainfall in an environment where water scarcity is a concern. The UAE, located in one of the hottest and driest regions on earth, has been leading the effort to seed clouds and increase precipitation. But the UAE’s meteorology agency said thatthere were no such operations before the storm. The huge rainfall was instead likely due to a normal weather system that was exacerbated by climate change, experts say. Climate scientists say that rising global temperatures, caused by human-led climate change, is leading to more extreme weather events around the world, including intense rainfall. Rainfall from thunderstorms, like the ones seen in UAE in recent days, sees a particular strong increase with warming. This is because convection, which is the strong updraft in thunderstorms, strengthens in a warmer world. Rainfall was becoming much heavier around the world as the climate warms because a warmer atmosphere can hold more moisture. It was misleading to talk about cloud seeding as the cause of the heavy rainfall, experts say. Source: The Hindu IMPORTED INFLATION Syllabus Prelims & Mains – Economy Context: The Asian Development Bank (ADB) has recently issued a cautionary note regarding India’s vulnerability to imported inflation. Background: The ADB’s warning underscores the need for vigilance in managing currency fluctuations and interest rate dynamics to mitigate the potential impact of imported inflation on India’s economy. About IMPORTED INFLATION Imported inflation refers to a situation where the general price level in a country rises due to an increase in the costs of imported products. The factors behind the Imported Inflation: Exchange Rates: Fluctuations in exchange rates play a significant role. When a country’s currency depreciates against foreign currencies, the cost of imports rises. Essentially, more money is needed to purchase goods and services from abroad. Commodity Prices: Many countries heavily rely on imported commodities such as oil, metals, and agricultural products. When global commodity prices increase, it directly impacts the cost of imports, potentially leading to higher inflation within the importing nation. Trade Policies and Global Supply Chains: Changes in trade policies (such as tariffs and quotas) can influence the cost of imported goods. Additionally, disruptions in global supply chains affect transportation costs, which, in turn, impact the final cost of imported products. Impact on Production Costs: Imported inflation affects companies’ production costs. These companies often pass on the increased costs to consumers by raising prices, leading to general inflation across the economy. Recent Scenario in India: The weakening of the Indian rupee in recent months has raised concerns about imported inflation. Factors such as growing risk aversion among investors, geopolitical tensions, and changes in monetary policy have contributed to the rupee’s depreciation. India’s reliance on imports of crude oil and gold makes it susceptible to price fluctuations in these commodities. Rising prices of these products can directly impact the country’s import bill and overall inflation. Source: Hindu TIGER TRIUMPH-24 EXERCISE Syllabus Prelims – Current Event Context: The Tiger Triumph-24 exercise has concluded recently. Background: This exercise reinforces the robust strategic partnership between India and the United States

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   100 % FDI in Space Sector Syllabus Prelims & Mains – Current Event Context: The Finance Ministry has notified amended rules under the Foreign Exchange Management Act to operationalise its earlier decision to allow up to 100 per cent foreign direct investment (FDI) for the space sector. The new rules came into effect from April 16. Background:- The notification dated April 16 comes ahead of Tesla chief Elon Musk’s visit to India early next week where he is expected to meet space startups, make a push for his space venture Starlink’s plans and announce his electric vehicle (EV) investment plans. About FDI Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) is defined as an investment in which a company takes controlling ownership of a business entity in another country. Therefore, foreign companies get directly involved with day-to-day operations in other countries. India gets FDI through two routes: (a) Automatic route: Under this route, the non-resident or Indian company does not require a prior nod from the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) or the government of India for FDI. (b) Government route: Under this route, the government’s approval is mandatory. The company will have to apply through Foreign Investment Facilitation Portal, which facilitates single-window clearance. Key takeaways:  In February, the Union Cabinet had approved the amendment to the FDI policy for the space sector, allowing up to 100 per cent investment in certain categories. As per the latest Finance Ministry notification, 100 per cent FDI has been allowed for the space sector category of manufacturing and operation of satellites, satellite data products, and ground segment and user segment, out of which up to 74 per cent would be through the automatic route and government nod would be required for investment beyond 74 per cent. Under the earlier policy, any foreign investment in manufacturing and operating satellites is allowed only with government approval. Manufacturing of components and systems or sub-systems for satellites, ground segment and user segment will be fully under the 100 per cent automatic route. Automatic FDI has also been permitted up to 49 per cent for launch vehicles and associated systems or subsystems, and creation of spaceports for launching and receiving spacecraft. Government approval would be required for investments beyond 49 per cent. Ministry has also provided detailed definition of ‘Satellites – manufacturing and operation’, ‘Satellite data products’,  “launch vehicles and associated systems or sub-systems”, “spaceport” etc. Source: Indian Express Election Days Syllabus Prelims & Mains – Polity & Governance Context: Votes in the first phase of the Lok Sabha election will be cast on April 19. The most critical time in the election process includes the last day of the campaign period (72 hours before the poll), the non-campaign period (the last 48 hours), and the poll day. Candidates are afforded the opportunity to make a final impression on the electorate, while the period of “election silence” allows voters to take a reflective pause. Background: Several behind-the-scenes logistical and operational activities ensure that the elections are conducted smoothly. The scale of the exercise is immense — around 97 crore voters, 10.5 lakh polling stations, 1.5 crore polling officials and security staff, 55 lakh EVMs, and 4 lakh vehicles across the country — and timely and meticulous planning, rigorous implementation, and close supervision are essential to ensure free, fair, participative, and peaceful elections. The last 72 hours The monitoring of campaign expenditure includes the last check of candidates’ expenditure registers and strengthening the inspection teams. There are Flying Squads (FSs), Static Surveillance Teams (SSTs), Excise Teams, and a 24X7 District Control Room. The FSs operate in three shifts round the clock in each Assembly constituency, swiftly responding to complaints. They can seize cash or items intended as bribes, document evidence, and initiate legal proceedings. SSTs are stationed at critical locations, and focus on intercepting illicit goods such as liquor and large amounts of cash to deter malpractices and prevent undue influence. The District Election Officers (DEOs) collaborate with senior police officials to develop strategies to manage any potential disturbances during the critical 72 hours leading up to the close of the voting.This includes the sealing of borders to keep out anti-social and disruptive elements. The final assessment is made of the Assured Minimum Facilities (AMFs) at the polling stations, which include the provision of drinking water, shade, wheelchairs, clean toilets, etc for the comfort and convenience of voters. The last 48 hours Under Section 126 of the Representation of the People Act, 1951, the election campaign halts during the “silent period” that lasts for 48 hours ending with the conclusion of the poll. The District Magistrate issues orders underSection 144 of the CrPC, 1973, prohibiting unlawful assemblies, public meetings, and the use of loudspeakers, and limiting gatherings to no more than five persons. Door-to-door campaigning is still permitted. This period also sees “area domination” activities by the Central Armed Police Forces, a restriction on opinion polls, and political advertisements through electronic and social media, and the enforcement of a ban on the sale of liquor. To ensure transparency at critical polling stations, measures including the deployment of micro-observers, video and still cameras, webcasting, and CCTV surveillance are implemented. On the day before polling, randomly-formed polling parties are dispatched to the polling stations with electronic voting machines (EVMs) and other election materials. They move with security personnel in designated vehicles. Reserve EVMs are allocated to the Sector Officers. The Polling Day The general restrictions on the poll day include using only one vehicle for the candidates, their agents, and party workers. However, using these vehicles to ferry voters to polling stations is considered a corrupt practice under Section 133 of the Representation of People Act (1951), attracting penal action under Section 123(5) of the Act. The use of mobile phones (except by officers on duty), canvassing, using campaign-related posters or banners, and loudspeakers or megaphones within 100 metres of a polling station are banned. Under Section 135(B) of the RP Act, employees are given a paid holiday on the poll date. Only persons entitled under

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   Report flags sweetened Nestle products Syllabus Prelims – Science Context: Nestlé’s products for babies in Asia, Africa and Latin America were found to contain added sugars, while the same products sold in Europe did not have it, according to a recent report. Background:- The report (‘How Nestlé gets children hooked on sugar in lower-income countries’) faulted Nestlé for employing different nutritional standards in its offerings, depending on the country it served. Nestlé also did not make the quantity of sugar content clear on the products’ packaging, it said. Key Takeaways Sugar is a simple carbohydrate.Some food items have sugar that is naturally occurring. According to the American Heart Association (AHA), it is “found in milk (lactose) and fruit (fructose). Any product that contains milk (such as yogurt, milk or cream) or fruit (fresh, dried) contains some natural sugars.” Free sugar or added sugar is added separately to a food item during preparation or processing. In 2015, the WHO’s guideline recommended that “adults and children reduce their daily intake of free sugars to less than 10% of their total energy intake.” WHO advises against the introduction of added sugars before the age of 2. Excessive sugar consumption can lead to increased overall energy intake in a person’s overall diet. It may be at the cost of food items having nutritionally adequate calories, eventually leading to an unhealthy diet. The risks of contracting non-communicable diseases, such as diabetes, obesity and heart-related ailments, are then increased. Tooth decay is also associated with early exposure to sugar. A 2017 report from the WHO (‘Incentives and disincentives for reducing sugar in manufactured foods’) said, “The fact that sugar is a relatively cheap and abundant ingredient is not a direct incentive to use it, but means there is little incentive from the supply side not to use it.” Adding sugar to a food item often makes it more palatable, meaning consumers will opt for it repeatedly. Source: Indian Express Anti-Maoist operations Syllabus Mains – Internal Security Context: At least 29 alleged Maoists were killed in a gunfight with security forces in the forests of southern Chhattisgarh’s Kanker district on Tuesday (April 16). Background: The operation is the largest (in terms of Maoists’ bodies recovered) since the creation of Chhattisgarh in 2000, and among the biggest successes for security forces in their decades-long fight against left-wing extremism (LWE). What happened in the operation? The operation saw security forces push deep into the Maoist stronghold of Abujhmad (literally, “the unknown hills”) — a 4,000 sq km swathe of forest land in southern Chhattisgarh’s Bastarregion, mainly covering the districts of Narayanpur, Bijapur, and Dantewada, just south of  Only a small part of the forest falls in Kanker. The difficult terrain, absence of roads, and presence of LWE has meant that 90% of Abujhmad, bigger in terms of area thanGoa, remains unsurveyed by the government. These jungles are, thus, used both as safe havens and transit corridors by Maoists to travel betweenMaharashtra (to the west), Andhra Pradesh (to the south), Telangana (to the southwest), and Odisha (to the east) via Chhattisgarh’s Sukma district. LWE in Chhattisgarh Chhatisgarh is the only state in which Maoists continue to have a significant presence, and retain the capability to mount big attacks. According to the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) website, there are 70 LWE-affected districts in the country. Of these, 15 are in Chhattisgarh alone. Of the 25 “Most LWE affected Districts”, seven are in Chhattisgarh, while eight are in Jharkhand. The government’s ‘final push’ against LWE Chhattisgarh, and to a lesser extent Jharkhand, is a part of the government’s “final push” against LWE. This has seen central forces such as CRPF setting up bases deeper inside Maoist strongholds such as the jungles of Abujhmad. In the past few years, more than two dozen bases have been set up in Abujhmad, with Kanker’s Rowghat jungles too seeing new camps. Criticism Critics say that there are major flaws in the government’s approach to tackling the Naxal problem. There is no overall strategic plan and the states have been tackling the challenge as per their perception and the political appreciation of its gravity. States consider LWE a national problem. The problem will not be conclusively dealt with until state forces take the lead in anti-Naxal operations and the central armed police forces play a subsidiary role only. India’s forest cover is being gradually denuded. Tribals inhabiting these forest areas were displaced in the process. Deprived of their land and any regular means of livelihood, many of them gravitated towards the Naxals. Source: Indian Express Cervical Cancer Syllabus Mains – Health Context: The first-ever Global Cervical Cancer Elimination Forum took place in Colombia last month. Background: The Forum aimed to catalyse governments, donors, civil society, and others to commit to cervical cancer elimination and galvanize the global community. Cervical Cancer: Cancer is a disease in which cells in the body grow out of control. When cancer starts in the cervix, it is called cervical cancer. It occurs most often in women over age 30 and is the fourth most common cancer in women globally. It is the second most common cancer among females in India. The main cause of cervical cancer is the persistent infection with the human papillomavirus (HPV). Initiatives for the prevention of cervical cancer: The Cervical Cancer Elimination Initiative (by the World Health Organization) has outlined the ‘90-70-90’ targets for each country by 2030 – 90% of girls fully vaccinated with the HPV vaccine by the age of 15; 70% of women screened by the age of 35, and again by the age of 45; 90% of women with pre-cancer treated and 90% of women with invasive cancer managed. The Union Government in India proposed it in the Interim Budget 2024-25. The programme will be for girls in the age group of 9 to 14 years for the prevention of cervical cancer. Human Papilloma Virus (HPV): HPV is a common sexually transmitted infection that can affect the skin, genital area, and throat. In most cases, the immune system

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   Fall in household savings Syllabus Prelims & Mains – Economy Context: The fall in household savings has been at the heart of recent debates in India. The decline in household savings is brought about by a drastic reduction in net financial savings as the household net financial savings to GDP ratio attained a four-decade low.The sharp reduction in household net financial savings in 2022-23 has been associated with an overall fall in household savings despite marginal recovery in physical savings. Background:- The net financial savings of the household is the difference between its gross financial savings and borrowing. The gross financial savings of a household is the extent to which its financial assets change during a period. The financial assets of households typically comprise bank deposits, currency and financial investments in mutual funds, pension funds, etc. Though household borrowing includes credit from non-bank financial corporations and housing corporations, the bulk of the borrowing comprises credit from commercial banks. Key Takeaways In general, there are at least three distinct factors that can potentially bring about a reduction in household net financial savings: First, households typically finance their additional consumption expenditure by increasing their borrowing or depleting their gross financial savings. By financing higher consumption expenditure at any given level of disposable income, lower net financial savings provide stimulus for aggregate demand and output in this case. Secondly, when households finance higher tangible (physical) investment by increasing their borrowing or depleting their gross financial savings. The reduction in net financial savings in this case stimulates aggregate demand and output through the investment channel. Third, when interest payment of a household increases say due to higher interest rates, households can meet the increased burden through borrowing or through depleting gross financial savings thereby inducing a reduction in net financial savings. The first factor hardly played any role in the sharp reduction in gross financial savings in 2022-23 as the consumption to GDP ratio remained largely unchanged between 2021-22 (60.95%) and 2022-23 (60.93%). The second factor played only a limited role. While the gross financial savings to GDP ratio declined by 3 percentage points (7.3% to 5.3%) in 2022-23, household physical investment to GDP ratio increased only by 0.3 percentage point (12.6% to 12.9%) during the same period. Though higher borrowing is partly financed by interest income from financial assets, it can be largely attributed to higher interest payments of the household in the recent period. The share of household borrowing in household (disposable) income registered a sharp spike in 2022-23. Implication of higher debt burden The rise in household debt burden has two concerns for the macroeconomy. The first concern is about debt repayment and financial fragility. Since the repayment capacity depends on the income flow, a key criterion for evaluating a household’s debt sustainability is the difference between interest rate and the income growth rate. On the flip side, the interest payments from the households are the interest income of the financial sector. If households fail to meet their debt repayment commitments, then it reduces the income of the financial sector and deteriorates their balance sheets, which in turn can have a cascading effect on the macroeconomy if the latter responds by reducing their credit disbursement to the non-financial sector. The second concern pertains to the implication on consumption demand. Over and above disposable income, the consumption expenditure of the household can be affected by their wealth, debt, and interest rate. Reduction in household wealth can lead to lower consumption expenditure as households may attempt to preserve their wealth position by increasing their savings. Higher household debt can also reduce consumption expenditure in at least two ways. First, if higher household leverage is perceived as an indicator of higher default risk, then it may induce banks to indulge in credit rationing and reduce the credit disbursement. The consequent reduction in credit disbursement can adversely affect consumption. Second, higher debt can reduce consumption expenditure by increasing the interest burden, not to mention the effect of higher interest rates on consumption expenditure. Source: Hindu Rwanda Plan of the United Kingdom Syllabus Prelims & Mains – Current Event Context: The British parliament is set to finally approve a divisive law this week to pave the way for asylum seekers to be deported to Rwanda, but further legal hurdles could yet hold up or derail one of Prime Minister Rishi Sunak’s key policies. Background: The Prime Minister Rishi Sunak belongs to the Conservative Party.He has invested huge political capital in the Rwanda scheme whose success or failure might be crucial to his political party.He has promised that this scheme will stop migrants arriving without permission in the country. ‘About the Rwanda Plan’ Under a five-year agreement, the government said some asylum seekers arriving in the UK would besent to Rwanda, to have their claims processed there. If successful, they could be granted refugee status and allowed to stay. If not, they could apply to settle in Rwanda on other grounds, or seek asylum in another “safe third country”.No asylum seeker would be able to apply to return to the UK. Under the policy, anyone “entering the UK illegally” after 1 January 2022 could be sent to Rwanda, with no limit on numbers. Ministers have argued the plan would deter people from arriving in the UK on small boats across the English Channel. No asylum seeker has yet been sent to Rwanda – a small landlocked country central Africa – 4,000 miles (6,500km) from the UK. The first flight was scheduled to go in June 2022, butwas cancelled after legal challenges.Prime Minister Rishi Sunak has repeatedly said flights will take off by spring but refused to specify a date. What was the Supreme Court ruling and is Rwanda safe? In November 2023, the UK Supreme Courtruled unanimously that the Rwanda scheme was unlawful. It said genuine refugees would be at risk of being returned to their home countries, where they could face harm. This breachesthe European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR), which prohibits torture and

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   Sea Level Rise Syllabus Prelims & Mains – Environment Context: A quarter of the coastal land of China will sink below sea level within a century, putting hundreds of millions of people at risk of being flooded, due to land subsidence and climate change, according to a new study, published in the journal Science on Friday (April 19). Background:- The land subsidence in China is primarily a result of rapid urbanisation — activities such as excessive groundwater extraction and the weight of buildings lead to subsidence. The situation has been exacerbated by climate change, which is resulting in the rise of sea levels. Sea level rise isn’t just limited to China. It is a global issue that is projected to affect between 130 million to half a billion people depending on different temperature scenarios in the long run, according to a UN report. How fast is the global sea level rising? The global sea level has risen by about 8–9 inches or 21–24 centimetres since 1880, according to a report by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The more worrying sign is that since 1993, the rate of increase has been accelerating. It has more than doubled from 0.07 inches or 0.18 centimetres per year in 1993 to the current rate of 0.17 inches or 0.42 centimetres per year. Global average sea level rose by about 0.3 inches or 0.76 centimetres from 2022 to 2023. Experts said there was a huge jump in global sea level between the two years mainly due to the development of El Niño, a weather pattern associated with warmer oceans, in June 2023. Now that El Niño is weakening, the rate of sea level rise is expected to slow down. How climate change is leading to sea level rise? The key driver behind rising sea levels is global warming. As temperatures across the world continue to soar, more and more glaciers and ice sheets are melting and adding water to the ocean. Global warming is also making the ocean warmer, which is leading to something called thermal expansion — when water becomes warmer, it expands in volume. This is contributing to sea level rise as well. Why does sea level rise matter? The most visible consequence of sea level rise will be the flooding of coastal areas. Take the example of coastal cities in India. A 2022 analysis by RMSI, a global risk management firm, found that some critical properties and road networks in Mumbai, Kochi, Mangalore, Chennai, Visakhapatnam, and Thiruvananthapuram will be submerged by 2050. Things are worse for island countries like Indonesia. In 2019, Indonesia announced that the country’s capital would be relocated from Jakarta, which is prone to flooding, to the province of East Kalimantan on the island of Borneo. The rise of sea level also leads to more intense storm surges — the rise in seawater level caused solely by a storm — flooding, and damage to coastal areas. That’s because higher sea level can allow more water inland during hurricane-related storm surges. With sea level rise, saltwater contaminates freshwater aquifers, many of which are used by communities for agricultural and drinking purposes. Source: Indian Express Earth Day Syllabus Prelims – Environment Context: Every year, April 22 is observed as Earth Day, an international event celebrated around the world to pledge support for environmental protection. Background: The year 2024 marks the 54th anniversary of the annual celebrations. About Earth DAY : Earth Day was first observed in 1970 when 20 million took to the streets to protest against environmental degradation. The event was triggered by the 1969 Santa Barbara oil spill and other issues such as smog and polluted rivers. For over the next half century, Earth Day continued to play an important role in environmental activism. The landmark Paris Agreement, which brings almost 200 countries together to set a common target to reduce global greenhouse emissions, was signed on Earth Day 2016. In 2009, the United Nations designated Earth Day as International Mother Earth Day. According to earthday.org,Earth Day aims to “build the world’s largest environmental movement to drive transformative change for people and the planet.” The movement’s mission is “to diversify, educate and activate the environmental movement worldwide.” Earth Day is celebrated to remind each of us that the Earth and its ecosystems provide us with life and sustenance. This day also recognises a collective responsibility, as called for in the 1992 Rio Declaration, to promote harmony with nature and the Earth to achieve a just balance among the economic, social and environmental needs of present and future generations of humanity. This year, the theme is ‘Planet vs. Plastics’. The theme highlights the threat plastics pose to the planet and human health. It calls for an end to all plastic waste by demanding a 60% reduction in the production of plastics by the year 2040. Source: Indian Express Iran- Israel Conflict Syllabus Prelims & Mains – International Event Context: Iran launched a significant attack on Israel, deploying over 300 projectiles, including approximately 170 drones, cruise missiles, and over 120 ballistic missiles. Background: Tit-for-tat confrontation between Israel and Iran has sparked concerns about escalation dragging the Middle East into all-out war. What led Iran to attack Israel? In 2018, Israel hails US withdrawal from Iran’s nuclear deal with world powers after years of lobbying against the agreement, calling Trump’s decision “a historic move”. In 2020, Israel welcomed the assassination of General Qassem Soleimani, commander of the overseas arm of Iran’s Revolutionary Guards, in an American drone strike in Baghdad. Iran strikes back with missile attacks on Iraqi bases housing American troops. In October 2023, Hamas (the Iran-backed terrorist group) launched a missile attack targeting Israel. In response, Israel conducted airstrikes on Gaza. In November 2023, Israel started conducting raids and attacking medical facilities as Hamas was reportedly operating from these hospital buildings and carrying out their warfare. In November 2023, The Iran-backed Houthi group, based in Yemen, landed their helicopter on the Galaxy Leader cargo vessel as it was passing

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   Indelible ink used in election Syllabus Prelims – Current Event Context: With the first phase of voting for the 2024 Lok Sabha elections beginning on April 19, the classic symbol of Indian polls is visible everywhere – a left hand with only its index finger extended, marked by a purple-black indelible ink. Background:- Devised as a method to prevent a person from casting more than one vote, the indelible ink has been used for decades in India. It has also travelled to other parts of the world to help in conducting elections. About the Indelible ink used in elections The Section 61 of Representation of the People Act (RoPA) of 1951 mentions the ink. It states that rules may be made under the Act “for the marking with indelible ink of the thumb or any other finger of every elector who applies for a ballot paper or ballot papers for the purpose of voting at a polling station before delivery of such paper or papers to him.” Why papers? Because before EVMs, ballot papers existed at polling stations. They contained the list of contesting candidates alongside their party symbols and names. Voters had to mark their preference on the paper and then drop it in ballot boxes to vote. Indelible ink contains silver nitrate. It is a colourless compound which becomes visible when exposed to ultraviolet light, including sunlight. The water-based ink also contains a solvent like alcohol to allow its faster drying. Silver nitrate is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula AgNO3.The higher silver nitrate’s concentration, say around 20 percent, the higher will be the ink’s quality, according to a report from the United Nations Development Programme. For up to 72 hours after application it can remain resistant to soap, liquids, home-cleansing, detergents, etc. The indelible ink was first manufactured at the ECI’s request by the government’s Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR). It was later patented by the National Research Development Corporation (NRDC), New Delhi. Mysore Paints & Varnish Ltd. has been licensed to manufacture the ink and has been in the business since 1962. Earlier called Mysore Lac & Paint Works Ltd, it was established in 1937 by Nalwadi Krishnaraja Wodeyar, then the Maharaja of Mysore. This Karnataka Government Undertaking is the sole manufacturer of the ink in India. Today, once a voter has her credentials checked at the polling booth, and before she casts her vote by pressing a button on the Electronic Voting Machine (EVM), the indelible ink is applied on her finger. This has been the case for decades, although the mode of voting has changed. Currently, the indelible ink is exported to more than 25 countries that include Canada, Ghana, Nigeria, Mongolia, Malaysia, Nepal, South Africa and the Maldives. Source: Hindu Fourth global mass coral bleaching Syllabus Prelims & Mains – Environment Context: The fourth global mass coral bleaching event has been triggered by extraordinary ocean temperatures, the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) said on Monday (April 15). This could have serious consequences for ocean life and millions of people who rely on reefs for food, jobs, and coastal defence. Background: Since mid-March 2023, the average sea surface temperature (SST) has been abnormally high. What are corals and coral reefs? Corals are essentially animals, which are sessile, meaning they permanently attach themselves to the ocean floor. They use their tiny tentacle-like hands to catch food from the water and sweep into their mouth. Each individual coral animal is known as a polyp and it lives in groups of hundreds to thousands of genetically identical polyps that form a ‘colony’. Corals are largely classified as either hard coral or soft coral. It is the hard corals that are the architects of coral reefs — complex three-dimensional structures built up over thousands of years. “Unlike soft corals, hard corals have stony skeletons made out of limestone that are produced by coral polyps. When polyps die, their skeletons are left behind and used as foundations for new polyps,” according to NOAA. Coral reefs, also referred to as “rainforests of the sea”, have existed on the Earth for nearly 450 million years. Australia’s Great Barrier Reef is the largest in the world, stretching across 2,028 kilometres. What is the significance of corals? Coral reefs have a crucial role in marine ecosystems. Thousands of marine species can be found living on one reef. For instance, the Great Barrier Reef contains over 400 coral species, 1,500 fish species, 4,000 mollusc species and six of the world’s seven sea turtle species. Research has shown that there could be millions of undiscovered species of organisms living in and around reefs. These massive structures also provide economic goods and services worth about $375 billion each year. More than 500 million people across the world depend on coral reefs for food, income and coastal protection from storms and floods. Coral reefs can absorb up to 97% of the energy from waves, storms, and floods, which prevents loss of life, property damage, and soil erosion. Therefore, the absence of coral reefs would not only result in severe ramifications for marine life but also for humans. What is coral bleaching? Most corals contain algae called zooxanthellae — they are plant-like organisms — in their tissues. Corals and zooxanthellae have a symbiotic relationship. While corals provide zooxanthellae a safe place to live, zooxanthellae provide oxygen and organic products of photosynthesis that help corals to grow and thrive. Zooxanthellae also give bright and unique colours to corals. Corals are very sensitive to light and temperature and even a small change in their living conditions can stress them. When stressed, they expel zooxanthellae and turn entirely white. This is called coral bleaching. Coral bleaching doesn’t immediately lead to the death of corals. They rather go under more stress and are subject to mortality. Coral bleaching reduces the reproductivity of corals and makes them more vulnerable to fatal diseases. If the bleaching is not too severe, corals have been known to recover. Global mass bleaching of coral