Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) RBI’S REPO RATE CUT Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – ECONOMY Context: After holding the repo rate at 6.50 per cent for two years, the Reserve Bank of India’s (RBI) six-member Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) reduced the key policy rate by 25 basis points (bps) to 6.25 per cent on February 7. Background: – This marks the first repo rate cut in nearly five years and will likely lead to a fall in interest rates and equated monthly instalments (EMIs) on home and personal loans. Key takeaways The repo rate is the interest rate at which the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) lends money to commercial banks. The term “repo” stands for Repurchase Agreement or Repurchasing Option. Mechanism: When commercial banks need funds, they can sell securities to the RBI with an agreement to repurchase them at a predetermined price. The difference between the sale and repurchase price is the interest charged, which is the repo rate. The main reason behind the repo rate cut is to stimulate economic growth by making borrowing cheaper, leading to increased spending and investment, ultimately supporting job creation and employment. How might the repo rate cut impact the economy? All external benchmark lending rates (EBLR) — lending rates set by the banks based on external benchmarks such as the repo rate — will come down by 25 bps, giving relief to borrowers as their equated monthly instalments (EMIs) will also fall.  Lenders may also reduce interest rates on loans that are linked to the marginal cost of fund-based lending rate (MCLR, or the minimum lending rate below which a bank is not allowed to lend), where the full transmission of a 250-bps hike in the repo rate between May 2022 and February 2023 has not happened. EMIs on home and vehicle loans will come down, making it easier for individuals to repay their debts.  A lower repo rate makes borrowing cheaper for individuals and businesses, which can lead to increased spending and investment, thereby boosting economic growth. However, a lower repo rate can lead to higher inflation, as increased money supply and lower interest rates can drive up prices. It can reduce the interest earned on savings, making it less attractive for individuals to save. Source: Indian Express MARINE HEATWAVES (MHWs) Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – ENVIRONMENT Context: The marine heatwaves (MHWs) linked to the death of more than 30,000 fish off the coastal Western Australia in January were made up to 100 times more likely to occur due to climate change. Background: – The MHWs began in September 2024 and are still ongoing in the region. The current MHWs are the second-worst in Western Australia’s recorded history. The region saw its most intense MHWs during the 2010–11 summer, when temperatures soared to 5 degrees Celsius above average. Key takeaways A marine heatwave occurs when the surface temperature of a particular region of the sea rises to 3 or 4 degrees Celsius above the average temperature for at least five days.  MHWs can last for weeks, months or even years. A 2021 report by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) said MHWs have increased by 50% over the past decade and now last longer and are more severe. MHWs have been recorded in surface and deep waters, across all latitudes, and in all types of marine ecosystems, the report said. Why have marine heatwaves intensified? The primary reason is the climate crisis. As global temperatures have soared to 1.3 degrees Celsius above the pre-industrial levels, 90% of the extra heat has been absorbed by the ocean.  Global mean SST increased close to 0.9 degrees Celsius since 1850, and the rise over the last four decades is around 0.6 degrees Celsius. As a result, MHWs have become more frequent, long-lasting, and severe. Impact Of Marine Heatwaves MHWs can be devastating for marine life. For example, the 2010-11 MHWs in Western Australia caused large-scale fish kills. It also destroyed klep forests and fundamentally altered the ecosystem of the coast. Kelps usually grow in cooler waters, providing habitat and food for many marine animals. These heatwaves contribute to coral bleaching, which reduces the reproductivity of corals and makes them more vulnerable. Thousands of marine animals depend on coral reefs for survival and damage to corals could, in turn, threaten their existence. Source: Indian Express RISING TENSIONS IN THE GREAT LAKES REGION Syllabus: Prelims – GEOGRAPHY Context: Days after the capture of Goma, M23 rebels and allied Rwandan forces have launched a new offensive in the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Background: The ongoing insurgency in the DRC, which is the continuation of protracted turmoil and insecurity that has plagued the region for generations, is intertwined with the region’s geography and resources. Key takeaways The Great Lakes Region of Africa The Great Lakes Region of Africa, located in East and Central Africa, is a series of lakes in and around the East African Rift Valley.  This network of large freshwater lakes in the heart of Africa is endowed with various natural resources, which give the East African Rift Valley a unique ecology and socioeconomic significance.  These lakes include Lake Victoria, Lake Tanganyika, Lake Malawi, Lake Albert, Lake Kivu and Lake Edward. They are surrounded by ten riparian states that include Burundi, the DRC, Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zambia.  Most of them have a traumatic past, while violent conflict is endemic in the region. The resource curse—whereby abundant natural wealth spurs conflict and corruption—is a recurring theme. Source: Indian Express WESTERN DISTURBANCE Syllabus: Prelims – GEOGRAPHY Context: A significant temperature drop has been observed across North India due to a western disturbance currently positioned over North Pakistan, the India Meteorological Department (IMD) reported. Background: – The system is gradually moving eastward, impacting weather patterns in the region. Key takeaways Western Disturbances are extratropical storm systems that originate over the Mediterranean Sea/ Caspian Sea region. These systems travel eastward across the Middle East into the Indian subcontinent, particularly affecting the northern

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) DISCOVERY OF POTASH RESERVES Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – ECONOMY Context: Punjab Mining Minister Barinder Kumar Goyal said the government will explore potash mining in Fazilka and Sri Muktsar Sahib districts, where surveys previously detected large mineral reserves in three mining blocks. Background: – Surveys of the Geological Survey of India (GSI) have also identified reserves in parts of Rajasthan. These findings highlight the potential for potash mining in both states, reducing India’s dependence on imports and bolstering the domestic fertilizer industry. Key takeaways Potash refers to potassium-bearing minerals that are primarily used in fertilisers. Over 90% of potash is used as fertilizer and it is one of the three primary agricultural nutrients (Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium or N-P-K).  While all potash fertilizers contain potassium there are a number of different forms in which it exists. Among these forms is Sulphate of Potash (SOP), a premium potash fertilizer that is free of chloride (a compound considered harmful to plants). On the other hand, Muriate of Potash or MOP contains some chloride.  While SOP is used primarily on high-value crops, usually leafy plants, fruits and vegetables, MOP is commonly used on carbohydrate-type crops, such as wheat. Where were potash reserves found? Punjab is now the second state after Rajasthan to have significant potash reserves. In Rajasthan, potash deposits were mainly found in the northwestern Nagaur-Ganganagar basin. According to the National Mineral Inventory (NMI) database, the total potash resources are estimated at 23,091 million tonnes in 2020. Rajasthan alone contributes 89% to the total resources. However, despite having substantial reserves, exploration and extraction have been delayed. So far, India has not engaged in potash mining.  As of now, the country is completely dependent on imports. Source: Indian Express DUNKI ROUTES Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: A US military aircraft carrying 104 deported Indian nationals landed at Amritsar airport on 5th February 2025. According to the deportees, they spent between Rs 30 lakh and Rs 1 crore in expenses and agent fees in their efforts to reach the US, mostly through what is known as the “dunki route”. Background: – The Trump administration has identified about 20,000 Indian illegal immigrants as part of its mass deportation plan. Indians comprise about 725,000 illegal migrants — the biggest group outside of Central and Latin America. Key takeaways “Dunki” or “donkey journey” refers to the long-winding, often dangerous routes that people across the world take to reach the places they want to immigrate to. These difficult journeys are undertaken due to a lack of requisite legal permits or financial resources. The American authorities have deported those who have taken this illegal route to reach America. Deportation is the process of removing a non-citizen for violating immigration law.  According to the US Immigration and Customs Enforcement’s Fiscal Year 2024 Annual Report, Honduras, Mexico, Guatemala, and El Salvador remain top countries where citizens are deported or repatriated from the US. However, India figures above China and almost equals Brazil. India Government’s reaction After the deportation of the illegal migrants from the USA, the Indian government said that it is considering enacting a new law, tentatively titled ‘Overseas Mobility (Facilitation and Welfare) Bill, 2024’, to establish an enabling framework which will promote “safe, orderly and regular migration for overseas employment”. There is a pressing need for comprehensive legislative overhaul to replace the outdated provisions of the Emigration Act 1983. The ministry said that Indian missions/consulates spread awareness amongst emigrants and issued advisories for prospective emigrants. These awareness activities such as advisories equip emigrants with information on safe migration practices, registered recruiting agents, valid foreign jobs, and ways to avoid fraudulent recruiting agencies. Source: Indian Express ARTICLE 200 Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – POLITY Context: The Supreme Court questioned Tamil Nadu Governor R N Ravi’s decision to withhold assent to some Bills presented to him by state legislature and said “he seems to have adopted his own procedure”. Background: On November 13, 2023, the Governor R.N. Ravi had declared that he was withholding assent on 10 bills passed by the Tamil Nadu state assembly. Subsequently, the assembly convened a special session on November 18, 2023, and re-enacted the same bills. This time, the governor had to proceed to refer all 10 bills to the President for consideration; the President had assented to one Bill, rejected seven and did not consider two proposed laws. The state government argued that the governor’s conduct was that of a political opponent.  Key takeaways While Article 163 of the Constitution deals with the powers of the Governor generally, Article 200 specifically deals with the issue of granting assent to Bills. Both the provisions are read together to determine the contours of the power the Governor holds on this issue. When a Bill passed by the legislature of a state is presented to the Governor, the Governor has four options: (1) grant assent to the Bill; (2) withhold assent to the Bills; (3) return the Bills for reconsideration; or (4) reserve the Bill for the consideration of the President. Article 200 reads: When a Bill has been passed by the Legislative Assembly of a State or, in the case of a State having a Legislative Council, has been passed by both Houses of the Legislature of the State, it shall be presented to the Governor and the Governor shall declare either that he assents to the Bill or that he withholds assent therefrom or that he reserves the Bill for the consideration of the President. However, the Article has a key proviso. It says that the Governor “may, as soon as possible” return Bills other than money Bills, with a message requesting that the House reconsider it in parts or in whole. However, once the Legislative House reconsiders the Bill and sends it to the Governor once again, the Governor “shall not withhold assent therefrom”. An indefinite timeline in deciding on Bills can paralyse the elected government. At the same time, giving assent to Bills is one of the few areas in which the Governor

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) SHIV SHAKTI POINT Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: A study by scientists from the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has estimated that the region where Chandrayaan-3 landed on the Moon is approximately 3.7 billion years old—coinciding with the period when primitive microbial life first emerged on Earth. Background: – India’s Chandrayaan-3 mission achieved a historic milestone on August 23, 2023, as it landed on the Moon’s south polar region, making India the fourth country to achieve a soft landing on the lunar surface and the first to reach the Moon’s South Pole. Key takeaways A team of scientists from Isro’s Physical Research Laboratory (PRL), Ahmedabad, has performed morphological and topographic analysis within the Chandrayaan-3 landing site, now known as the Shiv Shakti point.  With the help of data generated by the Pragyan rover housed inside the Vikram lander onboard Chandrayaan-3, Indian scientists have been uncovering new interpretations and insights into the moon’s evolution. The latest study described the regional geography around the Shiv Shakti point.  The Chandrayaan-3 landing site is enclosed between multiple large-impact craters: Manzinus (diameter about 96 km, age about 3.9 billion years) to the north, Boguslawsky (diameter about 95 km, age about 4 billion years) to the southeast, and Schomberger (diameter about 86 km, age about 3.7 billion years) to the south. Over the years, images have helped lunar scientists globally to rebuild the history of Manzinus and Boguslawsky, with both craters appearing to have flat crater floors and subdued crater wall structures.  Each of these craters is categorised as shallow, with Boguslawsky being hollower than Manzinus and Schomberger. What distinguishes the Schomberger crater is its depth and well-preserved structures — including the central peak, wall terrains, raised crater rim, and steep crater walls — along with an ejecta blanket. Source: Indian Express PLAN TO AMEND NUCLEAR LIABILITY LAW Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: Union government’s announcement that it would amend the Civil Liability for Nuclear Damages Act (CLNDA), 2010, and the Atomic Energy Act, 1962, is likely to enthuse American and French nuclear power companies, whose projects have been deadlocked due to legal concerns for more than 15 years. Background: – The announcement, which marked a sharp U-turn from the government’s position in 2015, was made in the Budget speech on February 1. In particular, it is meant to help progress the Electricite de France (EDF) MoU to build six EPR1650 reactors at Jaitapur in Maharashtra that was signed in 2009 (with Areva), and American Westinghouse Electric Company’s (WEC) MoU, signed in 2012, to build six AP1000 reactors at Kovvada in Andhra Pradesh. Key takeaways Currently, India has a nuclear power capacity of 6,780 MW from 22 reactors, and the only foreign operator in India is Russia’s Rosatom. The CLNDA has been the biggest impediment to private sector participation due to a provision that pins liabilities on nuclear suppliers in addition to the operator in case of nuclear damage. Western nuclear power companies says that clauses in the CLNDA are unacceptable as they mandate a high degree of liability for suppliers and contradict the international Convention for Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage (CSC) which focuses only on the liability of operators of the plant.  The clauses were inserted in 2012, where the then-in-Opposition NDA members had accused the government of letting Western companies off from liability, citing the Union Carbide-Bhopal gas leak case that killed thousands in 1984 and the Fukushima nuclear leak in Japan in 2011. Officials aware of discussions on the issue said that while the CLNDA would be amended to separate operator’s liability from supplier’s liability to bring it in line with the CSC, the Atomic Energy Act would liberalise investment in power projects in India. Source: The Hindu ARTICLE 371 Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – POLITY Context: A regional party in poll-bound Meghalaya has indicated that bringing the State under the purview of Article 371 could help resume rat-hole coal mining, which has been banned since April 2014. Background: Voice of the People Party (VPP) cited the example of Nagaland to seek Article 371 for Meghalaya. Key takeaways Special provisions provided to some States are listed in Articles 371 (A-J) in Part XXI of the Constitution, which deals with “temporary, transitional and special powers for certain States.” While Articles 370 (now abrogated) and 371 have been a part of the Constitution since 1950, Articles 371 (A-J) were incorporated in subsequent years through amendments. Article 371 of the Indian Constitution grants special provisions to Maharashtra and Gujarat. Article 371A was made in 1962 after a deal was struck between the Centre and the Naga People’s Convention creating the State of Nagaland. Under the provision, no Act of Parliament about the religious or social practices of the Nagas, their customary law and procedure, including civil and criminal justice matters, and ownership or transfer of land and resources will apply to Nagaland, unless the State’s Legislative Assembly passes a resolution to do so. Further, non-residents can’t buy land in Nagaland. Article 371B deals with Assam. Article 371C applies to Manipur and was inserted into the Constitution in 1972. Articles 371D and E include special provisions for Andhra Pradesh. Article 371F takes into account the unique status of Sikkim after its merger with India in 1975 and grants protection to existing laws. Only descendants of Sikkim subjects (those who lived in the State before its merger with India) whose names were mentioned in the 1961 register have the right to own land and get State government jobs in Sikkim. Article 371G applies to Mizoram. It includes special provisions to preserve the religious and social practices, customary law, and procedure of Mizos in Mizoram, as well as for the administration of criminal and civil justice, besides ownership and transfer of land. Article 371H confers a special responsibility on the Governor of Arunachal Pradesh concerning law and order. Article 371I relates to Goa. It requires the Legislative Assembly of Goa to consist of not less than 30 members. Article 371J accords special status to the Hyderabad-Karnataka Region (Kalyana Karnataka). Source: The

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) BALTIC STATES SWITCH TO EUROPEAN POWER GRID, ENDING RUSSIA TIES Syllabus: Prelims – CURRENT EVENT Context: Three Baltic states disconnected their electricity systems from Russia’s power grid, the region’s operators said, part of a plan designed to integrate the countries more closely with the European Union and boost security. Background: – Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania disconnected from the IPS/UPS joint network and, subject to last-minute tests, they will synchronise with the EU’s grid after operating on their own in the meantime. Key takeaways Plans for the Baltics to decouple from the grid of their former Soviet imperial overlord, debated for decades, gained momentum following Moscow’s annexation of Crimea in 2014. The grid was the final remaining link to Russia for the three countries, which reemerged as independent nations in the early 1990s at the fall of the Soviet Union, and joined the European Union and NATO in 2004. The three staunch supporters of Kyiv stopped purchases of power from Russia following Moscow’s invasion of Ukraine in 2022, but have relied on the Russian grid to control frequencies and stabilise networks to avoid outages. The Baltic Sea region is on high alert after power cable, telecom links and gas pipeline outages between the Baltics and Sweden or Finland. All were believed to have been caused by ships dragging anchors along the seabed following Russia’s invasion of Ukraine. Russia has denied any involvement. For Russia, the decoupling means its Kaliningrad exclave, located between Lithuania, Poland and the Baltic Sea, is cut off from Russia’s main grid, leaving it to maintain its power system alone. The Baltic countries spent nearly 1.6 billion euros ($1.66 billion) since 2018 to upgrade grids to prepare, while Moscow has spent 100 billion roubles ($1 billion), including on the building of several gas-fired power plants in Kaliningrad. Source: Indian Express GROSS DOMESTIC KNOWLEDGE PRODUCT Syllabus: Prelims – ECONOMY Context: In a revival of an idea that had been shelved in 2021, the government is looking to capture the knowledge economy as a metric to supplement the Gross Domestic Product (GDP).  Background: – The Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) had a session on “Conceptual Framework of Gross Domestic Knowledge Product (GDKP) Measurement”, chaired by Principal Scientific Advisor Ajay Kumar Sood. Key takeaways The Gross Domestic Knowledge Product (GDKP) is an innovative metric designed to assess a nation’s economic progress by focusing on its knowledge-based assets and activities. The concept of Gross Domestic Knowledge Product (GDKP) is not a standard economic term like Gross Domestic Product (GDP), but it can be understood as a theoretical or emerging framework that measures the economic value generated from knowledge-based activities, innovation, and intellectual capital within a country. Focus: It emphasizes the role of knowledge, information, and creativity as key drivers of economic growth in the modern economy. At present, all expenditures on Intellectual Property Products (IPP) are recorded under Gross Fixed Capital Formation (GFCF) — the indicator for capital investments in the GDP dataset for the economy.  GDKP was discussed earlier in 2021 when NITI Aayog made a presentation on the concept note. The National Statistical Commission had pointed out then that the concept note did not provide the methodology for capturing the data and computation of GDKP.  Source: Indian Express PRADHAN MANTRI ANUSUCHIT JAATI ABHYUDAY YOJANA (PM-AJAY) Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: A meeting of the Central Advisory Committee (CAC) for the Pradhan Mantri Anusuchit Jaati Abhyuday Yojana (PM-AJAY) was held under the Chairmanship of Dr. Virendra Kumar, Union Minister of Social Justice and Empowerment and Chairperson of the CAC. Background: Scheduled Castes (SCs), who constitute 16.6% of our population as per 2011 Census, have historically suffered social and educational disabilities and economic deprivation arising therefrom. Accordingly, special provisions have been enshrined for advancement of their interests. Key takeaways The Pradhan Mantri Anusuchit Jaati Abhyuday Yojana (PM-AJAY) is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme launched in the fiscal year 2021-22 by the Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment. It was established by merging three existing schemes: Pradhan Mantri Adarsh Gram Yojana (PMAGY) Special Central Assistance to Scheduled Castes Sub Plan (SCA to SCSP) Babu Jagjivan Ram Chhatrawas Yojana (BJRCY) Objectives: Reduce poverty of the SC communities by generation of additional employment opportunities through skill development, income generating schemes and other initiatives.  Improve socio-economic developmental indicators by ensuring adequate infrastructure and requisite services in the SC dominated villages.  Increase literacy and encourage enrolment of SCs in schools and higher educational institutions by providing adequate residential facilities in quality institutions, as well as residential schools where required, especially in the aspirational districts/ SC dominated blocks and elsewhere in India. Key Components: Development of SC-Dominated Villages into “Adarsh Gram”: Transform villages with significant SC populations into model villages with access to basic services and infrastructure necessary for dignified living. As of the latest data, a total of 29,881 villages have been covered under this component, with 6,087 declared as Adarsh Gram. Grants-in-Aid to States/Districts: Provide financial assistance for projects aimed at socio-economic betterment of SC communities, including comprehensive livelihood projects and infrastructure development. Central assistance of ₹3,242.07 crore has been released, benefiting 850,611 individuals. Construction/Repair of Hostels: Build and repair hostels to support SC students, particularly those from rural and remote areas, in accessing quality education. Since 2021-22, 46 hostels have been sanctioned for 5,185 beneficiaries, with an allocation of ₹126.30 crore. The scheme is 100% funded by the Central Government. However, the States/UTs are free to provide additional funds from their own resources if they so desire. Source: PIB AUTONOMOUS DISTRICT COUNCILS Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – POLITY Context: The Khasi Hills Autonomous District Council (KHADC) and the Jaintia Hills Autonomous District Council (JHADC) elections will be held on February 21, 2025. Background: – The KHADC and JHADC cover areas dominated by matrilineal communities — the Khasi and Jaintias respectively — but less than 7% of the candidates contesting the elections to these councils are women. Key takeaways Autonomous District Councils (ADCs) in India are administrative bodies

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) INDIA’S CITIES AS ENGINES OF GROWTH Syllabus: Prelims – GS 2 & GS 3 Context: The Union Budget 2025, emphasised urban development as one of the six domains for transformative reforms. This renewed focus on urban areas points to the government’s commitment to empowering cities as a vital component of India’s development.  Background: – By prioritising infrastructure investment, encouraging Urban Local Bodies to diversify their revenue streams, and fostering public-private partnerships, the budget lays the groundwork for greater financial autonomy and sustainable urban development. Key takeaways In the 2025-26 budget, the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA), has been allocated Rs. 96,777 crore, accounting for 1.91% of the total estimated expenditure.  In recent years, budgetary allocation for urban development has seen a steady rise — from 50,000 crore in 2021 to 79,000 crore in 2024 and 96,777 crore in 2025. Several key schemes, such as Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY-Urban), which focuses on affordable urban housing; the Smart Cities Mission, which focuses on creating smart cities; and the Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT), which focuses on water and sanitation infrastructure, are recipients of these budgetary allocations.  In recent years, allocations have also gone to urban transport projects, particularly Metro rail and Mass Rapid Transit projects. Moreover, to boost incomes for the urban poor, a revamp of the Prime Minister Street Vendors AtmaNirbhar Nidhi (PM SVANidhi) – was also announced.  The budget also announced “Urban Challenge Fund”. Under this fund, proposals shall be evaluated along three categories: “Cities as growth hubs, creative redevelopment of cities, and water and sanitation projects.” The fund will finance up to 25% of the cost of bankable projects, with a stipulation that at least 50% of the project cost is sourced from bonds, bank loans, or Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs).  Structuring the Urban Challenge Fund to include private enterprise participation is a signal to empower Urban Local Bodies to raise their own sources of finance to fund projects. As the analysis by PRS Legislative Research points out, the majority of ULBs’ revenue comes from central and state government grants.  Main revenue sources of ULBs The main revenue sources of ULBs can be primarily categorised as tax and non-tax revenues. Tax revenues mainly include property tax, professional tax, and entertainment tax, while non-tax revenues include user fees such as parking fees, water supply fees, license fees, and rental income from municipal property.  For example, in the 2021-22 financial year, the Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation (BMC) had 19% of its revenue from tax, 54% from fees and user charges, and the remaining from other sources of income. In comparison, the Greater Chennai Corporation (GCC) generated 80% of its income from tax sources and the remaining 20% from other sources of income.  While large cities have a wider tax base and capacity to generate revenues, smaller cities have to rely on grants from central and state governments. For example, in 2021-22, 57% of Kochi Municipal Corporation’s revenue came from revenue grants, contributions, and subsidies. How urban local bodies raise funds The most prominent example of this is municipal bonds, where ULBs issue bonds. Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation was one of the first ULBs in India to issue a municipal bond to service its water and sanitation projects.  ULBs can also raise loans from financial institutions such as HUDCO, the World Bank, etc., for specific projects.  A glance at the database of public-private partnership projects in India shows that at least 5-10% of the total projects are urban projects in the fields of water-sanitation and transport. These projects not only bring private finance onboard, but also facilitate expertise and capabilities from the private sector. Source: Indian Express FOR SECOND YEAR, NO DEATH PENALTY PASSES SC TEST Syllabus: Prelims – GS 2 & GS 4 Context: Reflecting a divergence in decision-making on death penalty at different levels in the judiciary, the Supreme Court — for the second consecutive year — did not confirm a single death sentence in 2024 while trial courts awarded 139 such verdicts, according to a report by Project 39A, a criminal justice programme at the National Law University Delhi. Background: –  The SC heard six appeals in 2024 — it commuted five death sentences to life imprisonment while one was acquitted. Key takeaways ‘Death Penalty in India: Annual Statistics Report 2024’, states that at the end of 2024, there were 564 death row prisoners in jails across India, the highest number since 2000. In 2024, of the 139 death sentences awarded by trial courts, 87 (62%) were imposed in murder cases and 35 (25%) in cases of murder involving sexual offences. This is a reversal from the previous year, when more death sentences were imposed in cases of murder involving sexual offences (59) than in simple murder cases (40). The total number of death row prisoners (564 in 2024) has risen every year since 2019, when there were 378 inmates on death row. In 2024, 17 women were on death row. The report attributes the high number of death row convicts to a trend of “high imposition of death sentences at trial courts, and the low rates of death penalty appeal disposals at High Courts”. Under Section 366 of the Criminal Procedure Code, 1973, and Section 407 of the Bharatiya Nyaya Suraksha Sanhita, 2023, death sentence proceedings must be forwarded to the High Court for confirmation before they can be executed. Source: Indian Express SHADOW FLEET BRINGS RISK OF OIL SPILL IN THE BALTIC Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: As ageing and deficient tankers in the “Russian shadow fleet” traffic the shallow waters of the Baltic Sea, a major oil spill disaster looms, experts say. Background: Security analysts say Russia is operating a large “shadow fleet” of hundreds of vessels, seeking to dodge the sanctions Western nations imposed on its oil exports over its full-scale invasion of Ukraine in 2022. Key takeaways A shadow fleet refers to a group of aging or unregistered vessels that operate outside standard maritime regulations to transport goods—especially sanctioned oil, arms, or illicit cargo—while avoiding detection and international

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) SAROJINI NAIDU Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – HISTORY Context: Sarojini Naidu’s enduring legacy as a champion of women’s rights is honoured by celebrating her birth anniversary on February 13 as National Women’s Day in India. Background: – Born to Bengali parents in Hyderabad in 1879, Naidu was a woman of many talents.  Key takeaways Sarojini Naidu (1879–1949) was an Indian independence activist, poet, and the first woman to become the President of the Indian National Congress.  She played a crucial role in India’s struggle for independence and was known as the Nightingale of India due to her literary contributions. Key Contributions: Role in the Freedom Movement: Joined the Indian National Congress (INC) in 1905 during the Bengal Partition movement. Advocated for women’s rights, education, and social reforms. Played an active role in the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–22) and Civil Disobedience Movement (1930). Participated in the Salt Satyagraha (1930) and was arrested for her involvement. Political Achievements: First Woman President of INC (1925) – Advocated for self-rule and equality. First Indian Woman Governor (1947) – Became the Governor of the United Provinces (now Uttar Pradesh) post-independence. Member of the Constituent Assembly Literary Contributions: Famous works: The Golden Threshold (1905), The Bird of Time (1912), The Broken Wing (1917). Source: Indian Express IMMIGRATION AND FOREIGNERS BILL, 2025 Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – POLITY Context: The Immigration and Foreigners Bill, 2025, is likely to be introduced by Union Home Minister Amit Shah in the ongoing Budget session of Parliament. Background: – The proposed legislation will replace the existing laws — the Passport (Entry into India) Act, 1920; the Registration of Foreigners Act, 1939; the Foreigners Act, 1946; and the Immigration (Carriers’ Liability) Act, 2000. The acts, namely the Passport (Entry into India) Act, 1920, the Registration of Foreigners Act, 1939, and the Foreigners Act, 1946, are not only of the pre-Constitution period but also, they were brought into extraordinary times of first and second world wars. While there is an underlying continuity and commonality of objectives among the four Acts, there are some overlapping provisions among the said laws. Key takeaways The Bill will specify the matters relating to foreigners and their registration, the provisions relating to the obligation of universities and educational institutions admitting any foreigner, the obligation of hospitals, nursing homes or any other medical institution admitting foreigners. The bill specifies the role of “every person occupying or having under his control any residential premises” to submit to the registration officer information in respect to any foreigners accommodated in such premises. It mandates every university and educational institution admitting any foreigner to furnish information to the registration officer.  Similarly, it specifies the role of “every hospital, nursing home or any other such medical institution providing medical, lodging or sleeping facility in their premises” to inform the authority (registration officer) about “any foreigner taking indoor medical treatment or their attendant for whom such lodging or sleeping facility has been provided”. The Bill obligates the carriers such as airlines and vessels to remove a passenger denied entry by the immigration officer and provide passenger and crew data to the authorities in advance. The bill carries a provision of up to ₹5 lakh in fine for violating carriers. Source: Indian Express NARI ADALATS Syllabus: Prelims – CURRENT EVENT Context: The government has written to states inviting proposals to establish ‘Nari Adalats’, Women and Child Development Minister Annpurna Devi said. Background: The ministry intends to extend the  scheme, already  running on a pilot basis in Assam and J&K, to other states. Key takeaways Nari Adalats are women-led alternative dispute resolution forums established under the “Sambal” sub-scheme of Mission Shakti by the Ministry of Women and Child Development.  These forums aim to provide women with an accessible grievance redressal mechanism at the gram panchayat level, addressing cases of petty nature such as harassment, subversion, or curtailment of rights. Key Features: Structure: Each Nari Adalat comprises 7 to 11 members, known as ‘Nyaya Sakhis,’ who are nominated by the gram panchayat.  Functioning: These forums resolve disputes through negotiation, mediation, and reconciliation, ensuring speedy, accessible, and affordable justice for women.  Implementation: Initially launched on a pilot basis in 2023 in 50 gram panchayats each in Assam and Jammu & Kashmir, the program has seen success, prompting the Ministry to invite proposals from other states and Union Territories for expansion.  Source: Indian Express PRESIDENT’S RULE AMONG OPTIONS FOR MANIPUR Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – POLITY Context: A significant temperature drop has been observed across North India due to a western disturbance currently positioned over North Pakistan, the India Meteorological Department (IMD) reported. Background: – After N Biren Singh resigned as Manipur’s Chief Minister, the BJP leadership is exploring its options. If the party fails to find a consensus CM candidate, the state may have to be put under President’s rule. Key takeaways The imposition of President’s Rule under Article 356 effectively transfers all the functions of the state government to the Centre and the function of the state legislature to Parliament during the period when it is in force. The process begins if the President, on receiving a report from the Governor, is “satisfied that a situation has arisen in which the Government of the State cannot be carried on in accordance with the provisions of this Constitution”. President will issue a ‘Proclamation’, which can remain in force for up to two months. The Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha must approve it through a resolution before this period expires for it to remain operative further. If approved, the proclamation of President’s Rule can be extended to six months and Parliament can approve further six-month extensions for up to three years. Certain conditions must be met before a proclamation can be renewed by Parliament beyond a year since it was first issued. Further extensions can only be approved if an Emergency has been declared in the country or that particular state, or if the Election Commission certifies that President’s Rule is necessary due to difficulties in conducting state elections. Since 1950, when the Constitution first

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) CORRUPTION PERCEPTIONS INDEX Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: India ranked 96 out of 180 countries on the Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) for 2024. Background: – The index ranked Denmark at the top, followed by Finland, and Singapore. Key takeaways The Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) is a global ranking that measures perceived levels of public sector corruption across countries. It is published annually by Transparency International, a non-governmental organization based in Germany. The index uses a scale of 0 to 100, where 0 is highly corrupt and 100 is corruption clean. The rank tells the country’s position relative to other countries in the index.  The score for each country is derived from a minimum of three data sources, selected from 13 distinct corruption surveys and assessments. These sources are gathered by a range of reputed organisations, such as the World Bank and the World Economic Forum. Transparency International gave India a CPI score of 38. In 2023, India’s overall score was 39 while in 2022, it was 40. There is a decline in the score of India on CPI. The CPI report has also highlighted that corruption is strongly intertwined with climate change. The funds intended to help those suffering from the consequences of global heating are stolen or misused. Corruption also impacts the implementation of policies aimed at addressing climate change leading to further environmental damage. Among India’s neighbors, Bangladesh has received a score of 23, Pakistan 27, and Sri Lanka 32. Bangladesh is one of the largest recipients of climate finance, which is vulnerable to embezzlement and other forms of corruption. Source: Indian Express CONVICTED PERSONS AND ELECTIONS Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – POLITY Context: The Supreme Court is hearing petitions filed by Ashwin Upadhyay and others, seeking a life time ban on convicted persons from contesting elections. Background: – A report by ADR states that 251 (46%) of the 543 elected MPs in 2024, have criminal cases against them, and 171 (31%) face serious criminal charges including rape, murder, attempt to murder and kidnapping. It added that chances of winning for a candidate with a criminal background was 15.4% as against just 4.4% for a candidate with a clean background. Key takeaways Section 8(3) of the Representation of the People Act, 1951 (RP Act, 1951), provides for the disqualification of a person convicted of a criminal offence and sentenced to imprisonment for not less than two years. Such a person is disqualified from contesting elections for a further period of six years from the date of release.  Section 8(1) further stipulates that a person convicted under criminal laws for heinous crimes like rape; the Protection of Civil Rights (PCR) act for preaching or practice of untouchability; UAPA for unlawful association; Prevention of Corruption Act etc., will be disqualified irrespective of the period of their sentence and six years after release. What were past judgements? In the Association for Democratic Reforms (ADR) case (2002), Supreme Court mandated the disclosure of criminal records of all candidates contesting elections.  In the CEC vs Jan Chaukidar case (2013), SC upheld the creative interpretation of the provisions of the RP Act, 1951 by the Patna HC. One of the qualifications as per the act to contest elections is that a person should be an ‘elector.’ Section 62(5) stipulates that a person in jail is not eligible to vote in elections. The court interpreted that persons who are under trial prisoners, therefore cease to be ‘electors’ and hence not qualified to contest elections. However, the Parliament amended the act in 2013 to overturn this judgment allowing under trial prisoners to contest elections.  In Lily Thomas (2013), the SC struck down section 8(4) of the RP Act, 1951, that allowed a sitting legislator to continue as a member even after being convicted if they filed an appeal. After this judgment, a sitting legislator is disqualified immediately after the sentencing for a conviction. Additional Information Section 11 of the RP Act, 1951 provides that the Election Commission (EC) may remove any disqualification or reduce the period of disqualification of a convicted person.  EC utilised this power in September 2019, to reduce the disqualification period of Prem Singh Tamang, incumbent Chief Minister of Sikkim, from six years to 13 months which allowed him to contest and win a byelection. Source: The Hindu MALARIA Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: The WHO’s recent declaration of Georgia as the 45th country to eliminate malaria is a significant milestone. Background: Despite decades of global efforts, malaria still causes over 240 million cases and more than 600,000 deaths annually. Key takeaways Malaria is a life-threatening vector-borne disease caused by Plasmodium parasites, which are transmitted to humans through the bite of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes. Causative Agent (Plasmodium Parasites) – There are five species of Plasmodium that cause malaria in humans: Plasmodium falciparum – Most severe, responsible for cerebral malaria. Plasmodium vivax – Causes recurring malaria due to dormant liver stage. Plasmodium malariae – Milder infection, can persist for years. Plasmodium ovale – Rare, found mainly in Africa & Asia. Plasmodium knowlesi – Zoonotic malaria, found in Southeast Asia. Transmission Cycle: Infected Anopheles mosquito bites a human. Parasites enter the bloodstream and reach the liver, where they multiply. They re-enter the bloodstream and infect red blood cells (RBCs), causing fever and chills. Some parasites develop into gametocytes, which are taken up by another mosquito, completing the cycle. Malaria Distribution & Impact: Endemic in tropical regions, mainly Africa, South Asia, and South America. India: Malaria cases are declining but still prevalent in tribal areas, Northeast, and forested regions. Vaccination: RTS,S/AS01 (Mosquirix) – First WHO-approved malaria vaccine (2021). R21/Matrix-M – Another promising vaccine candidate. Challenges in Developing a Malaria Vaccine & Why It Is Less Effective Compared to Viral Vaccines Complex Life Cycle of Plasmodium Unlike viruses, the malaria parasite (Plasmodium) has a highly complex life cycle involving multiple stages: Sporozoite stage (Liver stage) → Merozoite stage (Blood stage) → Gametocyte stage (Mosquito stage). Each stage expresses different antigens, making it difficult to target the parasite with

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) HUMAN-WILDLIFE CONFLICT Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: As Kerala’s Wayanad district grapples with the deaths of four people in 48 hours due to elephant attacks, the Union environment ministry has informed the Rajya Sabha that the state recorded 460 deaths and 4,527 injuries due to human-wildlife conflict in the 2020-2024 period. Background: – Kerala MPs have sought amendments to the Wildlife Protection Act to prioritise human safety in light of a spate of attacks. Key takeaways The human-wildlife management issue has also been discussed by the National Board for Wildlife. In the board’s last meeting, Kerala’s chief wildlife warden and officials from other states suggested that a national policy should be developed for managing human-wildlife conflict. A 2018 study by Dehradun’s Wildlife Institute of India and the Periyar Tiger Conservation Foundation in Kerala, has found two major drivers of human-animal conflict in the state. First is the decline in the quality of forest habitats, largely due to the cultivation of alien plants — mainly acacia, mangium and eucalyptus — in forest tracts for commercial purposes. With 30,000 hectares of forest land in Kerala being used for cultivation of these species, animals are deprived of their natural habitat and food sources. Moreover, these water-guzzling species also strain the forest’s natural water resources.  Invasive species such as lantana, mikania and senna, planted by forest department over decades, have also hindered growth of natural vegetation in forests. While the Kerala forest department banned the cultivation of acacia and eucalyptus in forest tracts in 2018, the process of regenerating natural forests, such that animals do not face shortage of food and water, will take time.  So far only 1115 hectors of forest could be reconverted into natural habitats through eco-restoration process. The study also found that changing agri-practices were also responsible for drawing animals. In recent years, owing to poor returns, more farmland is being left unattended. This makes them targets for wildlife looking to snack on bananas and pineapples. Moreover, the increase in wildlife attacks has further pushed people to safer settlements away from their farms. This further entices animals to raid estates neighbouring forests. The crisis in Kerala’s farm sector has also driven many towards animal husbandry. But domesticated animals are also prime targets for tigers and other carnivores. Apart from declining quality of forests and changing agri-practices, a number of other human activities, including waste disposal near forested areas, fragmentation of animal habitats due to wanton construction, and increased human presence in and around animal habitat also contribute to increasing animal-human conflict in Kerala. How Kerala is addressing the issue The state has several initiatives – schemes for the construction of elephant-proof trenches, elephant-proof stone walls, and solar powered electric fencing. To keep animals in forests, Kerala has also undertaken eco-restoration programmes. The state is also running a scheme to acquire land from farmers, to be then converted into forestland. In areas which see the highest incidence of human-animal conflict, Rapid Response Teams have also been established. Source: Indian Express CHOOSING NEXT CHIEF ELECTION COMMISSIONER Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – POLITY Context: With Chief Election Commissioner Rajiv Kumar set to retire on February 18, a three-member selection committee headed by Prime Minister is set to meet on February 17 to pick his successor. Background: – This is the first time that a CEC will be selected under the provisions of the new law — the Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners (Appointment, Conditions of Service and Term of Office) Act, 2023. Before this, Election Commissioners Gyanesh Kumar and Sukhbir Singh Sandhu had been selected under the new law. Key takeaways Earlier, Election Commissioners and the Chief Election Commissioner were appointed by the President based on the recommendations of the government. The law came into effect after the Supreme Court, in its ruling in March 2023, mandated a selection panel be formed and said that it should comprise the Prime Minister, the Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha, and the Chief Justice of India. The court said the order would hold good until a law was made by Parliament. However, when the law was passed, the Centre replaced the CJI with a Union Minister as the third member, giving the government a dominant role in the appointment process. On February 17, the panel will select a name from a list of five prepared by a search committee. The Act says, “A Search Committee headed by the Minister of Law and Justice and comprising two other members not below the rank of Secretary to the Government of India, shall prepare a panel of five persons for consideration of the Selection Committee, for appointment as the Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners”. After Mr. Rajiv Kumar, Mr. Gyanesh Kumar is the senior-most Election Commissioner. The committee is also likely to select an Election Commissioner in case current Mr. Gyanesh Kumar is elevated to the top post. According to the law, the CEC and other ECs will be appointed from among persons who are holding or have held a post equivalent to the rank of secretary to the government of India and will be persons of integrity with knowledge of and experience in management and conduct of elections. Source: The Hindu DOKRA ARTWORK Syllabus: Prelims – ART & CULTURE Context: Prime Minister Narendra Modi has gifted Dokra artwork to French President Emmanuel Macron. Background: Dhokra (also spelt Dokra) is non–ferrous metal casting using the lost-wax casting technique.  Key takeaways Dhokra Art is an ancient Indian metal casting tradition that has been practiced for over 4,000 years, dating back to the Indus Valley Civilization.  This art form is renowned for its distinctive lost-wax casting technique, producing non-ferrous metal artifacts that are celebrated for their primitive simplicity, enchanting folk motifs, and robust forms. The term “Dhokra” is derived from the Dhokra Damar tribes, traditional metalsmiths of West Bengal and Odisha. Their craftsmanship traces back to the Indus Valley Civilization, with the famous “Dancing Girl” bronze statue from Mohenjo-Daro being a

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) MUNICH SECURITY CONFERENCE Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: German Chancellor Olaf Scholz delivered a strong rebuke to U.S. Vice President J.D. Vance’s attack on Europe’s stance toward hate speech and the far right, saying it was not right for others to tell Germany and Europe what to do. Background: – Mr. Vance had lambasted European leaders on the first day of the Munich Security Conference, accusing them of censoring free speech and criticising German mainstream parties’ “firewall” against the far-right Alternative for Germany (AfD). About Munich Security Conference (MSC) The Munich Security Conference (MSC) is an annual forum that brings together global leaders, policymakers, and experts to discuss international security issues. The MSC was founded by a German official and publisher Ewald-Heinrich von Kleist at the peak of the Cold War in 1963. The conference initially focused on military issues and was mainly attended by Western countries, who came together to display a united front against Soviet communism. After the end of the Cold War, the conference expanded its agenda beyond defence and security to include issues like climate change and migration. It also began inviting leaders from eastern nations, including Russia, India and China. Today, the MSC, held in February every year, “seeks to promote trust and contribute to the peaceful resolution of conflicts by facilitating ongoing, curated, yet informal dialogue within the international security community”. Key Takeaways from the Munich Security Conference (MSC) 2025 Shift in the Transatlantic Security Framework The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, has been the cornerstone of European security, ensuring collective defense against external threats. However, recent developments indicate a fundamental shift. While U.S. remains a NATO member, European nations can no longer assume automatic U.S. military support in times of crisis. U.S.-Russia Talks on Ukraine: A Policy Shift The U.S. administration has initiated diplomatic talks with Russia to negotiate an end to the Ukraine war, despite strong opposition from European leaders and Kyiv. Notably, Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelensky has not been invited to these talks, raising concerns about Ukraine’s exclusion from crucial negotiations affecting its sovereignty and security. The move has further strained U.S.-Europe relations. Increased Defense Expenditure for European NATO Members The MSC discussions underscored the necessity for Europe to escalate its defense spending in response to Russia’s growing military assertiveness. The current NATO-mandated minimum of 2% of GDP on defense is now expected to rise to 3%. While the U.S. has historically provided substantial military aid to Ukraine, European nations have now surpassed the U.S. in total financial and humanitarian assistance. U.S. Vice President JD Vance’s Controversial Speech U.S. V.P’s speech was widely perceived as critical of European policies. Instead of reaffirming U.S. support for Ukraine, his remarks focused on Europe’s handling of migration, free speech, and governance issues. His address was met with criticism from European leaders. However, the speech was well-received by certain political factions, including President Trump. This development signals growing ideological divergences between U.S. and Europe. Economic Tensions and U.S.-Europe Trade Disputes Amid the discussions at MSC, Trump announced a 25% tariff on all steel and aluminum imports, effective from March. This decision exacerbates economic tensions between the U.S. and Europe, adding to existing disputes over trade policies and defense commitments. Source: BBC DISTRIBUTED DENIAL OF SERVICE (DDOS) ATTACK Syllabus: Prelims – SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: In January, web-based portal Kaveri 2.0, which streamlines property registrations in Karnataka, faced sporadic, crippling server outages. On investigating the outage, the Revenue Department and E-Governance Department concluded that it was a Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attack. Background: – DDoS attacks can lead to a service downtime, which is the primary goal of a DDoS attack — to render a service unavailable, leading to a disruption or potential loss of revenue. Key takeaways A DDoS attack is a malicious attempt to disrupt the normal functioning of a targeted server, service, or network by overwhelming it with a flood of internet traffic.  Unlike a Denial of Service (DoS) attack, which typically involves a single source, a DDoS attack leverages multiple compromised systems, often infected with malware, to generate the traffic. These compromised systems are collectively known as a botnet. Such attacks may be aimed at saturating the bandwidth of a site, exploiting weaknesses in the network protocol stack, or targeting specific weaknesses in applications or services. While DDoS attacks do not directly steal data, they can be used as a distraction while other forms of cyberattacks, such as data breaches, are executed. The Kaveri 2.0 portal, critical for property registrations, experienced performance issues recently. Fake accounts were created, and entries were made into the database using these accounts, overwhelming the system. The attack involved 62 email accounts originating from 14 IP addresses, highlighting the distributed nature of the assault. Ways to mitigate such attacks Organisations implement advanced traffic filtering mechanisms to distinguish between legitimate and malicious traffic. Monitoring tools can help identify unusual traffic patterns and take pre-emptive actions.  Enforcing rate limiting can control the number of requests a user can make in a given time frame, preventing the system from being overwhelmed. Bot detection technologies, such as CAPTCHA challenges and behavioural analysis, can identify and block automated tools or bots.  Robust authentication mechanisms and regular security audits can strengthen the security of online services and prevent unauthorised access. Source: The Hindu PRESIDENT’S RULE Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – POLITY Context: Four days after Manipur Chief Minister N. Biren Singh’s resignation, the Union government announced that President’s rule has been implemented in the violence-hit State.  Background: The violence between the Meitei and Kuki-Zo communities, ongoing since May 2023, has claimed above 250 lives and displaced over 60,000 people.  The conflict originated from the Meitei demand for Scheduled Tribe (ST) status, which the Kukis opposed, fearing loss of job opportunities and other affirmative actions meant for STs. Key takeaways Emergency provisions, inspired by the German Constitution, protect India’s sovereignty, unity and security. They empower the Central government to address extraordinary crises by temporarily assuming control. The

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) TAIWAN Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – GEOGRAPHY, WORLD HISTORY, INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Context: The U.S. State Department’s Taiwan page removed a previous statement about not supporting Taiwan’s independence last week. Background: – The United States has no formal diplomatic ties with Taiwan but is its strongest international backer. About Taiwan Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (RoC), is situated in the western Pacific Ocean and is separated from mainland China by the Taiwan Strait. Taiwan is neighbored by Japan to the northeast, the Philippines to the south, and mainland China to the west. The East China Sea lies to the north of the island, the Philippine Sea to the east, the Luzon Strait directly to the south, and the South China Sea to the southwest. Taiwan is prone to earthquakes as it lies along the Pacific “Ring of Fire” — where 90% of the world’s earthquakes take place. History of Taiwan  Taiwan was briefly controlled by the Dutch and Spanish in the 1600s. In 1684, the Qing dynasty incorporated Taiwan as part of Fujian province and later declared it a separate Chinese province in 1885. Following the Qing’s defeat in a war with Japan, it became a Japanese colony in 1895. In 1945, it was handed over to the Republic of China government at the end of World War Two. In 1949 after being defeated by Mao Zedong’s communist forces, the Republic of China government fled and moved its capital to Taiwan, and Republic of China remains the island’s formal name. Mao set up the People’s Republic of China, and claimed it was the only legitimate Chinese government for the whole of China, including Taiwan, as the Republic of China’s successor state. For decades, the Republic of China (ROC) based in Taipei claimed to be the legitimate government of China. However, in 1971, it was expelled from the United Nations in favor of the Beijing government. However, Taiwan is a region where the people elect their own leaders, and it has a defined territory governed by its own military, passport, and currency. As a result, Taiwan functions with de facto independence, even though most countries do not formally recognize it as such. Currently, only 12 countries maintain formal diplomatic ties with Taipei, most of which are small and developing nations. Most major Western countries, along with U.S. allies, maintain close unofficial relations with Taiwan by recognizing its passport and having de facto embassies in each other’s capitals. India does not have formal diplomatic ties with Taiwan yet. India has an office in Taipei for diplomatic functions — India-Taipei Association (ITA) is headed by a senior diplomat. Taiwan has the Taipei Economic and Cultural Center (TECC) in New Delhi. Both were established in 1995. Source: Indian Express ARAVALI SAFARI PARK Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – GEOGRAPHY, ENVIRONMENT Context: The Haryana government’s ambitious 3,858 hectare Aravali safari park project spread across Gurugram and Nuh is envisaged to be the world’s largest safari park. However, the project has faced stiff opposition ever since it was first mooted. Background: – A group of 37 retired Indian Forest Service officers have written a letter to Prime Minister seeking to scrap the project arguing that the project’s aim is to simply increase tourist footfall and not conserve the mountain range. Key takeaways The hills in the southern districts of Gurugram and Nuh are a part of Aravali, the oldest fold mountain range in the world.  Aravali runs diagonally across Rajasthan extending from Champaner in Gujarat in the southwest to near Delhi in the northeast for about 690 km.  It is ecologically significant as it combats desertification by checking the spread of the Thar Desert towards eastern Rajasthan, and performs the role of an aquifer with its highly fractured and weathered quality rocks allowing water to percolate and recharge the groundwater. What are the laws protecting Aravali? Of the approximately 80,000 hectare Aravali hill area in Haryana, a majority is protected under various laws and by orders of the Supreme Court and NGT.  The most widespread protection to the Aravalis comes from the Punjab Land Preservation Act (PLPA), 1900. The Special Sections 4 and 5 of the Act restrict the breaking of land and hence deforestation in hills for non-agricultural use. Recently around 24,000 hectares has been notified as Protected Forest under the Indian Forest Act, as a proposed offset to forest land diversion in the Nicobar islands. Similarly, the T.N. Godavarman Thirumulpad judgment (1996) extends legal protection to forests as per dictionary meaning — which should cover the remaining Aravali areas that are not notified as forest. The Regional Plan-2021 for the National Capital Region also offers crucial protection, designating the Aravalis and forest areas as ‘Natural Conservation Zone’ and restricting the maximum construction limit to 0.5%. Source: The Hindu EXPERIMENTAL ADVANCED SUPERCONDUCTING TOKAMAK (EAST) Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: Recently, Chinese scientists reported that they were able to maintain a plasma at a temperature of 100 million degrees C for about 1,066 seconds in a nuclear fusion reactor called the Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak (EAST). Background: Nuclear fission produces harmful radioactive waste whereas nuclear fusion doesn’t. This is why developing a nuclear fusion reactor has become an important technological goal for the world. Challenges of nuclear fusion The tritium problem The problem is the amount of energy required to start and sustain a fusion reaction. The lightest nucleus in nature is of hydrogen, consisting of a single proton. An isotope of hydrogen called deuterium has one proton and one neutron in its nucleus. The nucleus of another isotope called tritium has one proton and two neutrons.  Deuterium-deuterium fusion requires a higher temperature to begin than deuterium-tritium fusion. This is because the extra neutron in the tritium nucleus helps overcome the repulsion of like-charges between the protons. The fusion of a deuterium and a tritium nucleus creates a non-radioactive helium-4 nucleus, a neutron, and 17.6 MeV of energy, which is significant. While deuterium is abundant in seawater, there are no