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Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   POVERTY  Syllabus Mains – GS 2 & GS 3 Context: The International Day for the Eradication of Poverty (IDEP) – is observed annually on October 17 since 1992. Background: – The theme for 2024 IDEP is “Ending Social and Institutional Maltreatment, Acting Together for Just, Peaceful, and Inclusive Societies”. Key takeaways As per the international poverty line set by the World Bank, anyone living on less than $2.15 a day is in extreme poverty. Poverty measurement in India According to the Household Consumption Expenditure Survey for 2022-23, less than 5 per cent of Indians are now expected to live below the poverty line. However, the release of the report set in motion debates around the poverty line used to estimate the extent of deprivation. The evolution of poverty estimates in India In 1971, V N Dandekar and N Rath defined the poverty line based on calorie consumption (2,250 calories per person per day, based on National Sample Survey data of 1960-61), setting it at Rs 15 for rural and Rs 22.5 for urban areas. In 1979, the Y K Alagh Task Force set poverty lines based on calorie needs of 2,400 calories (rural) and 2,100 calories (urban), which remained the official method until the 1990s. However, this methodology for estimating poverty at the national and state levels has been critiqued by many for giving an inappropriate picture of poverty. In 1989, the Planning Commission formed the Lakdawala Expert Group to “look into the methodology of estimating poverty and to redefine the poverty line, if necessary”. The Lakdawala Committee in 1993 introduced state-specific poverty lines, adjusting for regional price differences, but faced criticism for not maintaining the original calorie norms. With the criticisms for the Lakdawala Committee mounting, the Tendulkar Expert Group was formed in 2005 to review the methodology for poverty estimation. The Tendulkar Committee recommended five main changes: Shift from Calorie Consumption: The committee recommended moving  away from calorie consumption as the sole indicator of poverty. Instead, it  proposed a more comprehensive approach that includes both food and  non-food items. A uniform poverty line basket for both rural and urban areas. A change in the price adjustment procedure to correct spatial and temporal issues with price adjustment. Incorporation of private expenditure on health and education while estimating poverty (earlier poverty lines assumed that health and education would be provided by the State and formulated poverty lines accordingly); The use of Mixed Reference Period instead of Uniform Reference Period In 2009, the Tendulkar Committee submitted its report of estimated poverty lines for rural and urban areas in all states. It concluded that the all India poverty line in 2004-05 was Rs 446.68 and Rs 578.80 per capita per month in rural and urban areas respectively. According to the Lakdawala Committee, the percentage of the population living below the poverty line in 2004-05 was 28.3 per cent in rural areas and 25.7 per cent in urban areas. The same according to the Tendulkar Committee report was 41.8 per cent in rural areas and 25.7 per cent in urban areas. The Tendulkar Committee further recommended a new method to update the poverty lines, adjusting for changes in prices and patterns of consumption, using the consumption basket of people close to the poverty line. Thus, the national poverty lines for 2011-12 are Rs 816 and Rs 1,000 per capita per month for rural and urban areas respectively. The Tendulkar Committee report faced widespread criticism and the Rangarajan Committee was set up in 2012 to address these issues. The report was submitted in 2014 and the old practice of having separate all-India rural and urban poverty line baskets and deriving state level poverty lines from these was brought back. The report raised the monthly per capita consumption expenditure to Rs 972 and Rs 1407 in rural and urban areas respectively. The government, however, did not take a call on the Rangarajan Committee report. The last official poverty data was released in July 2013 which was estimated based on the Tendulkar line for 2011-12. According to this, 21.9 per cent of the population in India lived below the poverty line. Source: Indian Express THE $500 BILLION OPPORTUNITY  Syllabus Mains – GS 3 Context: Recently, Prime Minister Narendra Modi announced a $500 billion (Rs 4.20 lakh crore) target for electronics manufacturing in India by 2030. Background: – The ambition is audacious – India’s entire manufacturing output in 2023-24 was roughly $660 billion (Rs 55.4 lakh crore). Key takeaways Cluster-Based Growth: Historically, manufacturing growth has thrived in regional clusters. The electronics industry, from Silicon Valley to Shenzhen, has followed this model. In India, clusters like Sriperumbudur (Tamil Nadu) and Noida (Uttar Pradesh) contribute nearly 50% of India’s electronics exports. India’s focus must be on achieving export competitiveness at scale to drive growth in electronics manufacturing. To sustain and accelerate growth in electronics, we need deep and ambitious region-led reform that can create large, globally competitive electronics manufacturing regions. Special Electronics Manufacturing Zones: To address land acquisition challenges, the government should develop large electronics manufacturing zones around existing clusters. Example: Declaring 300 sq km regions for electronics manufacturing, incorporating factories and new parks. Electronics factories can employ thousands and it is important to house workers close to factories. Large zones make it possible to have social infrastructure like worker housing, schools, hospitals and recreation facilities. Within the zones, the focus needs to be on attracting lead brands and their partners as anchor investors and they can, in turn, attract their downstream partners. Importance of Scale: Global competitors like Shenzhen (2,000 sq km) employ 4.6 million workers and export over $300 billion. Comparatively, Indian clusters like Mundra EMC are much smaller (2.5 sq km with 5,000 workers), necessitating expansion. Pro-Employment Labour Reforms: Indian electronics regions need pro-employment labour laws, including longer shifts, competitive overtime rules, and the removal of restrictions on employing women (who form a majority of the workforce). Taxation and Tariff Reforms: India needs to ease cross-border inventory management. Electronics manufacturing requires movement of components. Extremely specialised supply chain participants mean that much of this movement is cross-border. Thus, all countries like Vietnam, China, etc., already allow foreign vendors or brands to manage component inventory seamlessly across borders without tax or tariff

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   SECTION 6A OF CITIZENSHIP ACT, 1955  Syllabus Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: In a 4:1 majority ruling, a five-judge Bench headed by Chief Justice of India D.Y. Chandrachud upheld the constitutional validity of Section 6A of the Citizenship Act, 1955 (1955 Act). Background: – Section 6A was added in 1985 following the signing of the Assam Accord between the Rajiv Gandhi government and the All Assam Students’ Union (AASU), after a six-year-long agitation against the entry of migrants from Bangladesh into Assam. What does Section 6A of the Citizenship Act provide? A key element of the Assam Accord was determining who is a foreigner in the state. Clause 5 of the Assam Accord states that January 1, 1966 shall serve as the base cut-off date for the detection and deletion of “foreigners” but it also contains provisions for the regularisation of those who arrived in the state after that date and up till March 24, 1971.Section 6A was inserted into the Citizenship Act to facilitate this. All persons of “Indian origin” who entered the state before January 1, 1966 and have been “ordinarily resident” in Assam ever since “shall be deemed to be citizens of India”. Additionally, it provides that anyone who entered and resided in Assam after January 1, 1966 but before March 24, 1971 who has been “detected to be a foreigner” would have the opportunity to register themselves according to rules made by the Central Government. Following such registration, they would be granted the rights of citizens. Those entering after March 24, 1971, would be considered illegal immigrants. Why was Section 6A challenged? The petitioner claim that the cut-off date provided in Section 6A is discriminatory and violates the right to equality (Article 14 of the Constitution) as it provides a different standard for citizenship for immigrants entering Assam than the rest of India — which is July 1948. What did the court decide? The majority opinion held that Parliament has the power to grant citizenship under different conditions so long as the differentiation is reasonable. As the migrant situation in Assam was unique in comparison to the rest of India at the time, it was justified to create a law to specifically address it and doing so would not violate the right to equality under Article 14. CJI Chandrachud pointed out that the impact of immigration in Assam was higher in comparison to other states so “singling out” the state is based on “rational considerations”. Court also held that the petitioners did not provide any proof to show that the influx of migrants affected the cultural rights of citizens already residing in Assam. Article 29(1) gives citizens the right to ‘conserve’ their language and culture. CJI stated that “Mere presence of different ethnic groups in a state is not sufficient to infringe the right guaranteed by Article 29(1)”. The majority also held that the cut-off dates of January 1, 1966 and March 24, 1971 were constitutional as Section 6A and the Citizenship Rules provide ‘legible’ conditions for the grant of citizenship and a reasonable process. Justice Pardiwala in his dissenting opinion, held that the provision was unconstitutional and suffered from “temporal unreasonableness” as it does not prescribe a time limit for detecting foreigners and determining whether they were citizens. Further, he noted that there is no process for an immigrant to voluntarily be detected so if they fall in the timeframe provided under Section 6A. They must wait for the government to identify them as a “suspicious immigrant” before being referred to a foreigner tribunal for a decision, which Justice Pardiwala called “illogically unique”. What were the arguments in defence of Section 6A? The Centre on the other hand has relied on Article 11 of the Constitution which gives Parliament the power “to make any provision with respect to the acquisition and termination of citizenship and all other matters relating to citizenship”. It argued that this gives Parliament the power to make laws on citizenship including for a “particular object” without violating the right to equality. Other respondents argued that if Section 6A is struck down a large swathe of residents will be rendered “stateless” and be considered foreigners. They also argued that the demographic pattern of the state changed in response to geo-political events even before Section 6A was introduced and that Assam has long since been a multi-lingual and diverse state. Source: Indian Express WHY IS BIG TECH SCOUTING FOR NUCLEAR POWER  Syllabus Mains – GS 3 Context: On October 14, Google announced the “first corporate agreement” to buy nuclear energy from multiple small modular reactors (SMR). Background: – SMRs have compact designs and can function in areas unable to withstand larger or older nuclear power plants that require huge volumes of water. Why does Google want to buy nuclear energy? Training AI models, ensuring that they remain always online, and maintaining growing data centres are energy-hungry tasks. In a 2024 Environmental Report, Google admitted that its total global greenhouse gas emissions rose by 13% in 2023 year-over-year, pointing to the challenge of reducing emissions while compute intensity increases and technical infrastructure increases to support AI transition. Google has held that nuclear energy was clean, available round-the-clock (unlike solar energy), and carbon-free. Smaller sizes and modular designs further help the tech giant in faster deployment cycles. Which other companies are partnering with nuclear reactor makers? Microsoft and Constellation signed a 20-year power purchase agreement intended to launch the Crane Clean Energy Center (CCEC) and restart the Three Mile Island Unit 1 . Amazon also announced that it signed three new agreements to support nuclear energy projects, such as the construction of SMRs. OpenAI CEO Sam Altman backed the nuclear startup Oklo, which aims to build a commercial microreactor in Idaho and have it operational in 2027. Is nuclear energy truly clean? Nuclear energy has a serious reputation problem, due to public memory of past accidents and crises that span generations. For example, Ukraine’s Chernobyl explosion (1986) and

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   INDIA AND THE SCIENCE NOBELS  Syllabus Prelims & Mains – SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: It has been 94 years since an Indian won a Nobel Prize in the sciences — Physics, Chemistry or Medicine — while working in India. CV Raman’s Nobel Prize in Physics in 1930 remains the only such honour. Background: – Three more Indian-origin scientists have won — Hargovind Khorana in Medicine in 1968, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar in Physics in 1983, and Venkatraman Ramakrishnan in Chemistry 2009 — but they did their work outside India and were not Indian citizens when they were honoured. Key takeaways Inadequate attention on basic research, low levels of public funding, excessive bureaucracy, lack of incentives and opportunities for private research, and decay of research capabilities in universities are cited as some of the reasons suffocating India’s potential. Few institutions are engaged in cutting edge research, and the number of researchers as a proportion of population is five times lower than the global average. The pool from which a potential Nobel winner can emerge, thus, is quite small. Nominations For Nobel Not anyone can get nominated for a Nobel Prize. Every year, a select group of people — university professors, scientists, past Nobel laureates, and others — are invited to nominate potential candidates. A nomination for a Prize, therefore, means that the nominated scientist has produced Nobel-worthy work at least in the eyes of some respected peers. Names of nominated candidates are not made public until at least 50 years later. And even this data is updated only periodically, not regularly. A notable candidate among the 35 Indians figuring on the nomination list is Jagadish Chandra Bose, the first person to have demonstrated wireless communication, way back in 1895. The 1909 Nobel Prize in Physics to Guglielmo Marconi and Ferdinand Braun was in recognition of the exact work that Bose had accomplished earlier than either of them. Though the nominations after 1970 have not yet been revealed, at least one Indian scientist is very likely to have been considered for the Prize. CNR Rao’s work in solid state chemistry has long been considered worthy of a Nobel, but the honour has eluded him so far. While there have been complaints of regional or racial bias, there is no denying the fact that the research ecosystem in the United States or Europe has remained unmatched. China, which has been investing heavily in creating an ecosystem focused on research in new technologies, like clean energy, quantum and artificial intelligence, might see its fortunes turning soon. In the absence of a strong ecosystem and support for scientific research, India’s chances of winning more Nobel Prizes in science would remain dependent on the individual brilliance of its scientists. Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF) Established under the ANRF Act, 2023, the foundation aims to fund, coordinate, and promote research across India’s universities and colleges, which have long suffered from a lack of infrastructure, particularly in state-run institutions. This initiative is a crucial step in pushing India towards becoming a knowledge-driven society, following the model of research powerhouses like the US, Germany, South Korea, and Israel. One of the primary goals of ANRF is to address the infrastructure gap in state and central universities, where 95 per cent of students are enrolled but research capabilities are often non-existent. Source: Indian Express KHALISTAN MOVEMENT  Syllabus Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: Relations between India and Canada strained recently when India ordered the expulsion of six Canadian diplomats while also announcing its decision to withdraw the Indian High Commissioner to Canada and “other targeted diplomats,” citing security concerns after Canada identified them as “persons of interest” in its investigation into the killing of Khalistan separatist Hardeep Singh Nijjar. Background: – Even as the Khalistan movement finds little resonance in the Sikh population within India, it survives in parts of the Sikh diaspora in countries like Canada, the US, and the UK. What is the Khalistan movement? The Khalistan movement is a fight for a separate, sovereign Sikh state in present day Punjab (both India and Pakistan). The Khalistan movement was crushed in India following Operation Blue Star (1984) and Operation Black Thunder (1986 and 1988), but it continues to evoke sympathy and support among sections of the Sikh, especially in the Sikh diaspora in countries such as Canada, the UK, and Australia. When did the movement start and why? The origins of the khalistan movement have been traced back to India’s independence and subsequent Partition along religious lines. The Punjab province, which was divided between India and Pakistan, saw some of the worst communal violence and generated millions of refugees: Sikhs and Hindus stranded on the west (in Pakistan) rushed to the east, whereas Muslims in the east fled westward. Lahore, the capital of Maharaja Ranjit Singh’s Sikh Empire, went to Pakistan, as did holy Sikh sites including Nankana Sahib, the birthplace of Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism. While most Sikhs found themselves in India, they were a small minority in the country, making up around 2 per cent of the population. It led to a sense of loss among Indian Sikhs, with culturally and religiously important cities going to Pakistan. The political struggle for greater autonomy began around the time of Independence, with the Punjabi Suba Movement for the creation of a Punjabi-speaking state. The States Reorganisation Commission, in its 1955 report, rejected this demand, but in 1966, after years of protest, the state of Punjab was reorganised to reflect the Punjabi Suba demand. The erstwhile Punjab state was trifurcated into the Hindi-speaking, Hindu-majority states of Himachal Pradesh and Haryana, and the Punjabi-speaking, Sikh-majority Punjab. What was the Anandpur Sahib Resolution? The Punjabi Suba movement had galvanised the Akali Dal which became a major force in the new Sikh-majority Punjab, and gave the Congress hard fights in the Assembly elections of 1967 and 1969. But in 1972, in the aftermath of Indira Gandhi’s resounding victory in the 1971 Lok Sabha elections, the Akali Dal’s performance in the state was underwhelming. The

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   STRESS FACTORS FOR INDIAN RAILWAYS  Syllabus Mains – GS 3 Context: On October 17, eight coaches of the Agartala-Lokmanya Tilak Express derailed in Assam. On October 11, a passenger train rear-ended a stationary goods train near Chennai. Indian trains have been involved in multiple accidents of late. Background: – The Balasore accident on June 2, 2023, had the greatest death toll, more than 275, yet pressure on the Railways to improve safety competes with pressures straining its subsistence. Frequency of Railway Accidents: Accidents have reduced from 1,390 per year in the 1960s to 80 per year in the last decade. There were still 34 consequential accidents in 2021-2022, 48 in 2022-23, and 40 in 2023-2024. A consequential accident injures and/or kills people, damages railway infrastructure, and disrupts rail traffic. 8% of all accidents involving trains have been due to the failure of Railway staff and another 28.4% due to failures on the part of non-staff people. Equipment failure accounted for 6.2% ‘Kavach’ – Automatic Train Protection System: The ‘Kavach’ system is designed to prevent collisions using devices that allow pilots to track the relative location of their vehicles and which can actuate alarms and automated braking protocols. By February 2024, the Railways had installed ‘Kavach’ on 1,465 route km, or 2% of its total route length. Railway Operating Ratio (OR): The operating ratio (OR) — the amount the Railways spends to earn ₹100 — in 2024-2025 is estimated to be ₹98.2, a small improvement from 2023-2024 (₹98.7) but a decline from ₹97.8 in 2016. Higher OR limits capex and increases dependence on budgetary support and Extra-Budgetary Resources (EBRs). In 2016-2017, the government brought the railway budget under the regular budget. One outcome was easier access for the Railways to gross budgetary support. Freight Services and Congestion: The Railways’ two main internal revenue sources are passenger services and freight. Freight contributes 65% of Railway revenue. Freight rates increased faster than passenger rates in 2009-2019. 30% of the railway network operates over 100% capacity, leading to slow freight movement (~26 km/hr in 2016). Dedicated Freight Corridors (DFCs): Eastern DFC fully operational; the western DFC is partly ready; the east coast, east-west sub-corridor, and north-south sub-corridor DFCs are still in planning. Coal accounts for 45% of volume and 50% of freight revenue, but government emphasis on renewable energy may reduce this. The Railways’ freight profit is offset significantly by passenger losses. More expensive AC coaches are being introduced to boost revenue, while fare rationalization last occurred in 2020. Railways’ Safety and Capacity Challenges: Railways is caught between being an affordable transport provider and a profitable business. Losses compounded by rising wage, pension, and fuel costs. High network congestion limits safety upgrades and adds to the stress of locomotive pilots working 12-hour shifts. The Kavach system and other indigenous safety systems have limited utility in heavily congested zones. In sum, the Railways’ inability to generate revenue to plug gaps in the gross budgetary support, burgeoning demands on its revenue receipts, and growing pressure to ease congestion and improve physical capacity mean it’s constantly playing catch-up. Source: The Hindu AN APPROACHING MILESTONE IN CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNANCE  Syllabus Mains – GS 2 Context: November 26 this year will mark the commemoration of the 75th anniversary of the adoption of the Constitution of India. Background: – Constitutional governance goes beyond laws, shaping a deep constitutional culture in India that spans diverse cultures, faiths, and beliefs. Core constitutional values that have shaped constitutional culture of India Respect for democratic institutions The extraordinary improvement in the standards of living and the quality of life (as exemplified by improved life expectancy from 32 in 1949 to around 70 now) has contributed in a significant manner for the ordinary Indian to respect the role and the contribution of democratic institutions. Since the first elections in 1951-52, we have consistently witnessed nearly 60% of Indians participating in elections including in the 2024 general election where there was a a 65.79% voter turnout. The respect for democracy and faith in democratic institutions in India is a core constitutional value that has withstood the test of time. Second, the smooth transition of elected governments. India’s political landscape is marked by smooth transitions of power post-elections, regardless of ideological differences between parties. High-intensity campaigns give way to acceptance of results, reflecting the people’s decisive role in elections. Upholding rights : protection of rights and freedoms through courts While drafting the provisions relating to fundamental rights, the members of the Constituent Assembly were mindful of the power of state. They could have tilted towards the idea of a benevolent state. However, their deep scepticism of the state apparatus and commitment towards protecting individual rights reflected a far-sighted vision. This vision of recognising the role of the state, while being conscious of the fact that rights and freedoms are paramount, is a core constitutional value that has only been strengthened over the years. Fourth, federalism as a facet of constitutional governance. The framers of the Constitution created different forms of autonomy and special privileges for different States keeping in mind their unique histories and cultures. Over the last seven decades, the idea of federalism has further deepened at least at two levels: first, the rise of State-level political parties across India. Second, the passing of the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments, which led to the establishment of panchayati raj institutions and nagarpalikas. Role of the media and civil society in instilling faith in democracy : The Indian media is a diverse and heterogeneous institution with views and perspectives that are generated across India in different languages. While we need to be critical of the challenges of the autonomy and the independence of media, it is equally important to recognise the values of transparency that have been part of the media culture. A miracle that is India After Independence, the last British commander in chief of the Indian Army, General Claude Auchinleck had observed, “The Sikhs may try to set up a separate regime. I think they probably will and that

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   U.S. PRESIDENT ELECTION  Syllabus Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: The United States is all set to elect the country’s next President in its 2024 general election, scheduled for November 5, 2024. Background: – The U.S. votes for its President on the first Tuesday of November, every four years. The candidates are required to meet certain criteria to be eligible to contest, and the process itself starts months, or even years in advance. Key takeaways According to the U.S. Constitution, a candidate must be a natural-born citizen, 35 years of age or older, and a resident of the U.S. for 14 years to be eligible to contest. The U.S. Presidential election process is a complex and multi-step system that involves several stages, including primaries, caucuses, national conventions, general elections, and the final decision through the Electoral College. Step 1: Primaries and Caucuses Primaries and Caucuses — help in the selection of delegates who will represent the people at the upcoming conventions. These are simply two ways that people help states and political parties choose presidential nominees. Caucuses: It’s a stage at which party members select the best candidate through a series of discussions and votes. It’s a meeting of local members of a political party to select delegates to the national party convention. A caucus is said to be a substitute for primary elections. A delegate is defined as a person authorised to represent others as an elected representative to a political party conference. Primary: In this, party members vote for the best candidate that will represent them in the general election. Most states hold primaries six to nine months before a presidential election. Primary voters choose their preferred candidate anonymously by casting secret ballots. Step 2: National Conventions National Party Conventions: After the primaries and caucuses, each party holds a National Convention where delegates formally nominate their candidate for president. During the convention, the candidate who has secured a majority of delegates through the primaries and caucuses is officially declared the party’s nominee. The nominee then selects a vice-presidential running mate. Step 3: Presidential general election In general elections, people in every state across the US vote for one President and Vice President. The candidates’ names will be listed on the general election ballot. When people cast their vote, they are actually voting for a group of people known as electors. Each candidate running for President in your State has their own group of electors (known as a slate). When you vote for a Presidential candidate you are actually voting for your candidate’s preferred electors. Step 4 : The electoral college The electoral college is the last step in the election of the President. The President is not elected through the popular vote cast by citizens, but through the electoral college process. There are 538 electors in the electoral college who indirectly choose the U.S. President. Each State gets the same number of electors as its members of Congress, both House and Senate. Selecting electors is a two- step process: first, the parties choose potential electors in States before the election. Then, voters in each State select their electors by casting ballots during the general election. However, this happens even though the names of potential electors may or may not appear on the ballot alongside the name of the presidential candidate. So, a voter is actually picking an elector and not the President directly when they cast their vote in the general election. The way the Electoral College works is that whoever wins the popular vote in a state uaually gets all the Electoral College votes from that state. So if Trump wins the popular vote in North Carolina, for example, he’ll get all of the Electoral College votes from that state, which is 15 electoral votes. A candidate needs at least 270 electors’ votes to win the presidential election. While the general election takes place in November and a projected winner is announced soon after, the electoral college casts their votes in mid-December. The U.S. Congress counts the electoral votes in early January. The new President’s term begins January 20, which is also called Inauguration Day. Source: The Hindu GONDWANAX PARAISENSIS  Syllabus Prelims – CURRENT EVENT Context: Scientists have discovered a fossil of a reptile species called Gondwanax paraisensis in southern Brazil. Background: – The fossils of this newly discovered reptile species could provide insights into the emergence of dinosaurs. Gondwanax paraisensis is about 237 million years old, making it one of the oldest reptile fossils ever found. Key takeaways The Gondwanax paraisensis was a small, four-legged reptile, roughly the size of a small dog. This reptile likely lived in what is now southern Brazil during the Triassic period, a time when the Earth was much hotter. The discovered fossil belongs to a group of extinct reptiles called silesaurids. There is no consensus among scientists on whether silesaurids were true dinosaurs or a species that came before them. A study of this newly discovered species could help in understanding what traits made dinosaurs so successful. The name Gondwanax means “lord of Gondwana,” referring to the southern part of the supercontinent Pangaea. The species name paraisensis honors the town of Paraiso do Sul where the fossil was found. In the Paleozoic era, Gondwana and Laurasia formed the supercontinent of Pangaea. Here many dinosaurs lived and went extinct, and their remains were ensconced in lava. Gondwanaland got cracked up at the end of the Jurassic era to create all our southern continents, Africa, Australia, and South America, as well as New Zealand, the Indian subcontinent, and the island of Madagascar, which has long been an area of study. India has been a hotspot for finding dinosaur fossils for decades. Records show that dinosaurs in India existed from the Late Triassic to the end of the Cretaceous — or between 200 million years and 65 million years ago. Dinosaur remains have been found over the years in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. One of the most famous dinosaurs in the country is Rajasaurus. Its fossils were first found by GSI geologist Suresh Srivastava in the 1980s. Source: Indian Express

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   THE INDO-PACIFIC: A STRATEGIC ARENA FOR INDIA’S GLOBAL INFLUENCE  Syllabus Mains – GS 2 Context: The Indo-Pacific has emerged as a key geopolitical and strategic space, with India reaffirming its steadfast commitment to a free, open, inclusive, and resilient Indo-Pacific region. Background: – The Indo-Pacific is a geographical area that encompasses the regions of the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean, along with the countries surrounding them and the crucial waterways and marine resources. It also includes critical maritime chokepoints such as the Strait of Malacca, Taiwan Strait, the Bab-al-Mandeb, Straits of Lombok and Sunda, the South China Sea, etc. What is the Indo-Pacific? The extent of Indo-Pacific varies from state to state. India’s conception of the Indo-Pacific ranges “from the shores of Africa to that of the Americas” to be more inclusive as laid out by Prime Minister Narendra Modi. The National Security Strategy (NSS), published under former US President Trump, defined the Indo-Pacific as “the region, which stretches from the west coast of India to the western shores of the USA”. The 2017 Foreign Policy White Paper of Australia defined the region as “ranging from the eastern Indian Ocean to the Pacific Ocean” including India, Southeast Asia, North Asia and the US. From Asia-Pacific to Indo-Pacific A cursory look at various strategy documents, speeches and Defence White papers of different nations reveals that the idea of the Indo-Pacific as a geopolitical construct has evolved and institutionalised in the first two decades of the 21st century and more so in the last decade. This also represented a shift in the usage of terminology, i.e. from Asia-Pacific to Indo-Pacific by major powers in the region. Shinzo Abe, the former Prime Minister of Japan, was one of the early proponents of viewing the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean together to form a “broader Asia”. Abe articulated the idea in his landmark speech at the Indian Parliament titled “Confluence of the Two Seas”. The “Pivot to Asia” policy unveiled by former US President Obama dwelled upon the signs of a major shift in the policy towards the Pacific from the Middle East as it coincided with the withdrawal of troops from Afghanistan. Shifting and converging strategic interests In the past decade, shifting national interests have necessitated a shift in policy from the Asia-Pacific to the Indo-Pacific. This shift is essential to address the aggression of China, increasing threats to critical sea lanes and non-traditional security challenges. It was also important for the inclusion of India – a growing major power – into the policy frameworks of key global actors. A primary factor contributing to this transition was the convergence of strategic interests between India and the US. During Trump’s presidency, the US prioritised a “Free and Open Indo-Pacific,”. Trump even adopted a National Security Strategy for the Indo-Pacific region and renamed the U.S. Pacific Command to the US Indo-Pacific Command in 2018, formalising the concept of Indo-Pacific. This formalisation led to resource allocation and diplomatic attention to the region. India and Indo Pacific India’s strategic position in the Indian Ocean afforded it a crucial role in counterbalancing China. India’s strategic alignment with the US has further reinforced the Indo-Pacific notion. India, through its “Act East” policy is aiming to enhance collaboration with Southeast Asia, East Asia, and the Pacific, while mitigating Beijing’s influence. For the US the ‘Indo-Pacific” was primarily a strategic initiative and a way of responding to the rise of China. New Delhi’s transformation of “Look East” policy to “Act East Policy” under Modi along with India’s Security and Growth for All in the Region (SAGAR) policy is a key part of India’s vision for the Indo-Pacific. India’s approach to the region is rooted in its economic and strategic importance. The Indo-Pacific contributes 62 per cent of the global GDP and accounts for 50 per cent of global trade. In addition, about 40 per cent of global oil shipments pass through maritime routes in the Indo-Pacific. 90 per cent of India’s trade and 80 per cent of its critical freight transit through these waters. To sum up, the Indo-Pacific is not an exclusive region for addressing only traditional security concerns like military competition or territorial disputes. It holds immense potential to tackle a range of non-traditional security threats, such as climate change, maritime piracy, illegal fishing, natural disasters, and cybersecurity threats. Indo-Pacific is emerging as a space for bilateral and multilateral groupings addressing economic, political, and security issues. Organisations like ASEAN, the quad, and mechanisms such as the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP) show the region’s role as a space for economic integration, technology cooperation, and infrastructure development. By engaging deeply in Indo-Pacific affairs, India not only secures its interests but also contributes to the creation of an inclusive, cooperative, and sustainable regional order. Source: Indian Express KARTARPUR SAHIB CORRIDOR  Syllabus Prelims – CURRENT EVENT Context: India and Pakistan agreed to renew their pact on the Kartarpur Sahib Corridor for another five years. The pact was due to lapse on October 24. Background: – The development comes after Jaishankar went to Pakistan recently to attend the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) meeting. Key takeaways The 4 km-long Kartarpur Corridor provides visa-free access to Indian Sikh pilgrims to visit Gurdwara Darbar Sahib, the final resting place of Sikhism founder Guru Nanak Dev. While the Corridor was opened in November 2019, movement was suspended in March 2020 after the pandemic struck. It was reopened later. The Agreement, signed on 24 October 2019 to facilitate the visit of pilgrims from India to Gurdwara Darbar Sahib Kartarpur, Narowal, Pakistan through the Kartarpur Sahib Corridor, was valid for a period of five years. Extension of the validity of Agreement will ensure uninterrupted operation of the Corridor. Additional Information Kartarpur marks the most significant phase in the life of Guru Nanak Dev. It was here on the banks of the river Ravi that he laid the foundations of a new faith in a commune he set up. Guru Nanak came to the town between 1520 and 1522. He

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   PUBLIC ACCOUNTS COMMITTEE (PAC)  Syllabus Prelims & Mains – POLITY Context: Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) Chairperson Madhabi Puri Buch, summoned by Parliament’s Public Accounts Committee (PAC) as part of its review of financial regulators, skipped its meeting on Thursday, citing personal reasons. Background: – PAC Chairman and Congress leader K.C. Venugopal adjourned the meeting after reading out a letter from Ms. Buch, received less than two hours before the meeting was due to begin, conveying her inability to appear before the committee. Key takeaways The PAC is not a constitutional body; it was established in 1921 under the Government of India Act, 1919. Its formation and functions are governed by Parliamentary procedures and Rules of Business. Composition: The committee has 22 members: 15 from the Lok Sabha and 7 from the Rajya Sabha. Members are elected annually from both houses by proportional representation to ensure representation of various political parties. The Chairperson is traditionally a member of the Opposition from the Lok Sabha. Functions: Examines the annual audit reports of the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) submitted to Parliament. Reviews public expenditure to ensure it aligns with parliamentary grants and approvals. Investigates cases of wasteful expenditure, losses, and irregularities in government spending. Ensures that money is used efficiently, effectively, and economically. Limitations: PAC cannot look into policy matters or day-to-day administration. It cannot investigate issues already under judicial scrutiny. The committee’s recommendations are not binding, though they hold significant moral and ethical value. Source: The Hindu CENTRAL GOVT. SANCTION A 50% HIKE IN PRICES OF EIGHT DRUGS  Syllabus Prelims – CURRENT EVENT Context: National Pharmaceutical Pricing Authority of India (NPPA) increased the ceiling prices of eight drugs, comprising medication for common diseases including asthma, tuberculosis, bipolar disorder, and glaucoma, among others. Background: – The Central Government passed the order, citing “extraordinary circumstances” and “public interest.” Key takeaways The NPPA, constituted in 1997, regulates ceiling prices of drugs and has the power to fix costs under what is known as a ‘Drug Price Control Order’ (DPCO) issued by the government under the Essential Commodities Act. NPPA comes under the department of pharmaceuticals under the Union Ministry of Chemicals and Fertilizers. The NPPA approved an increase in ceiling prices of eleven scheduled formulations of eight drugs by 50% of their current ceiling prices, in the larger public interest. NPPA invoked extraordinary powers under Para 19 of the DPCO, 2013. Section 19 of the DPCO allows the government to revise the ceiling cost in extraordinary circumstances. Section 19 states: “Notwithstanding anything contained in this order, the Government may, in case of extraordinary circumstances, if it considers it necessary to do so in public interest, fix the ceiling price or retail price of any drug for such period, as it may deem fit and where the ceiling price or retail price of the drug is already fixed and notified, the government may allow an increase or decrease in the ceiling price or the retail price, as the case may be, irrespective of annual wholesale price index for that year.” Every financial year starting April 1, the NPPA increases ceiling prices of drugs based on Wholesale Price Index (WPI) of the preceding year. Pricing of drugs in India is strictly controlled by the Central government. Action is taken against companies found selling at higher prices. Source: The Hindu STATE CONTINGENT DEBT INSTRUMENTS  Syllabus Prelims & Mains – ECONOMY Context: The recent cascade of countries defaulting on their debt has brought back into vogue complex securities called State Contingent Debt Instruments. Background: – State Contingent Debt Instruments has helped nations from Ukraine to Sri Lanka resolve difficult debt negotiations. Key takeaways State Contingent Debt Instruments (SCDIs) are financial instruments whose repayment terms are linked to certain economic variables or outcomes, like GDP growth, commodity prices, or revenue collection. SCDIs differ from the bulk of sovereign bonds which pay a predetermined amount in interest before a final repayment. Purpose: To provide fiscal flexibility to states by reducing debt servicing pressure during economic downturns. Helps manage debt burden effectively by aligning repayment with state revenue performance. Mechanism: Unlike traditional fixed debt instruments, SCDIs allow variation in repayment based on the agreed-upon economic indicators. When a state faces a downturn, repayments may be reduced; conversely, in a strong economic period, repayments could increase. Benefits: Counter-Cyclical Support: Helps states manage debt better during economic stress by lowering repayment obligations. Debt Sustainability: Reduces the likelihood of debt distress, aiding long-term fiscal health. Fiscal Stability: Supports better planning and stability by managing repayment according to economic performance. Recent Example Ukraine used SCDIs as part of a package to convince investors in August to swap their defaulted bonds for newer instruments — including a GDP-linked bond, which would pay investors more if the economy grows faster than anticipated. Source: The Hindu GEO ENGINEERING: SPRAYING DIAMOND DUST TO COOL EARTH  Syllabus Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: A new study has argued that spraying millions of tonnes of diamond dust in the Earth’s upper atmosphere every year could help cool down the Earth and combat global warming. Background: Previously, several other compounds, such as sulphur, calcium, aluminium, and silicon, have been suggested. The idea here is to scatter material that can reflect solar radiation into Space and prevent it from reaching Earth. Such solutions, called geo-engineering (more specifically solar radiation management), have been under study for quite some time. Key takeaways Geo engineering refers to any large-scale attempt to alter the Earth’s natural climate system to counter the adverse impacts of global warming. Solar Radiation Management (SRM), in which materials are deployed in Space to reflect incoming solar rays and prevent them from reaching Earth, is one of the two broad geoengineering options being explored. Then there are Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR) technologies, which include Carbon Capture and Sequestration (CCS). The only method being tried out in practice is CCS. Carbon dioxide emitted, from industry or power plants, is “captured” at source and deposited deep

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   EUTHANASIA  Syllabus Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: The Union Health Ministry has released draft guidelines on withdrawing or withholding medical treatment in terminally ill patients. Background: – The draft guidelines have not gone down well among a section of the medical fraternity, citing concerns that it exposes doctors to legal scrutiny and puts them under stress. Key takeaways Euthanasia refers to the practice of an individual deliberately ending their life, oftentimes to get relief from an incurable condition, or intolerable pain and suffering. Euthanasia, which can be administered only by a physician, can be either ‘active’ or ‘passive’. Active euthanasia involves an active intervention to end a person’s life with substances or external force, such as administering a lethal injection. Passive euthanasia refers to withdrawing life support or treatment that is essential to keep a terminally ill person alive. In 2011, the Supreme Court for the first time recognised the legality of passive euthanasia in the case of Aruna Ramchandra Shanbaug v Union of India. After being sexually assaulted by a ward attendant of Mumbai’s KEM Hospital in 1973 and suffering a brain injury in the process, nurse Aruna Shanbaug was left in a ‘persistent vegetative state’. A petition was filed in SC in 2009, seeking an end to the life-supporting treatment the hospital was providing to Shanbaug, arguing that she should be allowed to die peacefully. The court, while ruling out passive euthanasia in this case, held that Shanbaug was still alive as she did not require life support. However, the court recognised the legality of passive euthanasia. In 2018, the Supreme Court recognised the legality of ‘passive euthanasia’ for terminally-ill patients, holding that the ‘right to die with dignity’ forms a part of the right to life under Article 21. The court also laid down guidelines for passive euthanasia, both in cases where the patient left an ‘advance directive’ or a ‘living will’ and in cases where no such directive was left behind. For long there was no dedicated legislation in India on withholding/ withdrawing life-sustaining treatment. However, the Supreme Court’s judgment, and now the draft guidelines, make it clear that withholding/ withdrawing life-sustaining treatment is legal in India under a defined framework. Withholding or withdrawing life-sustaining treatment refers to discontinuing life-sustaining medical interventions such as ventilators and feeding tubes, etc., when these no longer help the condition of the patient or prolong their suffering.  The withholding or withdrawal of life-sustaining treatment also includes ‘do-not-attempt-resuscitation’ orders. It is crucial to note that when a do-not-attempt-resuscitation order is in place, every effort should be made to continue treating the underlying condition of the patient. The order is limited to not initiating resuscitation efforts. Life-sustaining treatments are medical treatments that artificially replace bodily functions essential to the life of the person. These interventions are withheld or withdrawn with the intention of providing comfort care, allowing the underlying illness to take its course while providing symptomatic relief. Source: Indian Express CENSUS NEXT YEAR, DELIMITATION SOON AFTER  Syllabus Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: The government is set to conduct the much-delayed Census next year, and to complete the process by 2026. Following the completion of the Census, the government will go ahead with delimitation, for redrafting of constituencies. Background: – Delimitation would have its own share of problems, with the South worried about the impact on its political share in a Parliament where a disproportionate number of seats will be from the North due to its heavily populated states. Key takeaways In 2002, the Atal Bihari Vajpayee govt had delayed delimitation by 25 years via the 84th Amendment, saying this would be carried out only after “the relevant figures for the first Census taken after the year 2026 have been published”. This meant delimitation to be carried out after the 2031 Census. However, as per sources, the government now plans to begin the delimitation process by 2027 and finish it within a year, so that the next Lok Sabha elections (in 2029) can be done post-delimitation. Although there is demand by various quarters that caste enumeration be included in the Census, the government has not been able to finalise a formula for it. The amendments required for a delimitation process include changes to Article 81 (which defines the composition of the Lok Sabha), Article 170 (composition of Legislative Assemblies), Article 82, Article 55 (deals with the presidential election process for which value of each vote in the electoral college is decided on the population basis), Articles 330 and 332 (covering reservation of seats for the Lok Sabha and Legislative Assemblies, respectively). Source: Indian Express INDIA CANNOT PHASE OUT COAL LIKE THE UK  Syllabus Mains – GS 2 & GS 3 Context: UK’s last coal-based generation plant at Ratcliffe-on-Soar was taken off the grid. Background: – The UK has made some progress in the decarbonisation of the power sector though it hasn’t got rid of carbon footprints completely. It is highly dependent on gas which is half as dirty as coal. Key takeaways The UK government has been pursuing a policy of closing down coal mines since the 1990s for reasons other than climate change — mainly political. In 2015, the government decided to completely phase out all coal-based plants by 2025 — the deadline was later advanced to 2024. To get rid of coal-based generation, the government relied on market drivers and regulatory interventions. UK have increased the cost of carbon dioxide emissions. The government also introduced mandatory use of carbon capture and storage for all new coal-based plants. These measures ensured that coal-based generation became unprofitable. UK also had cheap gas as an alternative to coal. Equally important is the fact that UK has already peaked its electricity generation and is now on the way down, both in terms of total generation and also in per capita terms. Generation in 2000 was 377 billion units (BUs) and it was down to 286 BUs in 2023. Similarly, per capita electricity consumption came down from 6 megawatt hours

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   REMEMBERING THE ‘IRON MAN OF INDIA’  Syllabus Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: National Unity Day is celebrated in India on 31st October. It was introduced by the Government of India in 2014. The day is celebrated to mark the birth anniversary of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel. Background: – Vallabhbhai Jhaverbhai Patel, famously known as Sardar Patel was the first Deputy Prime Minister and Home minister of India. Patel was a leader of the Indian National Congress and played a significant role in India’s struggle for freedom. Key takeaways Early Life and Role in the Freedom Movement Born on October 31, 1875, in Nadiad, Gujarat, Patel initially pursued a career in law. Inspired by Gandhi, he joined the independence movement. Notably, his leadership in the Bardoli Satyagraha of 1928, where farmers protested against increased taxes, earned him the title “Sardar” (leader). Sardar Patel’s contribution to uniting India As the first Home Minister of independent India, Sardar Patel played a crucial role in unifying and shaping the nation. At the time of independence, the British presented the challenge of declaring the Indian princely states as independent under the Indian Independence Act of 1947. The issue of the princely states was complex and challenging to resolve. When the British announced their departure, many princes believed it was the perfect moment to declare their independence. Additionally, there were others who found themselves in a struggle between India and Pakistan. However, through his diplomatic efforts, Patel secured the accession of the princely states, aligning these regions with the nation’s constitutional framework. Patel adopted various approaches based on the situation; he offered friendly advice in some cases, persuaded rulers to see reason in others, and even used force in the case of Hyderabad. He was valued for his political astuteness and pragmatic skills, which were essential in bringing together the more than 500 royal territories into the fold of the Indian union. Sardar Patel’s contribution to administration Along with the monumental task of unifying India, the Iron Man of India, Patel also played a crucial role in reinforcing the steel frame of India — the All India Services. He was instrumental in the establishment of the modern all-India services system. For this he is remembered as the “patron saint of India’s civil servants”. Sardar Patel’s Contribution to Constitution As the chairman of the Advisory Committee on Fundamental Rights, Minorities, and Tribal and Excluded Areas of the Constituent Assembly, Patel played a key role in shaping important sections of the Constitution concerning fundamental and minority rights. Source: Indian Express ‘PINK TICKET’ REPORT  Syllabus Mains – GS 2 Context: A recent report on the free public bus transport for women in Delhi shows a positive picture. Background: – Titled ‘Riding The Justice Route’, the report was released by Greenpeace India on Tuesday, the fifth anniversary of the Delhi government’s ‘pink ticket’ policy that made commuting on public buses free for women, after surveying the participants and assessing the impact of the scheme on their lives. Key takeaways As per the report, one in four women have started using buses after travel was made fare-free. After the scheme’s introduction, 23 per cent of women have started using buses at least four times a week, and 15 per cent of women, who rarely or never used buses before the scheme, now use them regularly. When it comes to challenges faced by women, the survey says that a little less than 50 per cent of women bus users feel “mostly safe” while travelling to the bus stop, waiting there, and riding a bus. The survey also suggests that 77 per cent of women feel unsafe while travelling by bus after 5 pm and two in three women find the lighting at the bus stop inadequate. Frequency also remains a challenge as 87 per cent of the women reported waiting more than 10 minutes, while a good 13 per cent waited more than 30 minutes for the bus. The impact of the scheme on the perception of women towards public transport across income groups is noteworthy. After the ‘pink ticket’ was introduced, 88 per cent of women surveyed perceived the scheme as impactful in promoting bus use among women. Source: Indian Express UNITED NATIONS RELIEF AND WORKS AGENCY FOR PALESTINE REFUGEES IN THE NEAR EAST (UNRWA)  Syllabus Prelims & Mains – CURRENT AFFAIRS Context: Israel’s parliament passed two Bills to ban the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees In The Near East (UNRWA) from operating in Israel and the Palestinian territories. The Knesset also voted to designate UNRWA a terrorist organisation, cutting all ties with the agency. Background: – The UNRWA was established in 1949 to provide aid to Palestinians who were forced to leave their homes during the 1948 Arab-Israeli war. Israel has argued that the UNRWA’s role is obsolete, and its work is an impediment to a peace settlement. However, critics have blamed Israel’s own actions, such as not meaningfully recognising the foundation of a Palestinian state, as having perpetuated the longstanding conflict. Key takeaways What is the UNRWA, and what role does it play? UNRWA is mandated by the UN General Assembly to serve ‘Palestine refugees’. This term was defined in 1952 as any person whose “normal place of residence was Palestine during the period 1 June 1946 to 15 May 1948 and who lost both home and means of livelihood as a result of the 1948 conflict. Palestine refugees are persons who fulfil the above definition and descendants of fathers fulfilling the definition. In addition, the UN Assembly has also mandated UNRWA to offer services to certain other persons who require humanitarian assistance, on an emergency basis as and when required, in UNRWA fields of operations. Notably, the Assembly has mandated the Agency to provide services to persons in the region who are currently displaced and in serious need of continued assistance as a result of the 1967 and subsequent hostilities. These persons are not registered as Palestine refugees. Only the UN General Assembly can

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   GREEN FIRECRACKERS  Syllabus Prelims & Mains – ENVIRONMENT Context: Delhi earned the tag of the world’s most polluted city on Friday after firecrackers were burst on the occasion of Diwali on Thursday despite a blanket ban in the national capital. Background: – At 6 am on Friday, the Air Quality Index (AQI) was recorded at 359, which falls in ‘very poor’ category, according to CPCB. Key takeaways Green crackers are eco-friendly fireworks developed as a solution to the air and noise pollution caused by traditional firecrackers. They are designed to emit fewer pollutants and are developed with an emphasis on reducing the harmful effects of conventional crackers. Both green crackers and traditional crackers cause pollution. However, the difference is that green crackers cause 30 per cent less air pollution as compared to traditional ones. Green crackers do not contain harmful chemicals like arsenic, lithium, or barium, which are found in conventional firecrackers and are responsible for high emissions of sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter. Use of alternative chemicals and a reduced level of aluminum, which cuts down on the emission of particulate matter (PM). The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CISR) has developed ‘green firecrackers’ to combat pollution. According to the CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, green crackers must have a reduction in the size of the shell, elimination of ash usage, reduced usage of raw materials in the composition, and/or use of additives as dust suppressants to reduce particulate matter, SO2, and NO2 emissions. These ‘green firecrackers’ have types like SWAS (safe water releaser), SAFAL (safe minimal aluminium), and STAR (safe thermite cracker). SWAS is a safe water releaser, which suppresses the dust released by releasing water vapour in the air. It does not comprise potassium nitrate and sulphur and the particulate dust released will reduce approximately by 30 per cent. SAFAL is safe minimal aluminium which has minimum usage of aluminium, and used magnesium instead. It ensures a reduction in sound in comparison to traditional crackers. STAR is a safe thermite cracker, which does not comprise potassium nitrate and sulphur, and emits reduced particulate matter disposal and reduced sound intensity. Source: Indian Express DIGITAL ARREST  Syllabus Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: indians lost Rs 120.30 crore in “digital arrest” frauds in the first quarter of this year alone, government cybercrime data shows. Background: – According to the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA), which monitors cybercrime at the central level through the Indian Cybercrime Coordination Centre (I4C), digital arrests have of late become a prevalent method of digital fraud. Key takeaways Digital arrests refer to a type of cybercrime where scammers impersonate law  enforcement officials to extort money from victims by threatening them with  arrest. How the Scam Works Initial Contact: Scammers contact victims via phone calls, text messages, or socialmedia, posing as officials from agencies like the police, Central Bureau of  Investigation (CBI), or the Reserve Bank of India (RBI). False Accusations: Victims are falsely accused of crimes such as money  laundering, tax evasion, or cybercrime. Intimidation: Scammers use threats of arrest or legal action to instill fear in their victims. Video Call Impersonation: Scammers may arrange a video call, impersonating  officials and using official-looking backgrounds to appear legitimate. Demand for Payment: Victims are pressured to pay a fine or bribe to avoid arrest or legal consequences. Data Theft: Scammers may also attempt to steal personal information, such as  bank account details or passwords. Many of those carrying out these frauds are based in three contiguous southeast Asian countries: Myanmar, Laos and Cambodia. According to I4C, there are four types of scams which are on the rise— digital arrest, trading scam, investment scam (task based) and romance/dating scam. Source: Indian Express THE BURGEONING EXPENDITURE OF ELECTIONS  Syllabus Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: According to the Centre for Media Studies (CMS), the total expenditure by various political parties for the general election to Lok Sabha this year was around ₹1,00,000 crores. Background: – Urgent reforms are needed to address the burgeoning cost of election expenditures which threaten foundational principles of democracy. Key takeaways What are the limits in India? The election expenditure limit for candidates is ₹95 lakh per Lok Sabha constituency in larger States and ₹75 lakh in smaller States. With respect to Legislative Assemblies, they are ₹40 lakh and ₹28 lakh for larger and smaller States respectively. These limits are set, from time to time, by the Election Commission (EC). There are no limits on the expenditure of political parties during elections. What are international standards? In the U.S., the financing for elections happens primarily by contributions from individuals, corporations, and political action committees (PAC). Out of the estimated expenditure in the November 2024 election cycle, around $5.5 billion is estimated to be spent on the presidential election. This humungous raise is due to large donations. In the U.K., a political party is allowed to spend £54,010 for each constituency they contest. There are also limits placed on candidates’ spending during the campaign. It translates, per constituency, to an average of £46-49,000 during the long campaign period (beginning five months before the full term of the House of Commons ends) and £17-20,000 during the short campaign period after elections are announced. What are the challenges? Elections across democracies have become expensive. Such increased expenditure that is met primarily through large donations creates an unholy nexus between the elected representatives and donors. This also acts as an entry barrier into electoral politics for many well-meaning citizens. In India, candidates from all major political parties breach the election expenditure limits. Further, there are no limits on political party spending during elections. The official expenditures declared by the BJP and Congress for the 2019 election were ₹1,264 crores and ₹820 crores, respectively. However, according to a report by the CMS, ₹50,000 crore was spent by various parties during the 2019 election. The CMS has estimated that spending during the 2024 election by various political parties was close to ₹1,00,000 crores. Such inflated election expenditure fuels corruption, resulting in a vicious cycle. What can be possible reforms? The Indrajit Gupta Committee (1998) and the Law Commission report (1999) have advocated for State funding of elections. Simultaneous elections are touted as a panacea for addressing the issue of rising expenditures. However, there are challenges on account of principles of federalism and constitutional amendments to this idea. It must be noted that this mechanism may rein in campaign and publicity expenditure to some extent. However, without curbing the illegal distribution of cash to voters, any form of simultaneous election will not have a significant impact on election expenditure. Certain practical steps to create a level playing field regarding election expenditure can be implemented. These are based on the EC’s 2016 report on ‘Proposed Electoral Reforms’. Firstly, the law