Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   WASTE-TO-ENERGY  Syllabus Prelims & Mains – SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: Big cities are yet to clear any land in half of their legacy landfill sites, with only 38% of the total dumped waste being remediated so far. It underscores the need for more effective strategies and resources to overcome the obstacles in waste remediation, and draws attention to the significance of waste-to-energy technologies. Background: – While waste remediation involves processes that clean up and rehabilitate contaminated land, waste-to-energy technologies convert non-recyclable waste materials into usable forms of energy, such as electricity or heat. Traditional to Modern Waste Management: Key Insights The Industrial Revolution (mid-18th century) marked the beginning of large-scale waste generation due to industrial production. Traditional waste management involved direct disposal into landfills, oceans, or remote areas, which is now unsustainable due to environmental impacts. Definition of Waste: According to the UN Statistical Division, waste refers to materials that are no longer useful for production, transformation, or consumption and are meant for disposal. Global Waste Generation: Currently, global waste production is 1.3 billion tonnes annually and is projected to rise to 2.2 billion tonnes by 2025, making waste management a critical global concern. Waste-to-Energy Technologies: Waste-to-energy technologies serve two purposes: (a) managing large-scale waste generated from household, municipal and industrial activities and, (b) meeting the rising energy demands. Simply put, ‘waste-to-energy refers to a series of technologies that convert non-recyclable waste into some usable forms of energy’. They align with UN SDG 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy) and SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities) and promote the circular economy. Conversion Processes: Thermochemical Technologies: Include incineration, pyrolysis, and gasification for energy recovery from waste. Incineration: Common method for treating heterogeneous waste by burning it at high temperatures in a specific kind of furnace called incinerators. This technique is appropriate for wastes with high caloric value as well as for non-hazardous municipal waste. Pyrolysis: Breaks down waste without oxygen to produce fuels (char, pyrolysis oil, syngas). It is an old technology that was used to produce charcoal from wood. Gasification: Decomposes carbon-rich waste to produce syngas. Pyrolysis and gasification are better suited for homogenous waste types. Biochemical Technologies: Use biological processes for organic waste (kitchen/garden). Anaerobic Digestion: is appropriate for organic waste where micro-organisms break down material in the absence of oxygen. One of the end-products is biogas. This method can occur naturally or can be engineered in bio-digesters and sanitary landfills. Landfilling: Composting and landfilling involve burying of waste accompanied by deploying landfill gas recovery systems. Although landfilling is less expensive, it is environmentally detrimental due to the release of toxic and obnoxious gases. Waste-to-Energy in India: The first plant was established in Delhi in 1987. As of 2022, India has 12 operational plants. Despite policies from the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, power generation from waste remains minimal, at just 554 MW (0.1% of total energy generated). There is a perception that waste-to-energy plants have failed in India. Commonly cited reasons are administrative delays in getting approval as well local opposition This happened in the case of the Bandhwari plant proposed in Gurugram in Haryana in 2021. Other reasons include extremely heterogeneous, unsegregated and poor quality of waste which requires excessive pre-treatment and increases the fuel requirement making the entire process expensive and unviable. Global best practices (e.g., Denmark’s hedonistic sustainability) could be adapted in India. Source: Indian Express AMAZON RIVER  Syllabus Prelims – GEOGRAPHY Context: The Amazon River, battered by back-to-back droughts fueled by climate change, is drying up, with some stretches of the mighty waterway dwindling to shallow pools only a few feet deep.   Background: – Water levels along several sections of the Amazon River, fell last month to their lowest level on record, according to figures from the Brazilian Geological Service. About Amazon river The Amazon River, located in South America, is the second longest river in the world, after the Nile, with a length of approximately 6,400 kilometers. It flows through Peru, Colombia, and primarily Brazil, discharging into the Atlantic Ocean. The Amazon Basin, the largest drainage basin in the world, covers about 7 million square kilometers, accounting for nearly 40% of South America’s landmass. The extensive lowland areas bordering the main river and its tributaries, called várzeas (“floodplains”), are subject to annual flooding, with consequent soil enrichment; however, most of the vast basin consists of upland, well above the inundations and known as terra firme. More than two-thirds of the basin is covered by an immense rainforest, which grades into dry forest and savanna on the higher northern and southern margins and into montane forest in the Andes to the west. Hydrological Significance: The Amazon carries more water than any other river on Earth, accounting for approximately 20% of the world’s fresh river water. It has the largest discharge of any river, with an average flow of about 209,000 cubic meters per second. The river is fed by over 1,000 tributaries, with the Rio Negro, Madeira, and Tapajós being the largest. Biodiversity: The Amazon River and its surrounding rainforest support one of the most biodiverse ecosystems in the world. It is home to a variety of species including the Amazon river dolphin (Boto), piranhas, electric eels, and more than 2,500 fish species. The Amazon rainforest, nourished by the river, houses around 10% of all known species, playing a crucial role in global biodiversity. Source: NewYork Times ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS  Syllabus Prelims & Mains – SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: On October 8, John Hopfield and Geoffrey Hinton won the 2024 Nobel Prize for physics for foundational discoveries and inventions that enable machine learning with artificial neural networks. Background: – Their work lies at the roots of a large tree of work, the newest branches of which we see today as artificially intelligent (AI) apps like ChatGPT. What are Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs)? Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) are computational models inspired by the human brain’s neural networks. They are composed of layers of interconnected artificial neurons that process data in a way that mimics human learning. ANNs are the foundation

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   EMPOWERING LOCAL BODIES FOR EFFECTIVE URBAN GOVERNANCE  Syllabus Mains – POLITY & GOVERNANCE Context: In August-September, heavy rains impacted cities across Gujarat, especially Vadodara, where flooding, power outages, and waste-filled streets crippled the city. While residents criticized the Vadodara Municipal Corporation, the local body worked tirelessly to mitigate the damage, underscoring the crucial role of urban local bodies (ULB’s). Background: – ULBs include Municipal Corporations, Municipalities, and Nagar Panchayats. They are responsible for urban governance and providing essential services like waste management, sanitation, and urban planning. Historical Context: Pre-colonial: Informal governance structures which varied based on the city’s primary activities (religious town or trading town). Colonial Era: British established city institutions like Improvement Trusts (e.g., in Bombay, Calcutta) for urban sanitation. First Municipal Body: Established in Madras (1687), followed by Bombay and Calcutta. The improvement trusts were tasked with the responsibility of cleaning up the city and ensuring that epidemics were prevented. Lord Ripon’s Resolution: In 1882, Lord Ripon (often called as father of local self-government in India) introduced the resolution for local-self governments, thereby laying the foundations of a democratically elected municipal government to manage cities. Post-Independence Evolution: After independence, municipal corporations continued to evolve but faced major obstacles with a growing population and limited infrastructure. They were heavily reliant on their respective state governments for financial and operational support. 74th Constitutional Amendment Act (1992): Gave constitutional recognition to ULBs as the third tier of governance. Part IX-A: Details the composition, roles, and powers of ULBs. 12th Schedule: Lists 18 functions devolved to ULBs (e.g., urban planning, public health). The amendment mandated elections every five years, with municipal councillors elected from local constituencies (wards). While the elected mayor serves as the ceremonial head, real executive power rests with the municipal commissioner, a state-appointed bureaucrat. Challenges Faced by ULBs: Financial Constraints: ULBs lack sufficient revenue sources. Property taxes and state government funding are the primary revenue streams. Initiatives like municipal bonds remain rare due to lack of expertise. Political Autonomy: Mayors have limited executive power compared to municipal commissioners. State governments often exert control through funding and legislative changes (e.g., Bihar Municipality Amendment Bill, 2024). Personnel and Expertise Shortage: ULBs face low state capacity, with a significant shortage of urban planners and technical experts (1 planner per 75,000 people). Indian cities will need 3 lakh planners by 2031. International Comparison: Global Cities: Mayors in cities like London and New York have significant power over policies, including housing, transportation, and infrastructure. Example: London’s Mayor controls Transport for London (TfL). TfL is responsible for improving mobility and accessibility in London. It is also in charge of implementing the Mayor’s sustainable transport plan whereby 80 per cent of trips in London shall be on foot, cycle or public transport by 2040. The Way Forward: Greater Financial Autonomy: ULBs should raise revenue through market measures (bonds, securities) and user charges (parking fees, congestion charges). Participatory Budgets: Allow residents to decide how taxes are used, increasing local problem-solving. Improved Technical Expertise: ULBs need to recruit more experts and planners to tackle complex urban challenges like floods and heat islands. Decentralized Governance: According to the principle of subsidiarity, local issues should be managed by ULBs, minimizing reliance on state or central governments. Source: Indian Express STRUGGLING TEXTILE INDUSTRY  Syllabus Mains – GS 3 Context: Union Minister for Textiles recently said that the Indian textile and apparel sector is aiming for a total business of $350 billion annually by 2030. However, the industry went through a tumultuous phase during the last two financial years, casting a shadow on the possibility for growth. Background: – Several MSME textile mills downed their shutters as there is no demand. What is the status now? In FY22, India was the third largest textile exporter globally, enjoying a 5.4% share. India is also said to have the second largest manufacturing capacity, with capability across the value chain. The sector’s contribution to GDP is close to 2.3% (FY21) and 10.6% of total manufacturing Gross Value Added (GVA) in FY23. About 105 million people are employed by the textile and garment units, directly and indirectly. For an industry that has 80% of its capacity spread across MSMEs and is sensitive to global markets, FY2021-2022 saw tremendous growth with $43.4 billion exports. However, slowdown in demand that started in 2022-2023 only worsened in FY24 with a slump in exports and domestic demand. This impacted manufacturing clusters severely. Tamil Nadu, which has the largest spinning capacity in the country, saw the closure of nearly 500 textile mills in the last two years. Why did exports slump? Geopolitical developments and a slump in demand in buying countries hit the exporting units. This was exacerbated by high raw material prices of both, cotton and Man Made Fibres (MMF), and the growing import of fabrics and garments. The imposition of a 10% import duty on cotton has made Indian cotton more expensive compared to international prices. In the case of MMF, introduction of quality control orders has disturbed raw material availability and price stability. The industry is repeatedly demanding removal of the import duty on cotton at least during the off-season months of April to October. What are the other challenges? Apart from policy issues, the industry is also staring at disruptions in its traditional business systems. Direct retailing to customers through e-commerce is a trend with more startups entering this space. Foreign brands are fast-tracking the adoption of ESG (Environmental, Social, & Governance) sustainability across the supply chain. They are defining sustainability targets and want to source from vendors who will meet these targets. Further, there is a rise in comfort wear, loungewear, and athleisure as the emphasis on comfortable clothing has increased among consumers. Source: The Hindu TOOLS TO DESIGN PROTEINS, PREDICT STRUCTURE WIN 2024 CHEMISTRY NOBEL  Syllabus Prelims & Mains – SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: The 2024 Nobel Prize for chemistry was jointly awarded to David Baker for his work on computational protein design and to Demis Hassabis and John Jumper

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   CAN INDIA ESCAPE MIDDLE-INCOME TRAP?  Syllabus Mains – ECONOMY Context: The World Development Report 2024 — authored by the World Bank — calls attention to the phenomenon of the “middle-income” trap, or the slowing down of growth rates as incomes increase. Background: – Over the last 34 years, only 34 middle-income economies — defined as economies with per capita incomes between $1,136 and $13,845 — have transitioned to higher income levels. Key takeaways The WDR details the policies and strategies necessary to break the trap based on the experiences of countries that did manage the transition. It highlights the importance of the “3i” approach: investment, infusion, and innovation. Economies must invest, ensure the infusion of new global technologies, and develop an environment conducive to domestic innovation. Role of the state Most countries that broke the trap were part of the European Union which facilitated growth and mobility of capital and labour for its members. Such institutions that aid free factor mobility are not available for most countries. An important non-European country that managed to escape the trap is South Korea. The South Korean state was heavily interventionist, often directing the private sector’s activities and ensuring their participation in an export-driven growth model. Successful companies were rewarded with access to new technologies and supportive measures, while firms that did not perform were allowed to fail. Another economy that broke the trap was Chile. But it too, saw state intervention in ensuring the success of natural resource exporting sectors. The salmon industry, for instance, succeeded in Chile due to the targeted intervention of the state to ensure that the industry flourished. The South Korean government’s approach carries significant lessons. The state must be seen as being neutral amongst private players and ensuring those who do not make the mark are allowed to fail. The benefits firms receive from the state must be based on performance instead of closeness to power. The presence of powerful business houses can promote growth provided they invest, ensure the adoption and infusion of new technologies, and innovate. The pitfalls South Korea’s success was built on manufacturing exports; such a strategy is not possible now. World export growth has slowed, with demand slowing down. Several countries have turned to protectionism due to perceived job loss. Several countries have been hit by ‘premature deindustrialisation’. Modern economies face a reduction in the income share of manufacturing at much lower levels of GDP compared to previous economies. Manufacturing is no longer an engine of growth for developing economies, and it remains to be seen whether the service sector is strong enough to break the trap. Challenges facing India The power of billionaires in the Indian economy has increased, and they are seen as being close to the state, with the state unable — or unwilling — to ensure high rates of investment from domestic capital. The manufacturing sector has stagnated, and there has been a reversal of the process of structural transformation, with employment increasing in agriculture and in low-productive forms following the pandemic. While the government estimates a real GDP growth of around 7% in recent years, wages have not kept up. Wage earners have seen little to no real wage growth. An economy cannot break a middle-income trap if workers are unable to partake in the growth process, as reduced consumption demand will become a drag. South Korea’s export strategy was overseen by a military government that ruled till the 1980s. Chile deposed the democratically elected government of Salvador Allende by a coup. It is vital not to take the wrong lessons and think that democracy is an acceptable price to pay for higher growth. The challenge for policy is to promote state intervention to ensure growth while maintaining the sanctity of the democratic ethos. Source: The Hindu ETHICAL LESSONS FROM THE LIFE OF RATAN TATA  Syllabus Mains – GS 4 Context: Former Tata Group Chairman Ratan Tata, whose dedication to integrity and social upliftment touched the hearts of many, breathed his last on Wednesday Background: – Known for his ethical business practices and commitment to improving lives through social initiatives, Ratan Tata’s life serves as an example of how to bring change. Key values, quotes and examples from his life Kindness : Kindness is a virtue that encompasses the ability to be polite and caring towards others. It entails empathy and compassion towards others. During the 1984 anti-Sikh riots, Ratan Tata displayed extraordinary kindness by providing free trucks to Sikh survivors who had lost their vehicles and livelihoods in the violence. Tata Motors’ gesture helped these individuals rebuild their businesses and regain their livelihood at a time of immense hardship. Virtues such as kindness, empathy, and compassion play key roles in creating a positive environment, fostering a sense of safety, and building trust with others. Civil servants interact with diverse communities daily. By demonstrating empathy and kindness, they can build trust within the community. Spirit of Service: It is a quality of a person that encourages one to be committed to public service without any self motives. During the 26/11 Mumbai attacks, Ratan Tata, as Chairman of the Tata Group, led the restoration of the Taj Hotel and personally supported affected employees. He quickly established the Taj Public Service Welfare Trust to provide relief to victims and to help and rehabilitate those recovering from such tragic events in the future, demonstrating compassion and resilience in a time of crisis. Compassion: Compassion is defined as the emotional response when perceiving suffering and involves an authentic desire to help. Practicing compassion increases our well-being by enhancing a sense of connection to others. Ratan Tata is known for his love of animals, particularly dogs. A LinkedIn user shared a story of visiting Mumbai’s Taj Hotel, where she saw a dog being cared for by the staff. This act of compassion was due to Tata’s directive to treat animals kindly. Leadership: Leadership is the ability of an individual to guide and influence people. The values, decision-making style, ethics

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   JAYAPRAKASH NARAYAN Syllabus Prelims & Mains – HISTORY Context: Jayaprakash Narayan, popularly known as Lok Nayak, was born on 11 October 1902 in Bihar’s Saran district. As we commemorate his 122nd birth anniversary this year, his legacy as a people’s leader and champion of their cause continues to inspire. Background: – He played a noteworthy role in the Indian national struggle and especially in leading the call for ‘Total Revolution‘ during the Emergency. Key takeaways The first encounter of Jayaprakash Narayan (JP) with freedom struggle happened during the Swadeshi movement. He gave up his foreign clothes and footwear in support. From the beginning, he was influenced by Gandhi. In December 1920, Gandhi visited Patna with the message of Non-cooperation. Inspired by his speech, JP wanted to invest all his time into political work but was held back by apprehension. His misgivings disappeared when Maulana Abul Kalam Azad visited Patna and prompted students. JP quit college and became part of the Non-Cooperation Movement. In 1922, he left India to study at the University of California, Berkeley, where Karl Marx’s ideas influenced him. In 1929, upon returning to India, he joined the Indian National Congress. During the Civil Disobedience Movement, when all the prominent leaders were arrested, JP kept the Congress functional. He began working on building an extensive illegal underground network distributing literature and recruiting supporters. Several warrants were issued against him, eventually leading to his arrest in 1932. Influenced by Socialist ideas, the young congressmen in Bihar founded the Bihar Socialist Party in 1931, JP was associated with the organisation since its inception. JP became instrumental in the formation of the All India Congress Socialist Party (CSP) in 1934 with Narendra Deva as president and himself as secretary. It was during the Quit India Movement (1942) that JP came to the forefront. He along with Ram Manohar Lohia and Aruna Asaf Ali, took charge of the movement after all the senior leaders were arrested. Soon, he was also arrested under Defence India Rules. He was taken to Hazari Bagh Central Jail from where he escaped in November 1942. JP organised an “Azaad Dasta” (armed guerrilla revolutionaries) in Nepal after escaping from jail. JP hoped to launch a countrywide revolution. However, he was arrested in September 1943, exactly ten months and ten days after he escaped from Hazaribagh jail. It was only in 1946 that he was released from jail. Following Independence, JP took the CSP out of the Congress and formed the Socialist Party, which he merged with J B Kripalani’s Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party to form the Praja Socialist Party. Soon afterward, after turning down Nehru’s calls to join the ministry, JP decided to walk away from electoral politics and involved himself with Acharya Vinoba Bhave’s Bhoodan movement. In March 1974, students in Bihar protesting against rising prices and unemployment, invited JP, who has given up from active politics, to guide the student movement. JP accepted it on one condition that the movement will remain non-violent and will not limit itself to Bihar.  JP demanded the dismissal of the Congress government in Bihar and gave a call for a “total revolution“ in the social, economic, and political spheres. A massive protest was organised in Delhi’s Ramlila grounds on 25 June 1975 where JP announced a nationwide satyagraha for then Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi’s resignation and asked the army, the police, and government employees not to obey “illegal and immoral orders”. In response, the government declared a state of emergency on 25 June 1975. The General Elections were called in 1977. The election results turned into a referendum on Emergency, at least in north India. Indira Gandhi’s government was defeated, paving the way for the formation of the first-ever non-Congress government at the Centre. Throughout the Emergency, JP fought vigorously against the authoritarian and became a beacon of hope in the face of adversity. Source: Indian Express GREEN PATCH SPREADS IN ANTARCTICA  Syllabus Prelims & Mains – ENVIRONMENT Context: Plant cover across the Antarctic Peninsula, a long, mountainous extension of Antarctica that points north towards South America, has increased more than 10 times over the past few decades due to rising temperatures, a new study says. Background: – In March 2022, Antarctica experienced its most intense heatwave — temperatures in East Antarctica soared to 39 degrees Celsius above normal. How quickly is Antarctica warming? The continent is warming twice as fast as the global average, at a rate of between 0.22 degrees Celsius and 0.32 degrees Celsius per decade currently. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the UN body that advances scientific knowledge about climate change, has estimated that the Earth as a whole is warming at the rate of 0.14-0.18 degrees Celsius per decade. The situation in the Antarctic Peninsula is worse than in the rest of Antarctica — it is warming five times faster than the global average. The Antarctic Peninsula is now almost 3 degrees Celsius warmer on average than in 1950. Antarctica has also been experiencing record-breaking heatwaves, especially during the height of its winter season (which is summer in the northern hemisphere). What has the study found? Researchers used satellite imagery and data to conclude that the extent of vegetation – mostly mosses and lichen – in the Antarctic Peninsula has increased 14 times in just 35 years. Rising temperatures in Antarctica have also resulted in a rapid decrease in the extent of sea ice — the 2024 extent was the second smallest of the satellite record, only slightly more than the record low set in 2023. Warmer open seas may be leading to wetter conditions that favour plant growth. Why should we worry about increased vegetation in Antarctica? Mosses can colonise bare rock and create the foundation of soils that could in milder conditions make the continent more favourable for the growth of other invasive species that could threaten native flora and fauna. Increase in plant life could also reduce the Antarctic Peninsula’s ability to reflect sunlight (solar energy) back to Space — a darker surface absorbs more solar radiation. This could further increase ground temperatures, with local and global

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   X-BAND RADAR  Syllabus Prelims & Mains – SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: After devastating floods and landslides killed more than 200 people in Kerala’s Wayanad district in July 2024, the Union Ministry of Earth Sciences approved an X-band radar to be installed in the district. Background: – A torrential downpour triggered the landslide in the valley instantly wiping out habitations. Key takeaways Radar is short for ‘radio detection and ranging’. The device uses radio waves to determine the distance, velocity, and physical characteristics of objects. A transmitter emits a signal aimed at an object whose characteristics are to be ascertained (in meteorology, this could be a cloud). A part of the emitted signal is echoed by the object back to the device, where a receiver tracks and analyses it. Weather radar, also known as a Doppler radar, is a common application of this device. The Doppler effect is the change in frequency of sound waves as their source moves towards and away from a listener. In meteorology, Doppler radars can reveal how fast a cloud is moving and in which direction based on how the cloud’s relative motion changes the frequency of the radiation striking it. Doppler radars can monitor weather conditions and anticipate new wind patterns, the formation of storms, etc. What is an X-band radar? Doppler radar relies on Rayleigh scattering, when the scatterer is much smaller than the wavelength of the radiation. A radar trying to ‘see’ smaller particles like rain droplets or fog will need to use radiation of lower wavelengths, like in the X-band. An X-band radar is radar that emits radiation in the X-band of the electromagnetic spectrum: 8-12 GHz, corresponding to wavelengths of around 2-4 cm (this is in the microwave part of the spectrum.) The smaller wavelengths allow the radar to produce images of higher resolution. However, the greater the frequency of some radiation, the faster it will be attenuated. So X-band radars have a relatively shorter range. In Wayanad, the new radar is expected to be able to monitor the movements of particles, such as soil, to inform landslide warnings. The device will also perform high temporal sampling, that is, rapidly sample its environs, allowing it to spot particle movements happening in shorter spans of time. How many radars does India have? In its X-band radar network, India has both wind-finding and storm-detecting radars, and some with dual capabilities. The country also uses S-band radars (2-4 GHz) for long-range detection. In September, the Union Cabinet cleared the ₹2,000-crore ‘Mission Mausam’ to upgrade meteorological infrastructure in the country. This includes installing up to 60 meteorological radars until 2026 under the Mission’s first phase. Source: The Hindu SCUTTLING PEOPLE’S RIGHT TO INFORMATION  Syllabus Prelims & Mains – POLITY Context: There is a severe backlash against the Right to Information (RTI) Act, which has just entered its 20th year, and those who use it. Background: – From exposing corruption in the delivery of basic rights to bringing to light the truth behind the opaque electoral bonds scheme, the RTI Act has been used by citizens to hold power to account. Key takeaways Vacant Posts & Dysfunctional Commissions: Governments are scuttling the RTI Act by not appointing information commissioners. A 2023-24 report of the Satark Nagrik Sangathan,a citizens group that campaigns for transparency in government functioning, shows that: Seven out of 29 information commissions across the country were defunct in 2023-24. Jharkhand’s commission has been non-functional for over four years, Tripura’s for three years, and Telangana’s for 1.5 years. Maharashtra’s commission has over 1 lakh pending cases, and six out of 11 commissioner posts are vacant. Central Information Commission (CIC) has eight out of 11 posts vacant. More than 4 lakh appeals and complaints are pending in information commissions across India. Ineffective Appointments: Most commissioners appointed are retired officials or those with political ties, often reluctant to act against violations of transparency. The report by Satark Nagrik Sangathan shows that commissions did not impose penalties in 95% of the cases where penalties could be imposed. This failure sends a signal that violating the law will not invite consequences. This destroys the framework of incentives and disincentives built into the RTI Act, promotes a culture of impunity, and exasperates applicants who seek information. Regressive Amendments: 2019 Amendments: Empowered the central government to control tenure, salaries, and post-retirement benefits of commissioners, reducing the autonomy of information commissions. Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023: It included a provision to amend the RTI law to exempt all personal information from disclosure. The RTI Act of 2005 provided for protection of the privacy through section 8(1)(j). In order to invoke this section to deny personal information, at least one of the following grounds had to be proven: information sought had no relationship to any public activity or public interest; or information sought was such that it would cause unwarranted invasion of privacy, and the information officer was satisfied that there is no larger public interest that justified disclosure. The DPDP Act amended section 8(1)(j) to expand its purview and exempt all personal information from the ambit of the RTI Act. It also deleted a key provision in the law, which gave citizens a right to information at par with MPs and MLAs. Threats to RTI Activists: Nearly 100 people have been killed for using the RTI Act, and many more have been assaulted or threatened, according to Transparency International India data. The Whistleblowers Protection Act, passed in 2014, remains non-operational due to a lack of implementation rules. Erosion of Democracy: The RTI Act has played a crucial role in redistributing power and reshaping the government-citizen relationship. Any erosion of the RTI Act, through inaction or regressive amendments, is a direct threat to the democratic framework. Source: The Hindu EUROPA CLIPPER MISSION  Syllabus Prelims & Mains – SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: NASA is set to launch Europa Clipper mission today. Background: – The spacecraft is scheduled to launch from Nasa’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida aboard

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   A NOBEL PRIZE FOR EXPLAINING WHY NATIONS FAIL OR SUCCEED  Syllabus Prelims & Mains – ECONOMY Context: The 2024 Economics Nobel was awarded to U.S. economists Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson and James A. Robinson “for studies of how institutions are formed and affect prosperity.” The prize committee credited the winners for enhancing our understanding of the root causes of why countries fail or succeed. Background: – Why some countries are rich while others are poor is a question that has been debated by economists for a long time now. What is the significance of the work of this year’s economics Nobel prize winners? According to the Nobel committee, the richest 20% of countries in the world today are 30 times richer in terms of average income than the poorest 20%. Various theories have been proposed to explain the huge difference in living standards in rich versus poor countries. Some have blamed colonialism as the primary reason for the Western world’s prosperity. Others have argued that disparities in natural resource endowment explains differences in prosperity. Some others have argued that intelligence and even historical accidents could explain a nation’s fate. The 2024 Nobel laureates, however, have argued that differences in the quality of economic and political institutions is what best explains the divergence in the economic fates of countries. This thesis is elaborated in the 2012 book Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity, and Poverty written by Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson, and also in the 2004 paper Institutions as a Fundamental Cause of Long-Run Growth, written together by all three of this year’s Nobel laureates. Why is the quality of institutions so important? Institutions are the “rules of the game” that define the incentives that individuals face when dealing with each other. For example, institutions that stop the State from seizing the property of honest citizens would give citizens the incentive to work hard without the fear of expropriation and that in turn would lead to economic prosperity. Institutions that legalize expropriation, on the other hand, would affect individual incentives negatively and cause economic stagnation. Now, Acemoglu and Johnson argued in their book that institutions can either be “inclusive” or “extractive”. Inclusive institutions are characterized by secure private property rights and democracy while extractive institutions are marked by insecure private property rights and the lack of political freedom. They tried to empirically demonstrate that inclusive institutions lead to long-run economic growth and higher living standards while extractive institutions lead to economic degradation and poverty. To this end, they studied the institutions that colonists set up in different colonies and the impact that they had. When a colonial power did not want to settle in a country for various reasons (such as higher mortality rates due to geography), it set up institutions that were extractive in nature. Example is the case of Britishers in India. But in countries where colonists wanted to settle for the long-run, they set up inclusive institutions that encouraged investment and long-term growth over short-term plunder. This may have been the case in the United States where the British set up institutions that promoted long-term prosperity. It should be noted that institutions can also include factors like culture, which influence the more explicit “rules of the game” expressed by political and economic institutions. If inclusive institutions are so good for growth, why don’t we have more of them? Rulers face different choices in their respective countries. When the rulers of a country are able to safely extract resources for their personal gains through extractive institutions, the laureates argue, they have little reason to bring in political and economic reforms (or inclusive institutions) that can benefit the wider population over the long run. In such cases, extractive institutions prevail for a really long time as long as the masses do not revolt against the status quo. What’s special about the Nobel prize given to Acemoglu, Johnson, and Robinson? The economics Nobel prize is usually awarded for ground-breaking academic research into topics that are of significant real-world importance. In the last two years, the Nobel prize was awarded to scholars who worked on important questions such as the gender pay gap and the fragility of the banking system. While these topics are no doubt important, they still do not delve deep enough into the more fundamental questions that economics as a discipline was founded to answer. This year’s Nobel prize corrects this flaw by bringing the world’s focus back onto the crucial topic of institutions, which determine the very “rules of the game” in any economy and thus affect literally everything that happens in it. Source: The Hindu SUICIDE AND MENTAL HEALTH  Syllabus Mains – GS 1, GS 2 Context: Weeks after a final-year student died allegedly by suicide in his hostel room at the Indian Institute of Management (IIM), Ahmedabad, the institute’s students’ council has demanded setting up of a committee to probe into the circumstances surrounding the death. Background: – According to the annual report of the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB), 1.64 lakh people died by suicide in 2021 — an increase of 7.2 per cent from 2020. In the past three years, the suicide rate in the country has increased from 10.2 to 11.3 per 1,00,000 population. Most suicides in India are by youth and middle-aged adults — with 65 per cent of the suicides in 2020 being reported in the age group of 18-45 years. Key takeaways According to WHO, the link between suicide and mental disorders (in particular, depression and alcohol use disorders) and a previous suicide attempt is well established in high-income countries. However, many suicides happen impulsively in moments of crisis with a breakdown in the ability to deal with life stresses, such as financial problems, relationship disputes, or chronic pain and illness. In addition, experiencing conflict, disaster, violence, abuse or loss and a sense of isolation are strongly associated with suicidal behaviour. Suicide rates are also high among vulnerable groups who experience discrimination, such as

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   SWELL WAVES  Syllabus Prelims & Mains – GEOGRAPHY Context: The Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) has issued extensive advisories for swell waves for Andaman and Nicobar and Lakshadweep as well as parts of coastal areas in Andhra, Goa, Gujarat, Kerala, Maharashtra, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Daman and Diu, and Puducherry. Background: – Swell waves are also called Kallakkadal waves in India, which is a colloquial term used by Kerala fishermen to denote sudden waves that cause flash floods. INCOIS Hyderabad launched its swell surge forecast system in February 2020 to provide warnings for coastal populations in case of anticipated swell waves. What are swell waves? Swell waves are long-wavelength ocean waves that travel away from their places of origin. They are usually created by windstorms or other weather systems. Sea waves otherwise are usually generated due to local winds. Windstorms and other powerful air current systems transfer energy from the air to water, making swell waves more powerful. Because of their high energy, swell waves are able to travel large distances and strike shores with considerably high power. According to INCOIS, swell waves organise themselves into groups of similar heights and periods, and then travel long distances without much change. Wave period is the time one wavelength takes to pass a specific point. Longer wavelengths, therefore, result in longer wave periods, and these characteristics are associated with faster and more powerful waves. A wave is essentially a transfer of energy from one point to another. Shorter waves dissipate more energy due to frequent movement, which is why they also lose energy quickly. Longer wavelengths are more powerful, and this is also why swells continue to persist days after they are formed. How are swell surges different from tsunami waves? Kallakkadal waves inundate large areas of land. These waves are also sometimes confused with tsunami waves given their stealthy nature, but both are different. Kallakkadal waves are caused due to weather phenomenon, while tsunamis are mostly caused due to earthquakes or tectonic activity. Source: The Hindu A FOOD-SUFFICIENT INDIA NEEDS TO BE HUNGER-FREE TOO  Syllabus Mains – GS 3 Context: Every year, World Food Day is celebrated across the world on October 16. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) started this global event to start a fight against hunger, raise awareness about healthy diets, and promote action against malnutrition and food security. Background: – India needs to transform its agri-food system to improve resilience and affordability of healthy diets. Key takeaways Ending hunger, food insecurity, and malnutrition is a Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) to be realized by 2030. Rising conflicts, climate change, and economic slowdowns in vulnerable regions hinder progress on this front. Food insecurity and malnutrition are a manifestation of a lack of access to and the unaffordability of healthy diets. For a nation to be food sufficient, it needs to have an ideal distributional mechanism that ensures universal access to food that is affordable. Adequate food does not necessarily imply balanced food intake with all required nutrients to address malnourishment. Hence, a transformation from a hunger-free environment to a nutritionally compliant one needs to take into account the unaffordability of healthy diets, unhealthy food intakes and their underlying inequalities across the population. Global Hunger Overview : The global magnitude of the undernourished has risen to 9.4%, or 757 million people as of 2023. It is disproportionate in the African region. However, in real counts, Asia is home to the largest magnitude of those who are hungry — 384.5 million — as compared with 298.4 million in Africa. The distinct feature of undernourishment is its rural bias. The gender divide in this adversity disadvantages women over men although such a divide is narrowing. While food insecurity results in undernourishment or hunger, the intrinsic connect lies with the lack of a purchasing capacity for adequate food. In this perspective, the cost and affordability of a healthy diet (CoHD) assumes significance. Cost of Healthy Diet (CoHD): Global average cost of a healthy diet in 2022 was $3.96 purchasing power parity (PPP) dollars per person per day; in Asia, it was $4.20. 83 billion people globally could not afford a healthy diet in 2022, down slightly from 2.88 billion in 2021. A practical solution lies in regulating food prices and a reduced share of food expenditure in the total expenditure that makes healthy diets universally affordable. Thalinomics shows affordability issues in rural India: 63.3% of the population could not afford a required diet in 2011. Unhealthy Diets in India: Indian diets are imbalanced in relation to global and national dietary recommendations. A healthy reference diet in South Asia can cost 60% of daily household income, making it unaffordable for low-income groups. Even the richest 5% consume less protein-rich food, indicating issues of awareness, accessibility, and availability. Steps to End Hunger: There are circumstances wherein individuals go hungry as they do not have the means to buy food. But mechanisms to provide free food by setting up food banks that evolve as a way to avoid food waste may be an ideal alternative Nations that are food sufficient should ensure humanitarian food redistribution to food-deficient regions. Source: The Hindu   INTER-PARLIAMENTARY UNION (IPU)  Syllabus Prelims – POLITY Context: Lok Sabha Speaker Om Birla, is leading the Indian Parliamentary Delegation at the 149th Assembly of the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU). Background: – The 149th IPU Assembly will take place from 13-17 October 2024 in Geneva under the overarching theme of “Harnessing science, technology and innovation for a more peaceful and sustainable future.” About Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU) The IPU is the global organisation of national parliaments. It was founded in 1889 as the first multilateral political organisation in the world, encouraging cooperation and dialogue between all nations. It is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland. Currently, the IPU comprises of 180 national Parliaments and 15 regional parliamentary bodies carrying the objectives of promoting democracy and helping parliaments develop into stronger, younger, greener, more gender-balanced and more innovative institutions. Slogan: For democracy. For everyone. Vision :

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   FIVE EYES  Syllabus Prelims & Mains – INTERNATIONAL Context: Five Eyes supports Canada in spat with India. Background: – Citing alleged involvement in the killing of Hardeep Singh Nijjar, Canada has expelled six Indian diplomats. In a tit-for-tat move, India too expelled six Canadian diplomats. About Fiver Eyes The Five Eyes is an intelligence-sharing alliance consisting of five countries: United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. The alliance was initially formed during World War II for sharing signals intelligence (SIGINT) and has since evolved into a broader intelligence cooperation framework. It is based on the UKUSA Agreement, a multilateral agreement for cooperation in intelligence activities, particularly concerning signals intelligence. Key Features: Intelligence Sharing: The Five Eyes share a wide range of intelligence, including military, political, security, and cyber intelligence. Scope: Initially focused on the Soviet Union during the Cold War, the Five Eyes now addresses global security threats such as terrorism, cybercrime, and state-sponsored espionage. Technology and Surveillance: The alliance members operate extensive signals intelligence infrastructure and conduct joint surveillance operations on potential security threats worldwide. Historical Background: The UKUSA Agreement was formalized in 1946, primarily between the United States and the United Kingdom. Over time, the agreement was expanded to include Canada (1948), Australia, and New Zealand (both in 1956). The Five Eyes network became central during the Cold War in monitoring and intercepting Soviet communications. In the post-Cold War period, it expanded its scope to cover threats like terrorism, nuclear proliferation, and cybersecurity. Source: The Hindu THIRD-PARTY LITIGATION FUNDING (TPLF)  Syllabus Mains – GS 2 Context: The idea of Third-Party Litigation Funding (TPLF) has quickly emerged as a game-changer, potentially opening courtroom doors for many who felt they had been shut out. Background: – The need for TPLF in India is painfully clear, given the massive pendency and skyrocketing litigation expenses. Justice is increasingly becoming a luxury only a few can afford. Key takeaways Third-Party Litigation Funding (TPLF), also known as litigation finance, is a financial arrangement where a third party (usually a private firm or investor) provides the  funds necessary to pursue a legal case in exchange for a share of the proceeds if  the case is successful. The Supreme Court in a landmark judgment Bar Council of India v. A.K. Balaji cautiously gave green signal to TPLF, viewing it as ‘a potential equaliser in the courtroom’ and categorically holding that TPLF was not off-limits as long as lawyers were not the ones bankrolling such cases. The ripple effects of TPLF could reach every corner of India. In fact, we may witness situations with consumer groups taking on food adulterators, tech startups withstanding pressure against industry giants, tribes supported by NGOs taking on mining mafias without fear of financial ruin. TPLF might breathe new air into Public Interest Litigation, a powerful tool for social change since the 1980s. Key Concerns regarding TPLF Cherry-Picking Profitable Cases: Funders may prioritize profitable cases, potentially neglecting socially important but less lucrative claims. Funder’s Influence on Case Strategy: Questions arise over how much control funders should have in case decisions, emphasizing the need for regulation. Lack of National Framework in India: Although states like Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, and Gujarat have amended civil procedure codes to recognize TPLF, there is no comprehensive national regulatory framework. Need for Regulation: A regulatory structure should ensure: Financial soundness and ethical conduct of funders. Transparency in funding agreements. Protection of clients’ decision-making rights. Reasonable caps on funders’ profits. Oversight Body: Establishing a dedicated authority to monitor and regulate TPLF is essential for effective governance. Like Hong Kong’s Code of Practice for Third Party Funding in Arbitration 2019, India must ensure funders disclose financing details, manage adverse costs, and clarify the extent of funder control. TPLF presents both a challenge and an opportunity. By developing targeted and comprehensive regulations tailored to India’s unique legal landscape, the country can foster a thriving ecosystem. In doing so, India might set a new global standard, balancing financial innovation with the fundamental right to justice. Source: The Hindu BENCHMARK DISABILITY PER SE NO BAR FOR ADMISSIONS  Syllabus Mains – GS 2 Context: The Supreme Court ruled that only the existence of the benchmark permanent disability of 40 per cent does not bar a candidate from being considered for admission to an educational institution unless a medical assessment board is of the opinion that the disability will come in the way of pursuing the course. Background: – Confirming the admission of a candidate with 45 per cent permanent disability for the MBBS course, SC held that quantified disability per se will not disentitle a candidate with benchmark disability from being considered for admission. The candidate will be eligible if the Disability Assessment Board opines that notwithstanding the disability the candidate can pursue the course in question. Key take aways from the judgement The Disability Assessment Boards assessing the candidates should positively record whether the disability of the candidate will or will not come in the way of pursuing the course. The Disability Assessment Board should state reasons in the event of concluding that the candidate is not eligible for pursuing the course. Referring to the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (RPwD) Act, 2016, the bench underlined the need to follow the principle of reasonable accommodation as laid down in Section 2(y) of the Act. The section defines “reasonable accommodation” as necessary and appropriate modification and adjustments, without imposing a disproportionate or undue burden in a particular case, to ensure to persons with disabilities the enjoyment or exercise of rights equally with others. The court went on to say that the mandate of the law is to ensure full and effective participation of persons with disabilities in society. To achieve this, conditions that hinder their equal participation should be excluded. A broad interpretation of “reasonable accommodation” is necessary to fulfill the objectives of the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (RPwD) Act and Article 41 of the Directive Principles of State Policy. Additional Information December 3 is marked by the UN as International Day of Persons with Disabilities in a bid to promote a more inclusive and accessible world for the differently-abled and to raise awareness for their rights. About 2.2% of India’s population lives with some kind of

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   POVERTY  Syllabus Mains – GS 2 & GS 3 Context: The International Day for the Eradication of Poverty (IDEP) – is observed annually on October 17 since 1992. Background: – The theme for 2024 IDEP is “Ending Social and Institutional Maltreatment, Acting Together for Just, Peaceful, and Inclusive Societies”. Key takeaways As per the international poverty line set by the World Bank, anyone living on less than $2.15 a day is in extreme poverty. Poverty measurement in India According to the Household Consumption Expenditure Survey for 2022-23, less than 5 per cent of Indians are now expected to live below the poverty line. However, the release of the report set in motion debates around the poverty line used to estimate the extent of deprivation. The evolution of poverty estimates in India In 1971, V N Dandekar and N Rath defined the poverty line based on calorie consumption (2,250 calories per person per day, based on National Sample Survey data of 1960-61), setting it at Rs 15 for rural and Rs 22.5 for urban areas. In 1979, the Y K Alagh Task Force set poverty lines based on calorie needs of 2,400 calories (rural) and 2,100 calories (urban), which remained the official method until the 1990s. However, this methodology for estimating poverty at the national and state levels has been critiqued by many for giving an inappropriate picture of poverty. In 1989, the Planning Commission formed the Lakdawala Expert Group to “look into the methodology of estimating poverty and to redefine the poverty line, if necessary”. The Lakdawala Committee in 1993 introduced state-specific poverty lines, adjusting for regional price differences, but faced criticism for not maintaining the original calorie norms. With the criticisms for the Lakdawala Committee mounting, the Tendulkar Expert Group was formed in 2005 to review the methodology for poverty estimation. The Tendulkar Committee recommended five main changes: Shift from Calorie Consumption: The committee recommended moving  away from calorie consumption as the sole indicator of poverty. Instead, it  proposed a more comprehensive approach that includes both food and  non-food items. A uniform poverty line basket for both rural and urban areas. A change in the price adjustment procedure to correct spatial and temporal issues with price adjustment. Incorporation of private expenditure on health and education while estimating poverty (earlier poverty lines assumed that health and education would be provided by the State and formulated poverty lines accordingly); The use of Mixed Reference Period instead of Uniform Reference Period In 2009, the Tendulkar Committee submitted its report of estimated poverty lines for rural and urban areas in all states. It concluded that the all India poverty line in 2004-05 was Rs 446.68 and Rs 578.80 per capita per month in rural and urban areas respectively. According to the Lakdawala Committee, the percentage of the population living below the poverty line in 2004-05 was 28.3 per cent in rural areas and 25.7 per cent in urban areas. The same according to the Tendulkar Committee report was 41.8 per cent in rural areas and 25.7 per cent in urban areas. The Tendulkar Committee further recommended a new method to update the poverty lines, adjusting for changes in prices and patterns of consumption, using the consumption basket of people close to the poverty line. Thus, the national poverty lines for 2011-12 are Rs 816 and Rs 1,000 per capita per month for rural and urban areas respectively. The Tendulkar Committee report faced widespread criticism and the Rangarajan Committee was set up in 2012 to address these issues. The report was submitted in 2014 and the old practice of having separate all-India rural and urban poverty line baskets and deriving state level poverty lines from these was brought back. The report raised the monthly per capita consumption expenditure to Rs 972 and Rs 1407 in rural and urban areas respectively. The government, however, did not take a call on the Rangarajan Committee report. The last official poverty data was released in July 2013 which was estimated based on the Tendulkar line for 2011-12. According to this, 21.9 per cent of the population in India lived below the poverty line. Source: Indian Express THE $500 BILLION OPPORTUNITY  Syllabus Mains – GS 3 Context: Recently, Prime Minister Narendra Modi announced a $500 billion (Rs 4.20 lakh crore) target for electronics manufacturing in India by 2030. Background: – The ambition is audacious – India’s entire manufacturing output in 2023-24 was roughly $660 billion (Rs 55.4 lakh crore). Key takeaways Cluster-Based Growth: Historically, manufacturing growth has thrived in regional clusters. The electronics industry, from Silicon Valley to Shenzhen, has followed this model. In India, clusters like Sriperumbudur (Tamil Nadu) and Noida (Uttar Pradesh) contribute nearly 50% of India’s electronics exports. India’s focus must be on achieving export competitiveness at scale to drive growth in electronics manufacturing. To sustain and accelerate growth in electronics, we need deep and ambitious region-led reform that can create large, globally competitive electronics manufacturing regions. Special Electronics Manufacturing Zones: To address land acquisition challenges, the government should develop large electronics manufacturing zones around existing clusters. Example: Declaring 300 sq km regions for electronics manufacturing, incorporating factories and new parks. Electronics factories can employ thousands and it is important to house workers close to factories. Large zones make it possible to have social infrastructure like worker housing, schools, hospitals and recreation facilities. Within the zones, the focus needs to be on attracting lead brands and their partners as anchor investors and they can, in turn, attract their downstream partners. Importance of Scale: Global competitors like Shenzhen (2,000 sq km) employ 4.6 million workers and export over $300 billion. Comparatively, Indian clusters like Mundra EMC are much smaller (2.5 sq km with 5,000 workers), necessitating expansion. Pro-Employment Labour Reforms: Indian electronics regions need pro-employment labour laws, including longer shifts, competitive overtime rules, and the removal of restrictions on employing women (who form a majority of the workforce). Taxation and Tariff Reforms: India needs to ease cross-border inventory management. Electronics manufacturing requires movement of components. Extremely specialised supply chain participants mean that much of this movement is cross-border. Thus, all countries like Vietnam, China, etc., already allow foreign vendors or brands to manage component inventory seamlessly across borders without tax or tariff

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   SECTION 6A OF CITIZENSHIP ACT, 1955  Syllabus Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: In a 4:1 majority ruling, a five-judge Bench headed by Chief Justice of India D.Y. Chandrachud upheld the constitutional validity of Section 6A of the Citizenship Act, 1955 (1955 Act). Background: – Section 6A was added in 1985 following the signing of the Assam Accord between the Rajiv Gandhi government and the All Assam Students’ Union (AASU), after a six-year-long agitation against the entry of migrants from Bangladesh into Assam. What does Section 6A of the Citizenship Act provide? A key element of the Assam Accord was determining who is a foreigner in the state. Clause 5 of the Assam Accord states that January 1, 1966 shall serve as the base cut-off date for the detection and deletion of “foreigners” but it also contains provisions for the regularisation of those who arrived in the state after that date and up till March 24, 1971.Section 6A was inserted into the Citizenship Act to facilitate this. All persons of “Indian origin” who entered the state before January 1, 1966 and have been “ordinarily resident” in Assam ever since “shall be deemed to be citizens of India”. Additionally, it provides that anyone who entered and resided in Assam after January 1, 1966 but before March 24, 1971 who has been “detected to be a foreigner” would have the opportunity to register themselves according to rules made by the Central Government. Following such registration, they would be granted the rights of citizens. Those entering after March 24, 1971, would be considered illegal immigrants. Why was Section 6A challenged? The petitioner claim that the cut-off date provided in Section 6A is discriminatory and violates the right to equality (Article 14 of the Constitution) as it provides a different standard for citizenship for immigrants entering Assam than the rest of India — which is July 1948. What did the court decide? The majority opinion held that Parliament has the power to grant citizenship under different conditions so long as the differentiation is reasonable. As the migrant situation in Assam was unique in comparison to the rest of India at the time, it was justified to create a law to specifically address it and doing so would not violate the right to equality under Article 14. CJI Chandrachud pointed out that the impact of immigration in Assam was higher in comparison to other states so “singling out” the state is based on “rational considerations”. Court also held that the petitioners did not provide any proof to show that the influx of migrants affected the cultural rights of citizens already residing in Assam. Article 29(1) gives citizens the right to ‘conserve’ their language and culture. CJI stated that “Mere presence of different ethnic groups in a state is not sufficient to infringe the right guaranteed by Article 29(1)”. The majority also held that the cut-off dates of January 1, 1966 and March 24, 1971 were constitutional as Section 6A and the Citizenship Rules provide ‘legible’ conditions for the grant of citizenship and a reasonable process. Justice Pardiwala in his dissenting opinion, held that the provision was unconstitutional and suffered from “temporal unreasonableness” as it does not prescribe a time limit for detecting foreigners and determining whether they were citizens. Further, he noted that there is no process for an immigrant to voluntarily be detected so if they fall in the timeframe provided under Section 6A. They must wait for the government to identify them as a “suspicious immigrant” before being referred to a foreigner tribunal for a decision, which Justice Pardiwala called “illogically unique”. What were the arguments in defence of Section 6A? The Centre on the other hand has relied on Article 11 of the Constitution which gives Parliament the power “to make any provision with respect to the acquisition and termination of citizenship and all other matters relating to citizenship”. It argued that this gives Parliament the power to make laws on citizenship including for a “particular object” without violating the right to equality. Other respondents argued that if Section 6A is struck down a large swathe of residents will be rendered “stateless” and be considered foreigners. They also argued that the demographic pattern of the state changed in response to geo-political events even before Section 6A was introduced and that Assam has long since been a multi-lingual and diverse state. Source: Indian Express WHY IS BIG TECH SCOUTING FOR NUCLEAR POWER  Syllabus Mains – GS 3 Context: On October 14, Google announced the “first corporate agreement” to buy nuclear energy from multiple small modular reactors (SMR). Background: – SMRs have compact designs and can function in areas unable to withstand larger or older nuclear power plants that require huge volumes of water. Why does Google want to buy nuclear energy? Training AI models, ensuring that they remain always online, and maintaining growing data centres are energy-hungry tasks. In a 2024 Environmental Report, Google admitted that its total global greenhouse gas emissions rose by 13% in 2023 year-over-year, pointing to the challenge of reducing emissions while compute intensity increases and technical infrastructure increases to support AI transition. Google has held that nuclear energy was clean, available round-the-clock (unlike solar energy), and carbon-free. Smaller sizes and modular designs further help the tech giant in faster deployment cycles. Which other companies are partnering with nuclear reactor makers? Microsoft and Constellation signed a 20-year power purchase agreement intended to launch the Crane Clean Energy Center (CCEC) and restart the Three Mile Island Unit 1 . Amazon also announced that it signed three new agreements to support nuclear energy projects, such as the construction of SMRs. OpenAI CEO Sam Altman backed the nuclear startup Oklo, which aims to build a commercial microreactor in Idaho and have it operational in 2027. Is nuclear energy truly clean? Nuclear energy has a serious reputation problem, due to public memory of past accidents and crises that span generations. For example, Ukraine’s Chernobyl explosion (1986) and