Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) DEPOSIT INSURANCE Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – ECONOMY Context: The government is considering increasing the insurance cover for bank deposits from the current limit of Rs 5 lakh. Background: – Deposit insurance was introduced in India in 1962, and coverage has thus far been enhanced six times – from Rs 1,500 per depositor held in the same right and same capacity at all the branches of the insured bank to Rs 5 lakh now. Key takeaways The deposit insurance cover is offered by the Deposit Insurance and Credit Guarantee Corporation (DICGC), a specialised division of the Reserve Bank of India (RBI). The objective of the DICGC is to protect “small depositors” from the risk of losing their savings in case of a bank failure.  The insurance cover of Rs 5 lakh per depositor is for all accounts held by the depositor in all branches of the insured bank. DICGC insures all commercial banks, including branches of foreign banks functioning in India, local area banks, regional rural banks, and cooperative banks. However, primary co-operative societies are not insured by the DICGC. Savings, fixed, current, and recurring deposits are insured. The DICGC does not provide insurance for deposits by foreign, central, and state governments, and for inter-bank deposits. The premium for deposit insurance is borne by the insured bank. DICGC collects premiums from member financial institutions at a flat or differentiated rate based on the bank’s risk profile. How does the limit for DICGC’s insurance coverage work? In 2021, a new Section 18A was inserted in the DICGC Act, 1961, which enabled depositors to get interim payment and time-bound access to their deposits to the extent of the deposit insurance cover through interim payments by DICGC, in case of imposition of restrictions on banks by the RBI. At present, the DICGC offers insurance cover on bank deposits up to Rs 5 lakh within 90 days of imposition of such restrictions.  Since the DICGC insures both the principal and interest amount held by a depositor in a bank, this is how the cover works: Say, a depositor has Rs 4,99,800 in her account, which includes the principal amount of Rs 4,90,000 and Rs 9,800 as interest accrued on it. In this case, the DICGC will provide insurance for Rs 4,99,800, which essentially means the depositors will get Rs 4,99,800 if their bank fails However, if the principal amount is Rs 5,00,000 (or more), and the interest accrued is Rs 10,000, the interest accrued will not be covered, as the depositor would have exhausted the cover limit of Rs 5 lakh. If the bank goes into liquidation, DICGC is liable to pay to the liquidator the claim amount of each depositor up to Rs 5 lakh within two months from the date of receipt of the claim list from the liquidator. The liquidator will have to disburse the right claim amount to each insured depositor. Source: Indian Express INTERNATIONAL THERMONUCLEAR EXPERIMENTAL REACTOR (ITER) Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: Prime Minister Narendra Modi, on his visit to France to attend an AI summit, also toured the ambitious International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) in Cadarache, accompanied by French President Emmanuel Macron. Background: – Prime Minister Modi’s visit to the ITER facility marks the first time that a Head of State or Head of Government has visited ITER. Key takeaways ITER is an international collaborative project aimed at building the world’s largest magnetic fusion device, designed to prove the feasibility of fusion as a large-scale and carbon-free source of energy. Presently, as many as 33 nations, including India, are collaborating on ITER project. Seven ITER members — China, India, European Union, Japan, Korea, Russia and United States — have been making joint efforts for decades to build and operate the ITER experimental device. ITER is currently under construction in the south of France. According to its current timeline, it is expected to begin deuterium-tritium fusion reactions by 2039, producing 500 MW of fusion power. ITER would not be converting the output heat energy into electricity. But its success is expected to pave the way for other machines to start using fusion energy as a regular source of electricity generation. According to the ITER website, the primary task of ITER is to investigate and demonstrate burning plasmas — “plasmas in which the energy of the helium nuclei produced by the fusion reactions is enough to maintain the temperature of the plasma, thereby reducing or eliminating the need for external heating”. Source: Indian Express EARTHQUAKES IN DELHI Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – GEOGRAPHY Context: Delhi frequently experiences earthquakes, often originating from distant regions. However, the magnitude 4 earthquake that struck before dawn on Monday was distinct, as its epicenter was within Delhi itself, near Dhaula Kuan. Background:  Magnitude 4 earthquakes are not very strong, and do not result in much damage. Key takeaways Delhi lies in a seismically active area. India’s official earthquake hazard map puts Delhi in Zone 4, the second highest classification of areas based on their susceptibility to shaking experienced during an earthquake. Zone 4 in India includes areas that are expected to experience MSK-8-level intensity during an earthquake. The MSK, or Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik scale is a measure of intensity, rather than strength, or energy released, which is described by magnitude. Simply put, the MSK scale measures the susceptibility of an area to an earthquake. Based on the local geology and other factors, two places can feel, and be impacted by, a quake very differently, even if they are equidistant from its epicentre. Delhi falls in a region that has high susceptibility to quakes. MSK-8 means the area is vulnerable to major damage being caused to buildings and other infrastructure.  Zone 5, the most vulnerable areas in India, correspond to MSK-9 levels of intensity or higher. Aravalli-Delhi Fold Belt Delhi lies in what is known as the Aravalli-Delhi Fold Belt, a seismically-active geological belt extending from southern and eastern Rajasthan to Haryana and Delhi. This region is characterised

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) INDIA AND QATAR Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: As Prime Minister Modi and Amir Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani held talks in New Delhi, India and Qatar decided to elevate their ties to a “strategic partnership”. Background: – Both countries signed two agreements and five MoUs, covering areas like economic cooperation, youth affairs and a double taxation avoidance agreement. Within the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), India has signed strategic partnerships with the UAE, Saudi Arabia, Oman and Kuwait; Qatar is the latest to join that club. Key takeaways Trade between the two countries is $14 billion annually, and they set a target to double it to $28 billion by 2030. Qatar’s sovereign wealth fund has $1.5 billion FDI in India, and the joint statement said that the Qatar side announced a commitment to invest USD 10 billion in India. Bilateral relationship Qatar’s key exports to India include LNG, LPG, chemicals and petrochemicals, plastics and aluminium articles. India’s key exports to Qatar include cereals, copper articles, iron and steel articles, vegetables, fruits, spices, processed food products, electrical and other machinery, plastic products, construction material, textiles and garments, chemicals, precious stones and rubber. Qatar is the largest supplier of LNG to India (10.74 MMT for US$ 8.32 billion in FY 2022-23), accounting for over 48% of India’s global LNG imports. Qatar is also India’s largest supplier of LPG (5.33 MMT for US$ 4.04 billion in FY 2022-23) accounting for 29% of India’s total LPG imports. Defence cooperation forms an important pillar of the bilateral agenda. India offers training slots in its defence institutions to a number of partner countries, including Qatar.  As of 2024, Indian population in Qatar forms approximately 25% of Qatar’s populace, primarily as migrant workers. Source: Indian Express RESILIENT TELECOM INFRASTRUCTURE Syllabus: Mains – GS2 & GS 3 Context: The Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI), a multilateral organisation launched by Prime Minister Narendra Modi in 2019, put out a report earlier this month studying Indian telecom networks’ preparedness in the event of disasters.  Background: – Telecom networks are crucial to handling disasters, because they allow the State and National Disaster Management Authorities to communicate quickly with local municipalities and the State and Union governments Key takeaways Telecom networks are particularly vulnerable, as they comprise cabling that may not be fully underground, towers that may not be able to withstand high wind speeds, and because they rely on a steady flow of electricity, which is frequently disrupted by disasters. Coastal regions face elevated risks, as that is where undersea cables connect India with the global internet. If the landing stations of these cables are impacted, there can be massive network disruptions. What can be done? Since much of the disruption is attributable to power failures, much can be accomplished during a disaster by maintaining or restoring power supply to telecom towers and the network operating centres to which they’re connected.  Telecom operators have typically never deployed towers assuming 24/7 power supply — and have battery as well as fuel backup. The CDRI report recommends a few measures to develop a resilient telecom network. These include greater data collection and more coordination among officials, a more robust power infrastructure, and requiring cell towers to withstand higher wind speeds, especially in districts where hurricanes make landfall.  The CDRI also advocates for a dig-once policy, which recommends building as much underground civil infrastructure, like water and gas supply lines, drainage and fibre optic cables simultaneously, reducing the risk of cables being damaged when other infrastructure is built. The short- to medium-term roadmap suggests the need to update disaster damage and loss data format, mainstream disaster risk modelling into telecommunications infrastructure planning, strengthen telecommunications asset design based on local and regional hazard vulnerability profiles, the report says.  There are also commercial interventions that the report touches on. A key one is parametric insurance, a system where telecom operators are not left to bear the commercial burden of a disaster all by themselves, and are thus financially incentivised to bring networks back online rapidly (and presumably to nudge them to disaster-proof their infrastructure well enough to keep premiums down). Source: The Hindu GLOBAL WARMING EXACERBATING WATER GAPS Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: Water gaps amounting to nearly 458 billion cubic meters per year already exist. These are projected to increase by 6 per cent under 1.5 degrees Celsius warming and by 15 per cent under 3 degrees Celsius warming according to a new analysis published in Nature Communications.  Background: The study emphasised on developing a more resilient and sustainable water management system to combat scarcity. This could include investing in resilient infrastructure, enhancing storage capabilities, desalination of seawater, reuse of treated wastewater and physical and virtual water transfers to distribute water from areas of abundance to areas of need. Key takeaways Water gaps are defined as the difference between renewable water availability and water consumption while maintaining adequate flows in aquatic environments. Researchers used climate outputs from climate models to quantify water gaps under baseline, 1.5°C, and 3°C warming scenarios. Regions currently experiencing water gaps are expected to face more severe conditions under 1.5°C warming, with even worse outcomes at 3°C warming. This trend is particularly evident in the eastern US, Chile, the Mediterranean region, south and east India, and the North China Plain. Additionally, some regions that were relatively unaffected in the baseline climate, such as Italy, Madagascar, and some US states on the East Coast (North Carolina and Virginia) and in the Great Lakes region (Wisconsin, Minnesota, Illinois), are projected to see worsening conditions. Saudi Arabia is projected to experience decreased water scarcity under the 1.5°C warming scenario, but substantial increases in water gaps under the 3°C warming scenario. Largest water gaps in India The largest water gaps under the baseline climate are found in India, the United States, Pakistan, Iran and China. India is projected to experience the most important increase in water gaps under warming scenarios. In a 1.5°C warmer

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) GLOBAL SEA ICE COVER Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – ENVIRONMENT Context: Global sea ice cover reached a record low of 15.76 million sq km over the five days leading up to February 13, surpassing the previous low of 15.93 million sq km recorded in January-February 2023. Background: – Sea ice refers to the free-floating ice in the polar regions. While it generally expands during the winter and melts in the summers, some sea ice remains year-round. Note that this is different from icebergs, glaciers, ice sheets, and ice shelves, which form on land. Key takeaways Experts suggest that the 2025 low could be due to a combination of warm air, warm seas and winds breaking apart the ice. Antarctic sea ice is particularly vulnerable to ice-breaking winds. Unlike Arctic ice, it is surrounded by the ocean instead of continents and is thus more mobile, and also comparatively thinner. The situation has been made worse this year due to warmer air and warmer waters towards the end of the southern hemisphere summer (December to February). Higher air temperatures led to the melting of the edges of the Antarctic ice sheet — also known as ice shelves — which extend over the ocean. In the Arctic, where winter lasts from November to February, sea ice remained low because of a delayed freezing around the Hudson Bay, a large saltwater body in northeastern Canada. The delay occurred as unusually warm oceans took a longer time to cool down. The region also witnessed some storms which broke apart ice around the Barents Sea, located off the northern coasts of Norway and Russia, and the Bering Sea, the stretch between Alaska and Russia. Higher than usual air temperatures in areas such as Svalbard, Norway, resulted in further loss of sea ice. What dip means Less sea ice cover means that more water is getting exposed to the Sun and more heat (solar radiation) is getting absorbed, leading to a further rise in temperatures.  Notably, sea ice keeps temperatures down in the polar regions, as its bright, white surface reflects more sunlight back to space than liquid water. The loss of sea ice cover could be one of the reasons why the polar regions are getting warmer at a faster rate than the rest of the world. Source: Indian Express MAJORANA 1 Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: Microsoft has announced a new chip, called Majorana 1, that it said showed quantum computing is “years, not decades” away, joining Google and IBM in predicting that a fundamental change in computing technology is closer than believed. Background: – Quantum computing holds the promise of carrying out calculations that would take today’s systems millions of years and could unlock important discoveries in medicine, chemistry, and aerospace, among others. Key takeaways Majorana 1 is a groundbreaking quantum computing chip developed by Microsoft. Microsoft’s breakthrough revolves around engineering a new type of particle known as Majorana. These Majorana particles have been fabricated using topological conductors and they exist in a topological state, which differs from traditional states of matter such as solid, liquid, and gas. First theorised over 80 years ago by Italian physicist Ettore Majorana, Majorana fermions are particles that are their own anti-particles. But, there was no physical evidence of such particles. Key Features Topological Quantum Bits: Majorana 1 integrates eight topological qubits, which are more stable and less prone to errors compared to traditional qubits. Topological Conductors: Utilizes a new type of material called topoconductors to observe and control Majorana particles, enhancing the reliability and scalability of qubits. Compact Design: The chip is compact, about the size of a sticky note, yet powerful enough to be a stepping stone towards systems capable of supporting a million qubits. Applications Industrial-Scale Problems: Designed to solve meaningful, industrial-scale problems in fields such as medicine, pollution control, and materials science. Future Potential: Microsoft envisions Majorana 1 as a path to developing quantum systems that can scale to a million qubits, enabling transformative solutions. Significance Quantum Leap: Represents a significant advancement in quantum computing, potentially revolutionizing various industries. Error Resistance: The use of Majorana fermions makes the chip highly stable and resistant to errors, a major challenge in quantum computing. Source: The Hindu CONSUMPTION, INVESTMENT AND GROWTH Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – ECONOMY Context: The role of consumption and investment in driving growth has been a topic of debate. In the latest Budget, the government has not demonstrated a strong commitment to boosting investment. Instead, the emphasis on tax concessions and restrained public spending suggests a reliance on consumption to drive growth. Background: An economy’s growth depends on two factors. One is the supply or the production of goods and services, and the other is the demand or expenditure for purchasing these goods and services.  Key takeaways The demand or aggregate expenditure in an economy comes from four sources.  First is private consumption, which is the sum of expenditures by all individuals on items such as food, clothing, and mobile phones.  Second is private investment, which is the amount spent by firms and households on installing new machines and constructing new factories or residences.  Third is government expenditure, for consumption and investment. Fourth is net exports or exports minus import of goods and services while engaging in trade with the rest of the world. Investment and its multipliers Among the sources of demand, investment stands out for its ‘multiplier effects’. That is, an increase in investment of ₹100 could increase the economy’s overall demand and GDP by more than ₹100 — let us say by ₹125. Consider public investment in building a new highway. The incomes received by workers and firms involved in the project will generate fresh demand in the economy. The highways will trigger the establishment of new industries, all of which translate into a much bigger expansion of aggregate demand. Compared to investment, the multiplier effect from increased consumption is weaker. If incomes increase, consumption expenditures also increase, but the

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) COMPENSATORY AFFORESTATION Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – ENVIRONMENT Context: A recent audit report by the Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG) on the functioning of the Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA) in the 2019-2022 period has flagged that the funds allocated for compensatory afforestation were diverted for other activities by Uttarakhand’s forest divisions. Background: – As per CAMPA guidelines, after receiving funds, afforestation should be conducted within a year, or two growing seasons. However, the report flagged that in 37 cases, compensatory afforestation was executed after more than eight years of getting final clearance. Key takeaways The simple principle that works in compensatory afforestation is that since forests are an important resource and render ecological services, they must not be destroyed. However, because of developmental requirements, forests are routinely cut, or, as it is said in official language, “diverted for non-forest purposes”. But since afforested land does not become a forest overnight, there is still a loss of the goods and services that the diverted forest would have provided in the interim period. These goods and services include timber, bamboo, fuelwood, carbon sequestration, soil conservation, water recharge, and seed dispersal.  Afforested land is expected to take no less than 50 years to start delivering comparable goods and services. To compensate for the loss in the interim, the law requires that the Net Present Value (NPV) of the diverted forest is calculated for a period of 50 years, and recovered from the “user agency” that is “diverting” the forests. “User agencies”, which are often private parties, are not expected to undertake afforestation work themselves. This work has to be done by the state government. But the entire expenditure to be incurred on creating this new ‘forest’, including purchase of land for the purpose, has to be borne by the user. Thus, if any user agency wants to divert forest land for non-forest purposes, it has to deposit money for compensatory afforestation as well as pay the NPV, besides a few other charges. CAMPA is set up to manage this money. The compensatory afforestation money and NPV are supposed to be collected from the user agency by the government of the state in which the project is located, and deposited with the central government. The money will eventually flow back to the state to be used for afforestation or related works. The Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act 2016 created a national CAMPA at the central government level, and a state CAMPA in each state and UT. Similarly, a National Compensatory Afforestation Fund (CAF), and one in each state and UT too are also constituted. The states deposit money collected from user agencies with the national CAF, to be eventually credited into state CAFs as per their entitlement. The states, however, receive only 90% of their share; the other 10%  are held back to cover administrative expenses. Source: Indian Express ARTICLE 101(4) Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – POLITY Context: Incarcerated Khadoor Sahib MP Amritpal Singh moved the Punjab and Haryana High Court to attend the ongoing Parliament session, lest he lose his seat because of his prolonged absence from the House. Background: – Amritpal, who faces charges under National Security Act, has been detained in Dibrugarh since April 2023. He contested and won the 2024 Lok Sabha election from prison, but thus far has an attendance of only 2%. Key takeaways “If for a period of sixty days a member of either House of Parliament is without permission of the House absent from all meetings thereof, the House may declare his seat vacant,” Article 101(4) says.  The 60 days, however, do not account for “any period during which the House is prorogued or is adjourned for more than four consecutive days”. Effectively, the period of absence is only calculated based on the actual sittings of Parliament. Amritpal, for instance, only attended one sitting of the Lok Sabha — the one in which he was sworn in last July. Since then, he has remained in detention in Assam. MPs can seek leave The operative term in Article 101(4) is “without permission of the House”. For long absences, MPs write to the ‘Committee on Absence of Members from the Sittings of the House’, the parliamentary panel that deals with this issue. The committee makes recommendations on each leave application, which are then ratified by the House concerned. In practice, however, applications are seldom rejected. Past leave application reports list illness — their own or some relative’s — as the most common reason for MPs being granted leave. That said, members have requested and been granted leave on the count of being imprisoned as well. In 2023, then Ghosi MP Atul Rai of the Bahujan Samaj Party sought permission to remain absent on 23 consecutive sittings of Parliament as he was in jail. His application was granted. Even if an MP is absent for more than 60 days, the House has to “declare” the seat vacant, meaning the matter has to be put to vote. Source: Indian Express STAGFLATION Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – ECONOMY Context: Stubborn inflation and President Donald Trump’s hard-line trade policies have rekindled fears of stagflation, a worrying mix of sluggish growth and relentless inflation that haunted the U.S. in the 1970s. Background: A critical component of the stagflation phenomenon—persistently high inflation—became more pronounced earlier this month when data revealed that consumer prices in January experienced their most rapid monthly increase since August 2023. Meanwhile, the trajectory of U.S. economic growth remains uncertain, with the potential inflationary impact of Mr. Trump’s tariffs posing a risk that could further exacerbate the situation. Key takeaways Stagflation is a rare economic condition where high inflation coexists with stagnant economic growth and high unemployment. This phenomenon contradicts conventional economic theories, which suggest that inflation and economic growth generally move in the same direction. Understanding Stagflation: The term “stagflation” is a combination of stagnation (slow or no economic growth) and inflation (rising prices). Typically, inflation is associated with economic expansion, but in stagflation, rising prices occur alongside weak demand and

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) ZONAL COUNCILS Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – POLITY Context: Union Home Minister Amit Shah chaired the 27th meeting of the Western Zonal Council in Pune.  Background: – The idea of creation of Zonal Councils was mooted by the first PM Jawaharlal Nehru in 1956 when during the course of debate on the report of the States Reorganisation Commission, he suggested that the states proposed to be reorganised may be grouped into four or five zones having an Advisory Council “to develop the habit of cooperative working”. Key takeaways Zonal Councils in India are statutory bodies created under the States Reorganisation Act, 1956. The North-Eastern Council (NEC), created under a separate Act in 1971, covers the northeastern states and functions differently. The present composition of the Zonal Councils is as follows:  The Northern Zonal Council, comprising the States of Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Punjab, Rajasthan, National Capital Territory of Delhi and Union Territory of Chandigarh.  The Central Zonal Council, comprising the States of Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.  The Eastern Zonal Council, comprising the States of Bihar, Jharkhand, Orissa, and West Bengal.  The Western Zonal Council, comprising the States of Goa, Gujarat, Maharashtra and the Union Territories of Daman & Diu and Dadra & Nagar Haveli.  The Southern Zonal Council, comprising the States of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and the Union Territory of Puducherry.  North Eastern Council was set up under the North Eastern Council Act, 1972 with Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Tripura, Mizoram, Meghalaya and Nagaland as its members. The state of Sikkim, earlier in the Eastern Zonal Council was included in the North Eastern Council in 2002. Each Zonal Council has a Standing Committee consisting of Chief Secretaries of the member states. These Standing Committees meet from time to time to resolve the issues or to do necessary groundwork for further meetings of the Zonal Councils. The composition of each council is as follows: The Union Home Minister is the chairman of each of these council. The Chief Ministers of the states included in each zone act as Vice-Chairman of the Zonal Council for that zone by rotation, each holding office for a period of one year at a time. In 2018, the Union Cabinet chaired by the Prime Minister Narendra Modi approved the nomination of the Union Home Minister as ex-officio chairman of North Eastern Council and the Minister Development of North Eastern Region (DoNER) to serve as Vice Chairman of the Council. Source: Indian Express DARIEN GAP Syllabus: Prelims – GEOGRAPHY Context: Migrants seeking entry into the US continue to resort to the infamous Darien Gap, an unforgiving expanse of jungle between Panama and Colombia. They are led by unscrupulous human traffickers who prey on their desire to seek a better life. Background: – The majority of migrants hail from Latin America and are fleeing poverty, economic instability, and political turmoil in their home countries. However, an increasing number of people from Asian countries like India have frequented this route, spending large amounts of money. Key takeaways Location: The Darien Gap is a dense, roadless jungle region on the border of Panama and Colombia. Physical Features: It consists of swamps, rainforests, and rugged mountains, making it one of the most inaccessible regions in the world. Obstacle to the Pan-American Highway: This is the only missing section (about 106 km) in the otherwise continuous Pan-American Highway, which extends from Alaska to Argentina. Strategic & Geopolitical Importance Migration Route: It has become a major passage for migrants from South America, Africa, and even Asia attempting to reach North America. Security Issues: The area is notorious for drug trafficking, organized crime, and armed groups operating in the region. Environmental Conservation vs. Development: Proposals to build roads through the Darien Gap face opposition due to concerns about deforestation, indigenous rights, and biodiversity loss. Environmental & Ecological Concerns Biodiversity Hotspot: It is home to endangered species and a vital part of the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor. Portions of the Darién Gap are protected as national parks and reserves, such as Darién National Park in Panama, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Climate Change & Deforestation: Logging, illegal settlements, and infrastructure development threaten the unique ecosystem. Indigenous Communities: Several indigenous tribes, including the Emberá and Wounaan, inhabit the region and rely on traditional means for survival. Source: Indian Express SOLIGA Syllabus: Prelims  – CURRENT EVENT Context: Prime Minister Narendra Modi made a reference to Soligas of BRT Tiger Reserve in the 119th edition of Mann Ki Baat and praised their contribution to tiger conservation. Background: The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) report on the tiger population for BRT Tiger Reserve indicated the presence of 69 tigers in 2014. This number went up to 86 in the 2018 report. However, the NTCA’s 2022 report on the “Status of Tigers, Co-Predators, and Prey” noted a decline in the tiger population and attributed it to the presence of humans and habitat degradation. Key takeaways The Soliga, also spelled Solega, Sholaga, and Shōlaga, are an indigenous tribal community primarily residing in the Biligirirangana Hills (BR Hills) and Male Mahadeshwara Hills of Karnataka, India, with some populations in the Erode district of Tamil Nadu.  Their name, “Soliga,” translates to “children of bamboo,” reflecting their deep-rooted connection with nature. Language: The Soliga speak Sholaga, a Dravidian language closely related to Kannada and Tamil. Historically, the Soliga practiced shifting cultivation and were dependent on the forest for their livelihood, collecting non-timber forest products (NTFP) such as honey, gooseberries, bamboo, and various medicinal plants. They possess extensive knowledge of over 300 herbs used for treating various ailments. Cultural and Religious Practices The Soliga follow a blend of naturism, animism, and Hinduism.  Sacred sites such as Dodda Sampige, a large Michelia champaka tree, hold significant spiritual importance. Legal Recognition and Conservation Efforts In 2011, the BR Hills region was declared a tiger reserve, leading to restrictions on traditional practices.  The Soliga community legally contested these limitations and became the first tribal group in India to have their forest rights recognized within a core area of

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) PANCHAYAT DEVOLUTION INDEX Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – POLITY Context: Recently, the Union Ministry of Panchayati Raj released the Panchayat Devolution Index , which is based on a study conducted by the Indian Institute of Public Administration (IIPA). Background: – The index was last published in 2014, and over the past decade, the national average score has increased from 39.92 to 43.89. Key takeaways As of 2024, India has 2.62 lakh panchayats, an increase from 2.48 lakh in 2013-14. Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Madhya Pradesh recorded the highest number of panchayats in both 2013-14 and 2024. The IIPA studied 172 panchayats across 68 districts in India to assess the performance of the panchayat system based on six parameters: framework, functions, finances, functionaries, capacity building, and accountability. Using this data, the IIPA developed the Panchayat Devolution Index. The index scores states on a scale of 0 to 100. Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu ranked highest on the index, while Uttar Pradesh and Bihar showed the most significant improvement. According to the latest index, Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh, and Jharkhand are the lowest-scoring states.  Notably, in 2013-14, Maharashtra, Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Chhattisgarh got the top scores. Women representation: While most states have a 50% reservation quota for women in panchayats, seven states and union territories fall below this threshold. Odisha has the highest proportion of women among panchayat representatives at 61.51%, followed by Himachal Pradesh at 57.5% and Tamil Nadu at 57.32%. Uttar Pradesh has the lowest proportion of women representatives at 33.33%, as its regulations allow only a one-third reservation for women. Nationally, the average proportion of women representatives is 46.44%, a slight increase from 45.9% in 2013-14. While there is no formal reservation for SCs, STs, and OBCs, specific states have shown notable representation of these groups in panchayats. Punjab has the highest proportion of SC representatives at 36.34%. Chhattisgarh has the highest share of ST representatives at 41.04%. Bihar has the highest representation of OBCs at 39.02%. In comparison, the national average representation for these groups is 18.03% for SCs, 16.22% for STs, and 19.15% for OBCs. Source: Indian Express BLACK PLASTIC Syllabus: Prelims – SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: Black plastic made headlines after a study claimed that the material contained toxic flame retardants, which could be leaching into food at hazardous levels. However, it was recently found that the study had miscalculated the levels of one of the toxic chemicals, leading the researchers to issue a correction. Background: – Black plastic is often made from recycled electronic waste such as computers, TVs, and appliances. The issue is that these electronics typically contain substances such as the flame retardant bromine; antimony; and heavy metals such as lead, cadmium, and mercury. Key takeaways Black plastic refers to plastics dyed with carbon black pigments, commonly used in packaging, electronics, automotive parts, and household goods. It is primarily made from recycled plastic but is difficult to recycle due to the presence of toxic chemicals and detection issues in recycling facilities. Challenges in Recycling Black plastic is not easily detected by conventional sorting machines in Material Recovery Facilities (MRFs). Since most recycling systems use near-infrared (NIR) sensors, black plastic absorbs infrared light, making it invisible for sorting and leading to landfill disposal. Presence of Toxic Additives Often contains hazardous chemicals like brominated flame retardants, heavy metals, and persistent organic pollutants (POPs). These chemicals leach into soil and water, causing health risks and environmental pollution. Contribution to Microplastic Pollution When black plastic degrades, it breaks into microplastics, contaminating water bodies, soil, and even entering the food chain. Microplastics impact marine life and pose a human health hazard when ingested through food or water. Link to E-Waste Pollution Black plastic is commonly sourced from e-waste, including discarded electronic casings, cables, and appliances. Improper disposal of e-waste black plastic releases hazardous chemicals, contributing to air and water pollution. Landfill and Incineration Issues Due to low recycling rates, black plastic ends up in landfills or incinerators, releasing toxic fumes such as dioxins and furans, known carcinogens and endocrine disruptors. Source: Indian Express BATTLE OF KARNAL AND DECLINE OF MUGHALS Syllabus: Prelims &Mains –  HISTORY Context: The Battle of Karnal, on February 24, 1739, saw Persian emperor Nadir Shah handing a crushing defeat to the forces of Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah Rangila. Background: The army of Nadir Shah, founder of the Afsharid dynasty of Iran, defeated the Mughal forces in under three hours. The Shah of Iran subsequently captured and sacked Delhi, the Mughal capital, and emptied the royal treasury, taking home the fabled Peacock Throne and the Koh-i-noor diamond embedded on it. Key takeaways The decline of the once-mighty Mughal Empire is attributed to structural weaknesses, rather than merely the incompetence of later emperors. Excessive Tax Burden on Peasantry Historian Irfan Habib argues that heavy taxation led to peasant revolts, which forced the empire to further increase taxes to fund military campaigns, creating a vicious cycle of economic distress. (The Agrarian System of Mughal India, 1963) Expansion of the Mughal Nobility M. Athar Ali highlights how an overgrown nobility in the late 17th century led to corruption, infighting, and inefficiency due to a shortage of lucrative jagirs (land revenue assignments). (The Mughal Nobility under Aurangzeb, 1966) Religious Alienation under Aurangzeb Historians like Jadunath Sarkar argue that Aurangzeb’s oppressive religious policies alienated Hindus and other minorities, leading to internal discontent and rebellions. Nadir Shah’s invasion By the time of Aurangzeb, the Empire faced constant challenges, whether they be from the Marathas in the south, Ahoms in the east, or the Jats, Raputs, Bundelas, and Sikhs in the north and west. These challengers were not only taking territory but straining the Mughal treasury in the process. The invasion of Nadir Shah would be the single-greatest challenge that the Mughal Empire would face till that date. A military genius who some historians would later refer to as the “Napoleon of Persia”, Nadir Shah took over power in Iran after deposing the reigning Safavid dynasty. After conquering Kandahar in 1738, Nadir Shah

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) NAKSHA SCHEME Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: Recently, Union Rural Development Minister Shivraj Singh Chouhan launched the Central government’s new initiative—‘NAtional geospatial Knowledge-based land Survey of urban HAbitations’ (NAKSHA). Background: – Most urban areas – barring a few states like Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Goa – have outdated or unstructured land records, causing inefficiencies in governance and taxation. The programme addresses the issue of updation of land records in urban areas – while land records have improved in rural areas, several cities lack maps even today. Key takeaways NAKSHA is a city survey initiative under the existing Digital India Land Records Modernization Programme (DILRMP). It is spearheaded by the Department of Land Resources (DoLR), under the Ministry of Rural Development. Under the new initiative, maps of towns and cities will be prepared. The programme has been launched as a pilot across 152 urban local bodies in 26 states. The cities selected meet two criteria: area less than 35 sq km, and population less than 2 lakhs. The pilot will be completed in a year. According to the DoLR, “The NAKSHA program aims to create a comprehensive and accurate geospatial database for urban land records. By integrating aerial and field surveys with advanced GIS technology, the program enhances efficiency in land governance, streamlines property ownership records, and facilitates urban planning. Accurate geospatial data ensures improved decision-making, efficient land use planning and smoothen and certain property transactions.” What does NAKSHA entail? As per the Census 2011, India has 7,933 towns covering 1.02 lakh square km of the total 32.87 lakh square km geographical area of the country. NAKSHA will cover 4,142.63 square km of area. The initiative is 100 per cent centrally funded. The pilot project is expected to cost about Rs 194 crore. Once completed, NAKSHA is expected to provide comprehensive digital urban land records, reduce land disputes, aid in faster and more efficient urban planning, improve property tax collection, simplify property transactions and improve access to credit. The Centre plans to scale up NAKSHA once the pilot is completed. How will the survey be done? The survey will be done through aerial photography using two types of cameras— simple cameras and oblique angle cameras (having 5 cameras) with LiDAR sensors. These cameras will be mounted on drones. The ground resolution of these cameras will be 5 cm, which is far better than any satellite. The NAKSHA initiative envisages a three-stage process for the survey and mapping of urban areas. In the first stage, an area is selected, and a flight plan for a drone survey is drawn. Once a drone flight takes place, photographs are taken from which data will be extracted. In the second stage, a field survey is done to verify the conditions on the ground. Details like property tax, ownership, and registration deeds will be linked with each land parcel and property. Thereafter 2D/3D models will be prepared and draft land ownership details will be published. In the third stage, claims and objections are accounted for and grievances are redressed. Following these, the final maps will be published. Source: Indian Express UN PEACEKEEPING Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – INTERNATIONAL Context: External Affairs Minister S Jaishankar highlighted India’s commitments to supporting Global South nations in building their peacekeeping capacities at the inaugural ‘Conference for Women Peacekeepers from the Global South’. Background: – Since the 1950s, India has contributed over 290,000 peacekeepers across more than 50 UN Peacekeeping missions. Today, more than 5,000 Indian peacekeepers are currently deployed in nine of the 11 active peacekeeping missions. Key takeaways The idea of UN Peacekeeping stems from the UN having no military forces. Therefore, Member States voluntarily provide the military and police personnel that are periodically required for each peacekeeping operation from their national forces. Peacekeepers usually wear their countries’ uniforms and are identified as UN peacekeepers only by a UN blue helmet or beret and a badge. They are tasked with protecting civilians, actively preventing conflict, reducing violence, strengthening security, and empowering national authorities to assume these responsibilities. Officially, they are allowed to use force at a tactical level, with the authorisation of the Security Council, if acting in self-defence and defence of the mandate. In general, a UN peacekeeping operation should only use force as a measure of last resort. The first UN peacekeeping mission was established in May 1948, when the UN Security Council authorised the deployment of a small number of UN military observers to the Middle East to form the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO) to monitor the Armistice Agreement between Israel and its Arab neighbours. Who funds UN Peacekeeping Missions? The UN Security Council makes decisions about establishing, maintaining, or expanding peacekeeping operations, while all UN Member States are collectively tasked with financing them.  Every member is legally obligated to pay their respective share under Article 17 of the Charter of the United Nations. The United States (26.95%) and China (18.69%) pay the most, partly because they are part of the UNSC. India’s share is around 0.2088%. Peacekeeping soldiers are paid by their Governments according to their own national rank and salary scale. Countries volunteering uniformed personnel to peacekeeping operations are reimbursed by the UN at a standard rate, approved by the General Assembly, of US$1,428 per soldier per month as of 1 July 2019. Source: Indian Express PUNCH MISSION Syllabus: Prelims – SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: Nasa is gearing up for a new and first-of-its-kind solar mission that will closely observe the solar atmosphere and reconstruct the formation, trace origins, and map the evolution of solar winds and Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs), both of which influence space weather. Background: The Polarimetry to Unify the Corona and Heliosphere (PUNCH) mission will be launched by SpaceX on February 28. Key takeaways The Polarimeter to Unify the Corona and Heliosphere (PUNCH) is a NASA mission designed to study the Sun’s outer atmosphere, known as the corona, and its expansion into the solar wind that fills the solar

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) DELIMITATION Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – POLITY Context: Home Minister Amit Shah asserted that delimitation will not lose any Parliamentary seat to the Southern states. The statement came after Tamil Nadu Chief Minister M K Stalin Tuesday announced an all-party meeting to discuss the issue of delimitation. Background: – In Independent India’s history, delimitation has taken place four times – 1952, 1963, 1973, and 2002. Key takeaways The Election Commission defines delimitation as the process of drawing constituency boundaries for elected bodies based on the population in the most recent Census.  Article 82 of the Constitution states that after every Census is completed, the allocation of Lok Sabha seats to each state must be adjusted based on population changes. Article 81 states there can be no more than 550 members in the Lok Sabha – 530 from states and 20 from Union Territories. It also says that “the ratio between (the number of seats) and the population of the state is, so far as practicable, the same for all states”. So, each constituency across the country should ideally have the same population. The Constitution has provided for an independent Delimitation Commission to reapportion seats among states. The Commission is appointed by the President of India and comprises a retired judge of the Supreme Court or a high court, the Chief Election Commissioner, and the State Election Commissioner. The Commission examines the changes in the population to redraw the constituencies or redraw a new one where it is necessary. The draft report is published in the Gazette which is open for feedback. The final report is published after accounting for the public feedback.  Once published, the Commission’s orders are final and, as per the Delimitation Commission Act 1952 and Article 329A of the Constitution, has the “full force of law and shall not be called into question in any court”. The required amendment in the Constitution for the implementation of delimitation process includes changes to Article 81 (which defines the composition of the Lok Sabha), Article 170 (composition of Legislative Assemblies), Article 82, Article 55 (deals with the presidential election process for which value of each vote in the electoral college is decided on the population basis), Articles 330 and 332 (covering reservation of seats for the Lok Sabha and Legislative Assemblies, respectively). Changes in the composition of Lok Sabha as a result of delimitation Delimitation has taken place four times – 1952, 1963, 1973 and 2002, with the number of seats fixed and readjusted during the first three exercises. The number of seats in the Lok Sabha based on the 1951, 1961 and 1971 Census was fixed at 494, 522 and 543, when the population was 36.1, 43.9 and 54.8 crore respectively. This broadly translated to an average population of 7.3, 8.4 and 10.1 lakh per seat respectively. In 1976, the 42nd Amendment to the Constitution froze the number of Lok Sabha seats and put off delimitation for 25 years until the 2001 Census under Article 82.  The Indira Gandhi-led government said it did not want to punish states with effective population control measures, as their representation in the Lok Sabha would fall compared to states with high populations. In 2002, another amendment was made under the Vajpayee-led government. This 84th Amendment further delayed delimitation for another 25 years. Though constituency boundaries were redrawn to account for changes in population according to the 2001 Census, the total number of Lok Sabha seats and the number of seats allotted to each state remained unchanged. Source: Indian Express TIME USE SURVEY 2024 Syllabus: Prelims & Mains -CURRENT EVENT Context: Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) released the Time Use Survey (TUS) for 2024. Background: – Time Use Survey (TUS) measures time dispositions by the population on different activities. The primary objective of the Survey is to measure the participation of men and women in paid and unpaid activities. Key takeaways During 2024, 75 percent of the males and 25 per cent of the females in the age group 15-59 years, participated in employment and related activities during the reference period of 24 hours. Such participation was 70.9 percent for males and 21.8 percent for females in the age group 15-59 years during 2019. Female participants aged 15-59 years in unpaid domestic services spent about 315 minutes during 2019 in those activities, which has come down to 305 minutes during 2024 signifying the shift from unpaid to paid activities. 41 per cent of females aged 15-59 years participated in caregiving for their household members, male participation in this age group in such caregiving was 21.4 per cent.  Also, female participants in caregiving activities spent about 140 minutes in a day, compared to 74 minutes spent by male participants aged 15-59 years. This corroborates the Indian social fabric wherein most of the caregiving responsibilities for household members are borne by the females of the household. 24.6 per cent of the rural population aged 15-59 years participated in producing goods for own final use and they spent 121 minutes a day doing such activities. 89.3 per cent of children aged 6-14 years participated in learning activities and they spent around 413 minutes in a day for such activities. People aged 6 years and above spent 11 per cent of their days’ time in culture, leisure, mass media and sports practices during 2024, compared to 9.9 per cent of the days’ time spent during 2019. 708 minutes in a day was spent on self-care and maintenance activities by persons aged 6 years and above. Females of this age group spent 706 minutes while males spent 710 minutes in such activities. Source: Indian Express SVALBARD GLOBAL SEED VAULT Syllabus: Prelims – SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: Over 14,000 new samples of food crop seeds are being added this week to a “doomsday” vault located on an island in Svalbard, Norway. Background: These seeds are part of an effort launched in 2008 to back up thousands of the planet’s essential plant species, ensuring a biodiverse future food supply.  Key takeaways The Svalbard Global Seed Vault (also known as the Doomsday Vault) is a secure seed bank located on the Svalbard archipelago, Norway. It serves as a global backup facility for

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) INDIA-EUROPE PARTNERSHIP Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: At a time when ties between Europe and the United States are facing great pressure, a large delegation of European Commission College of Commissioners is in New Delhi for a two-day visit. Background: – The visit of the College of Commissioners marks a significant new phase in bilateral relations, as India and the EU enter the third decade of their Strategic Partnership. Key takeaways India established diplomatic relations with the European Economic Community — the first pillar of the future European Union — back in 1962. The multi-tier institutional architecture of cooperation has been presided over by the India-EU Summits, 15 of which have been held so far. The first Summit was held in Lisbon in 2000, and the bilateral relationship was upgraded to a Strategic Partnership at the 5th Summit in The Hague in 2004. The India-EU Strategic Partnership: A Roadmap to 2025, was adopted at the last India-EU Summit in 2020. Trade and investments India and the EU have been negotiating a Free Trade Agreement for the last decade and a half. The economic argument for an agreement is strong: the EU is India’s largest trading partner in goods, and bilateral trade has increased 90% over the past decade. Bilateral trade in goods was $135 billion in FY 2023-24, with Indian exports to the EU accounting for $76 billion and imports for $59 billion. Bilateral trade in services in 2023 stood at $53 billion, comprising Indian exports of $30 billion and imports of $23 billion. Cumulative Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) flows from the EU during the period April 2000 to September 2024 was $117.4 billion, which represented 16.6% of the total FDI equity inflow. Indian FDI outflows to the EU are valued at approximately $40.04 billion for the period April 2000 to March 2024. Technology cooperation Bilateral science and technology cooperation is carried out within the framework of the Science and Technology Cooperation Agreement of 2007.  The India-EU Intent of Cooperation in High Performance Computing (HPC) was signed in 2022, and in 2023, the two sides signed a Memorandum of Understanding on semiconductor R&D cooperation. Green energy solutions Established in 2016, the EU-India Clean Energy and Climate Partnership (CECP) promotes access to and dissemination of clean energy and climate-friendly technologies. The European Investment Bank has committed to supporting Indian hydrogen projects with funding of 1 billion euros.  Indian and European companies are collaborating in the renewable and hydrogen sectors with the aim of developing a green hydrogen ecosystem in India by 2030. People-to-people ties The growing Indian diaspora in the EU contains large numbers of students, researchers, and skilled professionals. Indian professionals received the largest share — more than 20% — of EU Blue Cards issued in 2023-24. Over the last 20 years, more than 6,000 Erasmus scholarships have been awarded to Indian students. More than 2,700 Indian researchers have been funded by Marie Sklodowska-Curie Actions (part of the EU’s research and innovation programme Horizon Europe) since 2014 — the most in the world. Defence and space India and the EU are strengthening their defence cooperation, specially in maritime security and the Indo-Pacific region under ESIWA+ security programme. This is crucial in the context of China’s aggressive policies. The first joint naval exercises were held in 2023 in the Gulf of Guinea. The two sides have stepped up cooperation on global security, natural disasters, piracy, and counter-terrorism. Source: Indian Express ANCIENT INDIA’S CONTRIBUTION TO SCIENCE Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, HISTORY Context: National Science Day is celebrated on February 28 to mark the contribution of Indian scientists to society’s development. In 1986, the India Government designated this day to commemorate the announcement of the discovery of the “Raman Effect.” CV Raman discovered the Raman effect on February 28, 1928, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1930. Background: – On the occasion of National Science Day, a look at the significant contribution of ancient India in the field of science is essential. Key takeaways The Indian origin of Zero: In the 6th and 7th Century C.E. Indian mathematician Brahmagupta was the first to clearly define zero (as what remains when a number is subtracted from itself) and explore all its properties. He also invented negative numbers as a concept. Decimal system of numerals: Decimal system was discoved by Indians. Even the Arabs themselves called mathematics “the Indian (art)” (hindisat). The atomic theory of Kanad: The sixth-century scientist of Vaisheshika School, Kanad had given his atomic theory that the material universe is made up of kanas, (anu/atom) which cannot be seen through any human organ. These cannot be further subdivided. Thus, they are indivisible and indestructible. This is similar to the modern atomic theory. Earthquake cloud theory: Varahamihira in his book Brhat Samhita has devoted a chapter on signs of earthquakes. He has tried to relate earthquakes to the influence of planets, undersea activities, underground water, unusual cloud formation, and abnormal behaviour of animals. Position of nine planets: Aryabhata was the first mathematician who discovered the position of nine planets and mentioned that they revolve around the sun. The mathematician has made a huge contribution to the place value system. Cyclic Method to solve algebraic equations: Bhaskaracharya in his book Siddanta Shiromani has introduced the Chakrawat Method or the Cyclic Method to solve algebraic equations. Medicine: Charak in his book Charak Samhita had given a description of a large number of diseases and gives methods of identifying their causes as well as the method of their treatment. He was the first who emphasise that digestion, metabolism, and immunity are important for health. Metallurgy:  The Iron Pillar of Delhi stands as evidence of ancient India’s advanced metallurgical knowledge, particularly in corrosion resistance. Wootz steel, primarily iron with a high proportion of carbon, is known for high durability and strength has originated in India. Surgery: Sushruta is often referred to as the “Father of Surgery”. His works have immensely contributed to the field of surgery, especially cosmetic surgery. His work in the book

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) THREE – LANGUAGE FORMULA Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: In a strongly worded letter to the Prime Minister, Tamil Nadu Chief Minister M K Stalin sought the release of Rs 2,152 crore pending for the centrally-sponsored Samagra Shiksha scheme meant to support the provisions of the RTE Act. Background: – The Centre has withheld funds for the Samagra Shiksha scheme in Tamil Nadu due to the state’s refusal to implement the New Education Policy (NEP) of 2020. At the heart of the clash between the Centre and Tamil Nadu is the so-called “three-language formula” that is a part of the NEP. While the Centre maintains that this policy is meant to ensure that youth get employment across regions, Tamil Nadu has long viewed it as an attempt to impose Hindi on the state. Key takeaways Tamil Nadu has an almost century-old history of anti-Hindi agitations. Unlike most other states — including southern states such as Kerala and Karnataka — it follows a two-language formula in which students are taught only Tamil and English In the past, Centre has maintained that education is in the Concurrent List of the Constitution, and that the implementation of the three-language formula is the responsibility of the states. However, now, the Ministry of Education has linked the release of Samagra Shiksha funds to the implementation of the NEP. Evolution of 3 language policy The debate over language policy in education — regarding both the medium of instruction and teaching of languages — has existed since Independence. The University Education Commission of 1948-49, chaired by Dr Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, who went on to become the second President of India, examined this topic in detail. The Radhakrishnan Commission favoured Hindi (Hindustani) as India’s federal language, to be used for all federal activities — administrative, educational and cultural — while regional languages would serve the provinces. At the same time, the Commission recognised that immediately abandoning English would be impractical. It stated that English would have to continue as “the medium for Federal business” till such time that all provinces are ready for the change, having “spread the Federal language adequately”. It was this Commission that first proposed what would later become the three-language formula for school education. This proposal was accepted by the National Education Commission of 1964-66 (Kothari Commission), and was incorporated into the National Policy on Education, 1968 passed by the Indira Gandhi government. For secondary education, the formula proposed that students learn “a modern Indian language, preferably one of the southern languages, apart from Hindi and English in the Hindi-speaking States” and “Hindi along with the regional language and English in the non-Hindi speaking States.” The National Policy on Education of 1986, passed by the Rajiv Gandhi government, and the latest NEP of 2020, too retained this formula. Source: Indian Express PHILANTHROPY IN INDIA Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: Over the next five years, private funding in India’s social sector is expected to see a 10%–12% annual growth, largely driven by family philanthropy from high-net-worth individuals (HNIs), according to a new report. Background: – Generally, the share of private funds allocated towards philanthropy in India has been low compared to other major economies. Key takeaways As of FY24, the total size of the country’s social sector funding – on education, healthcare, gender equality, etc. – is around Rs 25 lakh crore ($300 billion). Public spending accounted for 95% of total funding at Rs 23 lakh crore, including schemes such as MGNREGS and the Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana. On the other hand, private spending stood at around Rs 1.3 lakh crore, according to the India Philanthropy Report (IPR) 2025 from venture philanthropy firm Dasra and management consultancy Bain & Co. Currently, family giving accounts for approximately 40% of philanthropy, including personal giving and corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives from family-owned/run businesses.  HNIs and philanthropy The India Philanthropy Report 2022 found that “Relative contributions (giving as a percentage of wealth) among Indian UHNIs (Ultra-high-net-worth individuals) range from 0.1% to 0.15% compared with 1.2% to 2.5% in the United States, 0.5% to 1.8% in the UK, and 0.5% to 1.4% in China.” As defined in the 2025 report, UHNIs refer to ultra-high-net-worth individuals (UHNIs) with a net worth of Rs 1,000 crore and more. HNIs have a net worth of Rs 200 to 1,000 crore, while the “Affluent” category includes those ranging between Rs 7 to 200 crore. In comparison, a tradition of philanthropy has long existed in the US. According to a 2024 analysis from Forbes, American billionaires such as Warren Buffett, Bill Gates, Melinda French Gates, and MacKenzie Scott have donated at least 20% of their wealth. What do projections say about philanthropy in India? One reason behind the projected rise in the share of private spending in the next five years is the high growth in HNIs and the affluent givers segment. CSR growth is also expected to grow by 10-12%, driven by an uptick in compliance by firms.  It is mandated that any firm with a net worth of at least Rs 500 crore or annual turnover surpassing Rs 1,000 crore or net profits exceeding Rs 5 crore must spend a minimum of 2% of their average net profit of preceding three financial years on CSR activities. The report also noted the growth in family offices, which are firms that manage HNIs and their families’ assets and wealth. It said that tapping into family offices and developing structured services for channelling funds towards the nonprofit ecosystem can help the larger cause of Indian philanthropy. Source: Indian Express OCELOT Syllabus: Prelims – CURRENT EVENT Context: Amazon Web Services (AWS) announced Ocelot, its first-generation quantum computing chip, as it enters the race against fellow tech giants in harnessing the experimental technology. Background: Quantum research is seen as a critical emerging field, and both the United States and China have been investing heavily in the area, with Washington also placing restrictions on exports of the sensitive technology. Key takeaways Ocelot is a nine-qubit