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rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) Self-Respect Movement Category: HISTORY Context:  100 Years of the Self-Respect Movement in Tamil Nadu Origins and Description Began in 1925 as a movement against caste and gender hierarchy. Led by Periyar E.V. Ramasamy, who used the Tamil weekly Kudi Arasu to spread radical, non-Brahmin ideas. Political Impact Periyar engaged with the Justice Party, advocating militant non-Brahminism to counter Congress’s caste politics. Offered an alternative social reform agenda, challenging upper-caste dominance. Radical Social Reforms Popularized self-respect marriages, promoted women’s rights (remarriage, property), and expanded public debate. Kudi Arasu articulated radical positions on caste and gender, influencing reforms in Hindu society. Justice Party’s Role The South Indian Liberal Federation empowered non-Brahmins and widened political participation. However, non-elite non-Brahmins often remained marginalized. Legacy and Recognition Fostered awareness and pride among non-Brahmin masses about their rights. Its legacy reshaped caste dynamics, gender politics, and social reform, retaining relevance in contemporary Tamil society. Learning Corner: E.V. Ramasamy (Periyar)  Born: 17 September 1879, Erode, Tamil Nadu Known as: Periyar (“The Great One”) Role in Social Reform Founded the Self-Respect Movement (1925) to challenge caste hierarchy, Brahminical dominance, and gender inequality. Advocated rationalism, atheism, and social justice, rejecting religious orthodoxy and superstition. Strongly opposed untouchability, hereditary caste privileges, and dominance of upper castes in politics and society. Political Engagement Initially associated with the Indian National Congress, but resigned due to differences over caste discrimination. Later allied with the Justice Party, pushing for non-Brahmin representation in politics and education. Played a major role in shaping Dravidian ideology, which later influenced parties like DMK and AIADMK. Key Reforms Promoted Self-Respect Marriages (without Brahmin priests, based on equality). Championed women’s rights: widow remarriage, right to property, education, and opposition to child marriage. Used journalism (Kudi Arasu weekly) and public debates to spread rationalist and egalitarian ideas. Legacy Revered as the “Father of the Dravidian Movement.” Left a lasting impact on Tamil society, politics, and social justice discourse. His ideas continue to shape debates on caste, rationalism, and social reform in South India. Source: THE HINDU WTO Category: INTERNATIONAL Context : India at SCO Trade Ministers’ Meeting, Vladivostok Key Highlights Reaffirmed commitment to a WTO-centered, open, fair, and inclusive multilateral trading system. Called for a development-centered trade agenda, including: Permanent solution on public stockholding for food security. Effective Special and Differential Treatment for developing nations. Urged restoration of a two-tier WTO dispute settlement system. Emphasized need for transparent export measures, warning against misuse and artificial scarcity. Stressed export diversification, resilient supply chains, and MSME integration for shared prosperity. Broader Priorities Showcased India’s Digital Public Infrastructure (UPI, ONDC) and proposed SCO collaboration on digital economy and secure digitalization. Advocated climate action on the principle of Common but Differentiated Responsibilities, opposing trade-linked discrimination. Highlighted AVGC sector (Animation, Visual Effects, Gaming & Comics) as a driver of jobs, exports, and creative industries. Significance Strengthens rule-based, fair, and inclusive trade through WTO. Enhances regional economic cooperation, connectivity, and sustainable growth within SCO. Learning Corner: World Trade Organization (WTO)  Established: 1 January 1995 (replacing GATT, 1947). Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland. Membership: 164 members (including India). Objectives Promote free, fair, and predictable international trade. Provide a platform for trade negotiations and settlement of disputes. Ensure non-discrimination through Most Favoured Nation (MFN) and National Treatment principles. Support developing countries through Special and Differential Treatment (S&DT). Core Functions Administers WTO Agreements (on goods, services, and intellectual property – TRIPS, GATS, AoA). Trade Dispute Settlement: Operates a two-tier system – Panel and Appellate Body. Monitoring and Transparency: Oversees trade policies of members through reviews. Capacity Building: Technical assistance and training for developing/least developed countries. Current Issues Appellate Body Crisis: Non-functioning since 2019 due to U.S. opposition to judge appointments. Agriculture Negotiations: Dispute over food security, subsidies, and public stockholding. Digital Trade: Rules on e-commerce and data flow are contested. Developing Country Concerns: Need for fairer S&DT provisions. Significance Provides a rule-based multilateral trading system, preventing unilateralism. Ensures predictability, transparency, and stability in global trade. Key platform for addressing global challenges like supply chain resilience, climate-linked trade issues, and digital economy. Source:  PIB Dr. Bhupen Hazarika Category: HISTORY Context: Marks the birth centenary of Bharat Ratna Dr. Bhupen Hazarika, the “Bard of the Brahmaputra.” Named after his iconic song Bistirna Parore, symbolizing unity and cultural resilience. Began at Guijan, Dibrugarh, featuring live renditions of Hazarika’s songs, folk performances, and cultural showcases by communities like Moran, Motok, Tea Tribe, Sonowal Kachari, Deuri, and Gorkha. Dr. Bhupen Hazarika’s Musical Legacy Bistirna Parore, inspired by Ol’ Man River, turned the Brahmaputra into a metaphor for human struggle, justice, and solidarity. His music united generations, carried Assam’s culture to global audiences, and embodied peace and brotherhood. Significance Serves as a living tribute to Hazarika’s unmatched influence. Celebrates Assam’s cultural diversity, creativity, and collective spirit along the Brahmaputra. Learning Corner: Dr. Bhupen Hazarika  Born: 8 September 1926, Sadiya, Assam Known as: Bard of the Brahmaputra Profession: Singer, lyricist, composer, poet, filmmaker, and cultural icon. Contributions Gave voice to the struggles, hopes, and unity of people through songs rooted in Assamese folk traditions. His iconic song Bistirna Parore used the Brahmaputra as a metaphor for justice, solidarity, and resilience (inspired by Ol’ Man River). Brought Assamese and North-Eastern culture to national and global platforms. Advocated themes of peace, universal brotherhood, and social justice through music and films. Composed music for Assamese, Bengali, and Hindi films, making regional music nationally popular. Recognitions Bharat Ratna (2019) – India’s highest civilian award. Padma Vibhushan (2012, posthumous), Padma Bhushan (2001). Recipient of Dadasaheb Phalke Award (1992) for contribution to Indian cinema. Legacy Revered as a cultural unifier of Assam and the North-East. Left behind a legacy of socially conscious art that continues to inspire movements for justice, equality, and cultural pride. His centenary is celebrated with music and cultural programs across Assam and beyond. Source: PIB Sree Narayana Guru Category: HISTORY Context : Tribute to Sree Narayana Guru on His Birth Anniversary The Prime Minister paid tribute to Sree Narayana Guru, recalling his vision of equality, compassion, and universal

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) SAMHiTA Conference Category: POLITY Context:  External Affairs Minister Dr. S. Jaishankar inaugurated the SAMHiTA Conference on South Asia’s Manuscript Traditions and Mathematical Contributions Objectives Digital Archive: Digitize and unify manuscripts scattered across global collections for wider access. Mathematical Heritage: Highlight South Asia’s contributions to mathematics and related sciences. Global Collaboration: Partner with international institutions for preservation and knowledge exchange. Key Highlights Dr. Jaishankar emphasized self-reliance in intellectual leadership and showcasing India’s civilizational and mathematical heritage. The initiative strengthens cultural diplomacy, enhances research infrastructure, and deepens India’s role in global knowledge networks. Learning Corner: South Asia’s Manuscript Traditions and Mathematical Contributions Manuscript Traditions in South Asia Diversity of Scripts and Languages: South Asia has one of the richest manuscript traditions in the world, spanning Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit, Tamil, Persian, Arabic, and Tibetan among others. These manuscripts cover religion, philosophy, medicine, astronomy, mathematics, grammar, and arts. Materials and Mediums: Manuscripts were traditionally inscribed on palm leaves, birch bark, parchment, and handmade paper, often preserved in temples, monasteries, mathas, and royal libraries. Centers of Manuscript Culture: Nalanda and Vikramshila Universities: Major repositories of Buddhist and scientific manuscripts. Kerala and Tamil Nadu: Palm-leaf manuscripts in Ayurveda, astronomy, and mathematics. Kashmir: Known for Shaiva and Buddhist manuscripts on birch bark. Persianate Traditions: Mughal patronage encouraged preservation of texts in astronomy, medicine, and mathematics. Transmission and Global Spread: Manuscripts were carried along trade routes and through cultural exchanges to Central Asia, the Middle East, and Europe, influencing global knowledge systems. Mathematical Contributions of South Asia South Asia played a foundational role in global mathematical development: Decimal Place Value System & Zero: The concept of zero as a number and the place value system emerged in India (e.g., Brahmagupta, 7th century CE). This became the foundation of modern arithmetic. Algebra and Arithmetic: Aryabhata (5th century CE): Introduced place value notation, trigonometric functions (sine, cosine). Brahmagupta (7th century CE): Systematic rules for zero and negative numbers; quadratic equations. Bhaskara II (12th century CE): Solutions to indeterminate equations; contributions to calculus-like concepts. Geometry and Trigonometry: Sulbasutras (c. 800–500 BCE) contain rules for altar construction, approximations of √2, and Pythagorean triples. Indian trigonometric methods later influenced Islamic and European mathematics. Astronomical Mathematics: Mathematics was closely tied to astronomy for calendar-making and planetary calculations. Works like Surya Siddhanta combined mathematics with cosmology. Transmission to the World: Indian numerals were transmitted via the Arabs (“Arabic numerals”) to Europe, revolutionizing commerce and science. Indian trigonometry and algebra shaped Islamic Golden Age mathematics. Source: AIR Total Fertility Rate (TFR) Category: POLITY Context : India’s birth rate and Total Fertility Rate (TFR) have seen a notable decline in 2023–2025, marking the first dip in two years and pushing fertility further below the replacement level of 2.1. Key Data Birth Rate: 18.4 per 1,000 in 2023 (down from 21.4 in 2013 and 36.9 in 1971). TFR: 1.9 in 2023–25, below replacement level. Rural vs Urban: Rural TFR at 2.1, urban rates lower. State Variation: Bihar and UP remain high; Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Delhi report as low as 1.4–1.6. Reasons for Decline Higher female literacy and workforce participation, leading to delayed marriages. Urbanization and rising costs encourage smaller families. Wider contraceptive use and family planning awareness. Youth migration for education and jobs. Implications India’s population will likely peak at around 1.7 billion in the next 40 years before declining. Long-term effects include an aging population, shrinking workforce, and higher demand for elderly care. Policy focus will shift toward social security, healthcare for elderly, and labor market reforms. Learning Corner: Total Fertility Rate (TFR) Definition: TFR is the average number of children a woman is expected to have during her reproductive years (15–49 years), assuming current fertility patterns remain constant. Replacement Level Fertility: The TFR needed for a population to replace itself without migration is about 2.1 (slightly above 2 to account for child mortality). India’s Current Status: As of 2023–25, India’s TFR has declined to 1.9, below replacement level. Factors Influencing TFR: Female education and workforce participation Access to contraception and healthcare Socio-economic conditions and urbanization Cultural and regional variations Implications: A declining TFR leads to slower population growth, eventual population stabilization, and later population decline. It also causes population aging, reduced labor force, and increased demand for elderly care. However, it reflects progress in health, literacy, and women’s empowerment. Source:  THE HINDU Malacca Straits Category: INTERNATIONAL Context: Singapore has officially backed India’s interest in joining joint patrols of the Malacca Straits, marking a new phase in bilateral maritime security cooperation and regional collaboration. Key Details In September 2025, Prime Ministers Narendra Modi and Lawrence Wong discussed India’s formal role in the Malacca Straits Patrol (MSP), currently involving Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, and Thailand. Singapore views India’s participation as strengthening regional security, technology pooling, and balancing major power influence in the Indo-Pacific. Strategic Importance The Malacca Strait is a vital chokepoint: nearly 40–50% of global trade and 70% of Asia’s oil imports pass through it. For India, about 60% of sea-based trade and almost all LNG imports transit this route. India’s Andaman & Nicobar Islands, just 600 km away, provide operational leverage for the Indian Navy. Impact on Regional Security India’s entry will boost anti-piracy, anti-trafficking, and intelligence operations, drawing on its naval experience in the Gulf of Aden. It strengthens India’s Act East policy, deepens ASEAN-led security structures, and contributes to Indo-Pacific balance. Technological Cooperation The partnership will advance collaboration in AI, quantum computing, unmanned vessels, and surveillance technologies. Joint ventures may include autonomous patrol craft and quantum-secure communications for maritime safety. Learning Corner: Malacca Strait Geography: The Malacca Strait is a narrow stretch of water between the Malay Peninsula (Malaysia & Singapore) and the Indonesian island of Sumatra. It connects the Andaman Sea (Indian Ocean) with the South China Sea (Pacific Ocean). Its narrowest point, the Phillip Channel near Singapore, is only about 2.7 km wide, making it one of the world’s most significant maritime chokepoints. Strategic Importance: Handles about 40–50% of global trade and nearly 70% of Asia’s oil imports. Vital

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) Vikram 32 Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Context:  Prime Minister Narendra Modi received the first Made in India Vikram 32-bit chip at Semicon India 2025, marking a milestone in the country’s semiconductor industry. The Vikram 32-bit Processor, an upgraded version of the earlier 16-bit VIKRAM1601 microprocessor, was developed by ISRO’s Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre and the Semiconductor Laboratory, Chandigarh. It has been used in ISRO’s launch vehicles since 2009 for space flight and avionics. Union Minister Ashwini Vaishnaw presented the chip to PM Modi, along with 31 prototype chips developed by IITs and NITs. India currently has five semiconductor units under construction, one pilot line completed, and two more units set to begin production soon. This achievement strengthens India’s position as an emerging semiconductor hub, boosting global confidence in its technology sector. Learning Corner: The Vikram 32-bit chip is India’s first indigenously developed 32-bit microprocessor for space applications. It is an advanced version of the earlier VIKRAM1601 (16-bit) processor and has been developed by ISRO’s Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre in collaboration with the Semiconductor Laboratory, Chandigarh. The chip is specifically designed for space flight and avionics systems in ISRO’s launch vehicles and has been in operational use since 2009. Its development marks a major step in India’s semiconductor self-reliance, showcasing the country’s ability to design and manufacture high-end processors for critical sectors like space technology. The presentation of this chip at Semicon India 2025 highlights India’s growing semiconductor ecosystem and its strategic push to become a global manufacturing hub. Source: THE HINDU Maitree Category: DEFENCE Context : The 14th edition of the India-Thailand joint military exercise Maitree-XIV began on September 1, 2025, at the Joint Training Node in Umroi, Meghalaya Participants: 120 personnel from India’s Madras Regiment and 53 from Thailand’s 1st Infantry Battalion, 14th Infantry Brigade. Focus: Counter-terrorist operations in semi-urban terrain under UN Charter Chapter VII, including tactical drills, joint planning, special arms skills, fitness, and raiding operations. Significance: Strengthens defence ties, interoperability, and mutual trust, culminating in a 48-hour validation exercise simulating real-world scenarios. Background: Started in 2006, Exercise Maitree remains a key bilateral initiative enhancing defence cooperation and regional strategic partnership between India and Thailand. Learning Corner: Major military exercises of India  Exercise Partner / Participants Type Focus / Objective Maitree Thailand Army Counter-terrorism, semi-urban/jungle warfare, interoperability. Garuda Shakti Indonesia Army (Special Forces) Counter-insurgency, counter-terrorism, jungle survival. Shakti France Army Counter-terrorism in semi-urban and high-altitude conditions. Surya Kiran Nepal Army Counter-insurgency, disaster response, humanitarian assistance. Nomadic Elephant Mongolia Army Counter-insurgency, peacekeeping, and desert warfare. Hand-in-Hand China Army Counter-terrorism and humanitarian assistance under UN mandate. Yudh Abhyas USA Army Counter-insurgency, counter-terrorism, and peacekeeping operations. Indra Russia Tri-services Counter-terrorism, peacekeeping, and joint operations. Sampriti Bangladesh Army Counter-terrorism and disaster management. Ajeya Warrior United Kingdom Army Counter-terrorism and joint tactical operations. Garuda France Air Force Air-to-air combat, interoperability, strategic cooperation. Cope India USA Air Force Air combat tactics, strategic airlift, and joint operations. Indo-Russian Avia Indra Russia Air Force Air defence, ground attack coordination. Varuna France Navy Maritime security, anti-submarine warfare, and interoperability. Malabar USA, Japan, Australia Navy (Quadrilateral) Maritime security, freedom of navigation, and Indo-Pacific cooperation. JIMEX Japan Navy Maritime security, anti-submarine warfare, and joint tactical manoeuvres. Simbex Singapore Navy Anti-submarine warfare, maritime security, and sea control operations. Konkan United Kingdom Navy Maritime security, anti-piracy, and naval cooperation. MILAN Multinational (Indian Ocean, Indo-Pacific) Navy (Multilateral) Maritime cooperation, interoperability, and regional security. Source:  PIB BHARATI initiative Category: ECONOMICS Context: APEDA has launched the BHARATI initiative (Bharat’s Hub for Agritech, Resilience, Advancement and Incubation for Export Enablement) to accelerate India’s agri-food exports Focus: Promoting innovation, incubation, and export opportunities in GI-tagged products, organic foods, superfoods, livestock, and AYUSH items. Features: A three-month acceleration programme covering product development, export readiness, market access, regulatory compliance, and solutions for perishability, logistics, and value addition. Technology: Integration of AI-based quality control, blockchain traceability, IoT-enabled cold chains, agri-fintech, and sustainable packaging. Impact: Nationwide awareness campaigns and a scalable incubation model to boost India’s global standing in agri-food exports through technology and entrepreneurship. Source: PIB Bond yields Category: ECONOMICS Context Bond yields in India have risen despite RBI’s rate cuts due to structural and market factors that outweigh policy easing. Heavy Government Borrowing: The 2025–26 Budget projects net borrowing of ₹11.55 lakh crore, creating oversupply of bonds and pushing yields higher. Fiscal Concerns: Rising debt (₹17.55 lakh crore in March 2025, projected to ₹19.01 lakh crore in March 2026) and deficit worries make investors demand higher returns. Liquidity Management: RBI injected liquidity but absorbed it through Variable Rate Reverse Repo (VRRR) auctions, sending mixed signals and limiting the effect of rate cuts. Weak Demand & Global Factors: Banks, insurers, and foreign investors have shown lower appetite, while global bond yields remain elevated. Risk Premium: Despite low inflation (below 2% in July 2025), investors seek a premium amid fiscal and global uncertainties. The yield–repo spread has widened to around 100 basis points, the largest in 2025. Learning Corner: Relation between bond yields and rate cuts: Normal Case – When Rate Cuts Lower Yields Suppose RBI’s repo rate is 6%, and the government issues a 10-year bond with a coupon (interest) of 7%. If RBI cuts the repo rate to 5%, new loans and bonds will generally offer lower returns (closer to 5–6%). Investors now rush to buy the older bond paying 7%, raising its price. Since Yield = (Coupon ÷ Price) × 100, higher price → lower yield. Example: Bond with ₹1,000 face value paying ₹70 annually (7%). If demand pushes its price to ₹1,100 → Yield = 70 ÷ 1100 = 6.36% (lower than before). Exceptional Case – Why Yields May Rise Despite Rate Cuts RBI again cuts repo rate from 6% → 5%. But suppose the government announces huge borrowing (₹11.5 lakh crore). That means more bonds will be supplied in the market. Investors worry about fiscal deficit and demand higher return to hold these extra bonds. Even though RBI cut rates, bond prices may fall due to oversupply and risk concerns. Example:

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) RTE Act Category: POLITY Context:  The Supreme Court of India has called for a revisit of the blanket exemption granted to minority institutions under the RTE Act, 2009, holding that such exemption could undermine education standards. Key Bench Observations Expressed serious doubts on the 2014 Pramati Educational and Cultural Trust ruling that upheld full exemption. Warned that exemptions may be misused to evade child-centric regulations. Clarified there is no conflict between Article 21A (Right to Education) and Article 30(1) (Minority Rights); both can co-exist. Suggested that the 25% quota should also allow admission of children from outside the minority community for broader inclusiveness. Broader Context Provisions like TET and reservation for disadvantaged groups should ideally apply to all institutions, including minority ones, to maintain inclusiveness and quality. Section 12(1)(c) of the RTE Act (admission of disadvantaged groups) does not dilute minority character and should be applied. Court stressed that the 2014 ruling needs reconsideration to uphold the universalization of elementary education and protect child welfare standards. Learning Corner: Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education (RTE) Act, 2009 Enactment: Came into force on 1st April 2010, operationalizing Article 21A of the Constitution (Right to Education as a Fundamental Right). Objective: To provide free and compulsory education to all children in the age group 6–14 years. Key Provisions: No child shall be denied admission for lack of documents or late admission. Prohibits physical punishment, mental harassment, screening tests, capitation fees, and private tuition by teachers. Mandates minimum infrastructure standards (student-teacher ratio, classroom, drinking water, toilets, etc.). Teacher Qualifications: Only trained and qualified teachers allowed; Teacher Eligibility Test (TET) mandated. 25% Reservation (Section 12(1)(c)): Private unaided schools must reserve 25% seats for disadvantaged and weaker section children. Emphasizes continuous and comprehensive evaluation—no detention till completion of elementary education. Coverage: Applies to government, local authority, and private unaided schools (except minority institutions, as per earlier court rulings—now under reconsideration). Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS Tianjin Declaration Category: INTERNATIONAL Context : The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) leaders, through the Tianjin Declaration, unanimously condemned terrorism, referencing attacks in Pahalgam Key Points from the Declaration Opposed unilateral sanctions and supported fairness in global governance. Condemned targeting civilians in conflicts, mentioning Gaza and Afghanistan. Supported political stability in Afghanistan and endorsed China’s Belt and Road Initiative. Summit Highlights PM Modi and President Putin discussed peace, stability, and cooperation, including Ukraine. Xi Jinping stressed fairness in global leadership and warned against Cold War mentality. Laos was upgraded to SCO partner status; members backed humanitarian aid and economic development. Learning Corner: Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) Formation: Established in 2001 in Shanghai by China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan (building on the earlier “Shanghai Five” group). Membership: Currently 9 members – China, Russia, India, Pakistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, and Iran (joined in 2023). Several observer states and dialogue partners also participate. Headquarters: Beijing, China. Official Languages: Chinese and Russian. Objectives Promote regional peace, security, and stability. Combat terrorism, separatism, and extremism (the “three evils”). Enhance economic, cultural, and connectivity cooperation. Encourage multipolarity and fairness in global governance. Key Features Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS): Based in Tashkent, focuses on intelligence-sharing and counter-terrorism. Annual Summits & Declarations: Used to align on political, security, and economic issues. Belt and Road Initiative (BRI): Endorsed by SCO, though India remains opposed. Expanding outreach with observer states, dialogue partners, and partner status (e.g., Belarus in process of joining, Laos as partner). Source:  THE HINDU CEREBO Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Context: CEREBO is an indigenously developed, portable, non-invasive diagnostic tool for traumatic brain injuries (TBI). It can detect intracranial bleeding and edema within a minute, is radiation-free, safe for infants and pregnant women, and can be used even by paramedics or unskilled personnel where CT/MRI scans are unavailable. Importance & Usage Provides colour-coded, cost-effective, quick results for TBI detection. Useful in ambulances, trauma centres, rural clinics, and disaster zones. Improves outcomes through early diagnosis and triage without specialized infrastructure. Clinical trials have shown accuracy and integration into emergency pathways, with potential for global adoption. Context: Traumatic Brain Injuries TBIs are a major health burden in India, with 1.5–2 million cases annually, largely from road accidents. Many remain undiagnosed due to mild or hidden symptoms, leading to long-term impairments. CEREBO helps bridge gaps in rural and emergency TBI care, offering rapid, objective assessment. Source: THE HINDU Multithread and Single thread Rivers Category: GEOGRAPHY Context: Geographers at the University of California Santa Barbara have uncovered why some rivers split into multiple channels (multi-threaded) while others remain single-threaded Physical Mechanism Single-thread rivers maintain equilibrium between bank erosion and bar accretion—what erodes from one bank matches what is deposited on the opposite side, keeping the river stable. Multi-threaded rivers erode banks more quickly than they deposit material, resulting in channel widening and eventual splitting due to this persistent imbalance. Broader Implications The distinction between river types affects flood risks, erosion hazards, and ecosystem services; understanding these patterns is increasingly important as extreme weather events become more common. Research showed many rivers historically shifted from multi-threaded to single-channel forms after human intervention, such as damming and sand mining, underscoring the impact people have on river morphology. Technical Approach Scientists mapped river bank positions and water flows using thousands of satellite images, measuring erosion and gravel/sediment deposition to reveal cycles of instability behind channel splitting. This work highlights that river channel form is shaped not by static equilibrium but by repeated instability, informing future river management and flood prediction models. Learning Corner: Meandering Definition: Meanders are the sinuous, snake-like bends in a river channel that develop in its middle and lower courses due to lateral erosion and deposition. Formation Process: On the outer bank, fast-flowing water causes erosion (river cliff). On the inner bank, slower water leads to deposition (point bar). This continuous process accentuates the bends. Characteristics: Develops in rivers with gentle gradient, large volume of water, and fine sediments. Migration of meanders over time may lead to the formation of oxbow lakes when a bend gets

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) Blue Dragons Category: POLITY Context:  Several beaches in Spain were closed after the arrival of blue dragons (Glaucus atlanticus) Several beaches in Spain were closed after the arrival of blue dragons (Glaucus atlanticus), small but venomous sea slugs capable of delivering extremely painful stings. These creatures float upside down on the ocean surface, feeding on venomous jellyfish and incorporating their toxins for defense. Rarely seen in the Mediterranean, their sudden presence surprised scientists and locals. Stings can cause pain, swelling, nausea, and vomiting, though not usually fatal. Their appearance is linked to shifting water currents and marine anomalies, possibly driven by climate change. Learning Corner: Blue Dragon (Glaucus atlanticus) A small but strikingly blue sea slug (nudibranch) found in warm ocean waters. Floats upside down on the water surface using a gas-filled sac in its stomach. Feeds mainly on venomous organisms like Portuguese man o’ war and jellyfish, storing their stinging cells (nematocysts) in its own tissues. This ability makes its sting extremely painful, causing swelling, nausea, and vomiting, though not usually fatal. Rarely seen in the Mediterranean; presence there is linked to shifting water currents and climate change. Considered an indicator of marine ecological anomalies. Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS APK scams Category: ENVIRONMENT Context : APK scams are a fast-growing cybercrime in India where fraudsters spread fake Android Package Kit (.APK) files disguised as official apps to steal sensitive personal and financial data. Victims are lured through calls or messages about blocked bank accounts or subsidies and tricked into downloading malicious apps. Once installed, these apps capture OTPs, banking details, and contacts in real time, enabling immediate fund theft. They are traded on underground platforms, and stolen data is decoded for fraudulent transactions. These apps often self-delete after theft, making tracking difficult. Authorities are countering the menace by tracing digital trails, coordinating with banks and telecom operators, and raising public awareness, but losses remain significant due to the scams’ scale and sophistication. Different types of cybercrime: Phishing & Smishing – Fraudulent emails or SMS messages trick users into revealing personal/banking details. Malware Attacks – Malicious software (viruses, trojans, ransomware, spyware) used to steal data, disrupt systems, or extort money. Ransomware – Encrypts a victim’s files and demands ransom for decryption. Identity Theft – Stealing personal information (like Aadhaar, PAN, bank details) to commit fraud. Financial Frauds – Online banking frauds, UPI scams, fake investment schemes, and APK-based fraud apps. Cyberstalking & Online Harassment – Using digital platforms to stalk, threaten, or harass individuals. Hacking & Data Breaches – Unauthorized access to systems or databases to steal sensitive data. Denial of Service (DoS/DDoS) Attacks – Overloading a network/server to make it unavailable. Online Child Exploitation – Circulation of child sexual abuse material (CSAM) and grooming. Intellectual Property Theft – Piracy, software cracking, or stealing trade secrets. Cyber Terrorism – Attacks on critical infrastructure, government systems, or spreading extremist propaganda online. Cryptocurrency & Dark Web Crimes – Illegal trading, money laundering, and transactions through untraceable crypto wallets. Source:  THE HINDU Statehood to Jammu and Kashmir Category: INTERNATIONAL Context: The Supreme Court has asked the government for a status update on restoring statehood to Jammu and Kashmir. The Supreme Court has asked the government for a status update on restoring statehood to Jammu and Kashmir, emphasizing that its prolonged absence affects citizens’ rights and undermines India’s federal principles. The Constitution allows for admission, establishment, and formation of states, as seen in J&K’s reorganization in 2019. While upholding the abrogation of Articles 370 and 35A, the Court directed statehood restoration and noted that the last Assembly elections were held in October 2024. Restoring statehood is seen as crucial to uphold constitutional values, equitable resource sharing, and the federal balance. Learning Corner: Constitutional provisions of state creation in India: Article 1: India is a “Union of States.” This emphasizes indestructibility of the Union but not of individual states. Article 2: Parliament may admit new states into the Union or establish new states. Example: Sikkim admitted in 1975. Article 3: Parliament has the power to form a new state by separation of territory, uniting two or more states/UTs, or altering boundaries/names of existing states. Example: Telangana created in 2014. Procedure under Article 3: President refers the proposal to the concerned State Legislature for its views. However, the State Legislature’s opinion is not binding on Parliament. Article 4: Laws made under Articles 2 and 3 are not considered constitutional amendments under Article 368. Significance: Ensures flexibility for reorganization of states to accommodate linguistic, cultural, administrative, or political demands while maintaining the Union’s integrity. Source: THE HINDU Coral microatolls Category: POLITY Context: This can be directly asked in prelims Research on coral microatolls—sensitive to the lowest tides—provides a continuous record of sea-level changes since 1959, refining projections and highlighting the urgent need for local monitoring and adaptation strategies. These findings are crucial for protecting coral reefs, island nations, and regional stability against climate risks. Learning Corner: Coral Microatolls – Brief Note Definition: Coral microatolls are disk-shaped coral formations that grow outward rather than upward, as their vertical growth is restricted by the lowest tide levels. Unique Feature: Their flat, saucer-like tops record sea-level changes over time because they grow only within a narrow vertical range controlled by tidal variations. Scientific Importance: They act as natural tide gauges, providing long-term, continuous records of sea-level fluctuations spanning decades to centuries. Climate Studies: Used to reconstruct past sea levels and refine projections of future rise, especially critical for vulnerable low-lying islands. Conservation Relevance: Help monitor the impacts of climate change on marine ecosystems, coral reef health, and coastal communities. Source: THE HINDU Ramon Magsaysay Award Category: CULTURE Context: Educate Girls, an Indian non-profit dedicated to enrolling unprivileged and out-of-school girls, has won the 2025 Ramon Magsaysay Award. Founded in Rajasthan, the organization works in rural and remote areas to address gender injustice in education, ensuring girls remain in school until they secure credentials for higher studies or employment. This is the first time an Indian organization has

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) Supreme Court of India appointments Category: POLITY Context:  The Supreme Court of India has regained its full sanctioned strength of 34 judges with the swearing-in of Justices Alok Aradhe and Vipul M. Pancholi by Chief Justice B.R. Gavai. Key Appointments Their induction restored the Court to full capacity. Justice Pancholi is in line to become Chief Justice of India in 2031, retiring in May 2033. The appointments were made by a 4:1 Collegium majority, with Justice B.V. Nagarathna dissenting over seniority concerns. Background Justice Pancholi (b. 1968) started his career in Gujarat, became a Permanent Judge of Gujarat HC in 2016, and later Chief Justice of Patna HC in 2023. Justice Aradhe (b. 1964) began in Madhya Pradesh, became a Permanent Judge of MP HC, and was appointed Chief Justice of Bombay HC in 2023. Appointment Process The move ensures full strength until Chief Justice Gavai’s retirement on November 23. Despite dissent, the appointments were cleared swiftly. Learning Corner: Constitutional Provisions Article 124(2): Judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the President of India. The President consults judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts as deemed necessary. The Chief Justice of India (CJI) is appointed by convention on the basis of seniority. Retirement age: 65 years (Article 124). Evolution of Appointment Process First Judges Case (S.P. Gupta v. Union of India, 1981) Held that the President had primacy in judicial appointments. “Consultation” with CJI did not mean “concurrence.” Second Judges Case (Supreme Court Advocates-on-Record Association v. Union of India, 1993) Overruled the First Judges Case. Gave primacy to the CJI’s opinion, formed with the two senior-most judges → birth of the Collegium System. Third Judges Case (1998, Presidential Reference) Expanded the Collegium to CJI + 4 senior-most judges. Made collective decision binding on appointments. Fourth Judges Case (NJAC Case, 2015) Struck down the 99th Constitutional Amendment and the National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC) as unconstitutional. Restored the Collegium System, citing judicial independence as part of the basic structure. Current System (Collegium) CJI + 4 senior-most SC judges recommend names to the President. The Government can send back names for reconsideration once, but if re-recommended, it is binding. Source: THE HINDU Crocothemis erythraea Category: ENVIRONMENT Context : The elusive Crocothemis erythraea dragonfly has been rediscovered in the high-altitude regions of the southern Western Ghats after decades of misidentification with the widespread Crocothemis servilia. Key Points Field studies (2019–2023) confirmed that both species coexist in the Western Ghats. Earlier photographic evidence from Munnar faced scepticism, prompting detailed surveys. C. erythraea typically inhabits high elevations across Europe, Asia, and the Himalayas; its presence in southern India suggests migration during the Pleistocene Ice Age. The rediscovery underscores the Western Ghats’ role in conserving ancient insect lineages and biodiversity. Source:  THE HINDU International Monetary Fund (IMF) Category: INTERNATIONAL Context: The Government of India has appointed Urjit Patel, former RBI Governor, as Executive Director at the IMF for a three-year term, succeeding K.V. Subramanian. Key Details Patel will represent India in the IMF Executive Board’s four-country constituency with Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Bhutan. He previously served as RBI Governor (2016–2018), Deputy Governor, and Vice President at the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank. His career includes roles at the IMF, Ministry of Finance, and leading corporations. He holds advanced economics degrees from LSE, Oxford, and Yale. Learning Corner: Overview The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is a specialized UN agency established in 1944 (Bretton Woods Conference) and formally came into existence in 1945. Headquarters: Washington, D.C., USA. Membership: 190 countries (as of 2025). India is a founding member. Objectives Promote international monetary cooperation. Ensure exchange rate stability and orderly exchange arrangements. Facilitate balanced growth of international trade. Provide financial assistance to members facing balance of payments difficulties. Reduce global poverty through sustainable economic growth. Structure Board of Governors: One governor from each member country (usually Finance Minister or Central Bank Governor). Executive Board: 24 Directors representing countries/constituencies; oversees day-to-day operations. Managing Director: Head of the IMF, traditionally a European. Quota System: Determines a member’s financial contribution, voting power, and access to financing. Key Functions Surveillance: Monitoring global and country-level economic developments. Financial Assistance: Provides loans to members (e.g., Extended Fund Facility, Stand-By Arrangements). Capacity Development: Technical assistance and training in fiscal policy, monetary policy, and financial systems. Important Facts for Exams India is part of a constituency with Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Bhutan. Special Drawing Rights (SDRs) act as IMF’s reserve asset. Major lending tool during crises: Stand-By Arrangements (SBA), Extended Fund Facility (EFF), Rapid Financing Instrument (RFI). Source: THE HINDU State Energy Efficiency Index Category: POLITY Context: The State Energy Efficiency Index (SEEI) 2024, released by the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) Statewise Top Performers Maharashtra: Group 1 (>15 MToE) Andhra Pradesh: Group 2 (5–15 MToE) Assam: Group 3 (1–5 MToE) Tripura: Group 4 (<1 MToE) Index Highlights Covers 36 States/UTs, with 66 indicators across sectors like buildings, industry, transport, agriculture, DISCOMs, and municipal services. Categories: Front Runners (>60%), Achievers (50–60%), Contenders (30–50%), Aspirants (<30%). Key reforms: Energy Conservation Building Code (24 states), EV policies (31 states), solar pumps (13 states, Kerala leads with 74%). All states/UTs have Energy Efficiency Action Plans; 31 set up State-Level Steering Committees on Energy Transition. Learning Corner: State Energy Efficiency Index (SEEI): Overview The State Energy Efficiency Index (SEEI) is released by the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) in collaboration with the Alliance for an Energy Efficient Economy (AEEE). It tracks the progress of states and Union Territories in implementing energy efficiency policies and programs. Objectives Evaluate state-level energy efficiency initiatives. Encourage peer-to-peer learning and healthy competition among states. Support India’s Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) and net-zero targets. Coverage & Indicators Covers 36 States and UTs. Uses 66 indicators across key sectors: Buildings Industry Transport Agriculture Municipal services DISCOMs Cross-sector initiatives Scoring & Categories States/UTs are scored and grouped into four categories: Front Runners: >60% Achievers: 50–60% Contenders: 30–50% Aspirants: <30% Source: PIB Nuakhai Category: CULTURE Context: Nuakhai Festival 2025 Nuakhai is a major harvest festival celebrated

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) Burmese pythons Category: ENVIRONMENT Context:  Florida authorities are testing robot rabbits to help control invasive Burmese pythons, which have devastated local wildlife due to their lack of predators and strong camouflage. Python Control Efforts Since the late 20th century, pythons have decimated native species like rabbits, birds, and even alligators. Current measures include hunting contests, tracking devices, snake-catchers, and now robot rabbits that mimic real rabbits’ heat and scent. Robot Rabbit Strategy These devices simulate body heat and behavior, luring pythons out of hiding to make capture easier. Early trials show promise in overcoming camouflage challenges. Ecological Impact Unchecked pythons have caused severe ecological imbalance. In some areas, rabbit populations have dropped by more than 95% since 1997. Future Implications If successful, robot rabbits could become a key tool in restoring Florida’s ecosystem. Learning Corner: Burmese Pythons Native to Southeast Asia, Burmese pythons (Python bivittatus) are among the largest snake species in the world, capable of growing over 5 meters long. They are non-venomous constrictors, killing prey by coiling and suffocation. Introduced to Florida (likely through the pet trade), they have become a highly invasive species in the Everglades. With no natural predators in the region, they feed on a wide range of animals including mammals, birds, and even alligators. Their rapid spread has caused drastic declines in native wildlife populations, making them a major ecological threat. Control methods include hunting programs, radio-tracking, trained snake catchers, and experimental tools like robot rabbits to lure them out. Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS Exercise Bright Star 2025 Category: DEFENCE Context : Over 700 Indian Armed Forces personnel are set to take part in Exercise Bright Star 2025, a major multinational drill in Egypt from August 28 to September 10, 2025 Overview Bright Star, co-hosted by Egypt and the US since 1980, is one of the largest military exercises in the Middle East. The 2025 edition will see participation from 43 nations—13 with active contingents and 30 as observers. Indian Participation India’s Army, Navy, and Air Force personnel will engage in live firing, command post exercises, and modern warfare training. Expert exchanges will cover cyber warfare, logistics, and strategic communication. Significance With over 7,900 troops expected, the exercise enhances interoperability, regional security, and defence diplomacy. For India, it strengthens tri-service synergy and international military cooperation, supporting its role in peace, stability, and coalition operations. Learning Corner: Exercise Name Participants Domain Varuna India–France Naval Komodo India + multiple regional navies Naval SIMBEX India–Singapore Naval La Perouse Indo-Pacific navies Naval Sea Dragon Quad/allied navies Naval Malabar Quad (India, U.S., Japan, Australia) Naval Aikeyme India + African navies Naval India–Africa Maritime India + African nations Naval India–Philippines Drill India–Philippines Naval Talisman Sabre India + Australia, U.S., others Multi-domain Dharma Guardian India–Japan Land (Army) Cyclone India–Egypt Special Forces Shakti India–France Army Land (Army) Yudh Abhyas India–USA Land (Army) Ekuverin India–Maldives Land Khanjar India–Kyrgyzstan Land (Army) Bongosagar India–Bangladesh Naval Source:  PIB Starship Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Context: SpaceX’s Starship successfully completed a critical test flight, marking a major step toward Moon and Mars missions. Test Flight Highlights The 10th flight launched from Starbase, Texas, after three failed attempts. The Super Heavy booster made a controlled splashdown in the Gulf of Mexico, while Starship splashed down in the Indian Ocean after deploying eight mock Starlink satellites. Key milestones included in-orbit engine re-ignition and a reusable heat shield stress test. Features Height: 120 m – taller than Saturn V. Engines: 33 Raptor engines with ~74 meganewtons thrust, nearly twice Saturn V. Payload: 100–150 tons to LEO; up to 100 astronauts in crew configuration. Fuel: Liquid methane + oxygen. Design: Fully reusable two-stage system with largest payload volume in history. Significance The success restores confidence in Starship for NASA’s Artemis Moon mission and future Mars plans. It demonstrates reusability, massive payload capacity, and cost-effectiveness—potentially revolutionizing space access and exploration. Learning Corner: SpaceX’s Starship World’s largest rocket: At 120 meters tall, Starship is bigger than the Saturn V and designed for deep-space missions. Structure: Two-stage system — Super Heavy booster and the Starship spacecraft. Power: Powered by 33 Raptor engines using liquid methane and liquid oxygen, generating ~74 meganewtons of thrust. Capacity: Can carry 100–150 tons to low Earth orbit and up to 100 astronauts in crew configuration — the largest payload capacity ever. Reusability: Both stages are fully reusable, aiming to drastically cut launch costs and enable frequent missions. Heat shield: Equipped with a reusable heat shield to withstand re-entry from the Moon or Mars. Purpose: Developed to support NASA’s Artemis missions, future Mars colonization, and revolutionize space access through cost-effective, high-capacity launches. Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS Mahatma Ayyankali Category: HISTORY Context: Prime Minister Narendra Modi paid tribute to Mahatma Ayyankali on his Jayanti, honoring his legacy as a pioneering social reformer who fought caste-based discrimination and worked for the upliftment of marginalized communities in Kerala. Legacy of Ayyankali Born in 1863, he led movements like the Villuvandi (cart) journey and Kallumala struggle, challenging social inequalities. Advocated education, access to public spaces, and basic rights for Dalits, reshaping Kerala’s social fabric. His reforms laid the foundation for greater equality and continue to inspire struggles for social justice in India. Learning Corner: Mahatma Ayyankali (1863–1941) Ayyankali was a prominent social reformer from Kerala, known for challenging caste oppression and working for the upliftment of Dalits. He fought for education rights, access to public spaces, and basic dignity for oppressed communities. His famous struggles include the Villuvandi (bullock cart) movement, asserting the right of Dalits to use public roads, and the Kallumala agitation, demanding social equality and dignity for Dalit women. He also organized agricultural labourers to fight for better wages and working conditions. Ayyankali’s efforts laid the foundation for Kerala’s later progress in social justice and equality, earning him the title Mahatma. Source: PIB Amoebic Encephalitis Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Context: Kerala has reported another case of amoebic encephalitis, a rare and often fatal brain infection, bringing the total cases this year to 42. About the Disease Caused mainly by

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) Adi Karmayogi Initiative Category: POLITY Context:  Train 20 lakh tribal “change leaders” through activities like role-play, cognitive tasks, and fish bowl exercises to build problem-solving and motivation. Objectives Part of the Dharti Aba Janjatiya Gram Utkarsh Abhiyaan to strengthen last-mile scheme delivery. Implementation 240 State-level master trainers, 2,750 district trainers, and 15,000+ block trainers will conduct sessions across 324 districts. Each village session will involve 15 volunteers, focusing on participatory development. Key Activities “Lighting the candle” (positivity), “fish bowl” (group interaction), and role-play (community issue solving). Vision & Delivery Villagers will draft “Vision 2030” documents, visualized through public murals as governance blueprints. Adi Seva Kendras will act as single-window centers for scheme saturation. Impact Aims to foster sustainable, community-driven solutions and improve government scheme delivery in tribal regions. Learning Corner: Adi Karmayogi Initiative A government programme under Dharti Aba Janjatiya Gram Utkarsh Abhiyaan to strengthen last-mile delivery of schemes in tribal areas. Seeks to train 20 lakh tribal “change leaders” through participatory methods like role-play, candle-lighting, cognitive tasks, and fish bowl exercises. Multi-tier trainer structure: 240 State-level, 2,750 district-level, and 15,000+ block-level trainers covering 324 districts. Each village session involves 15 volunteers to build problem-solving and community leadership. Villagers prepare “Vision 2030” documents, visualized through public murals as aspirational governance blueprints. Adi Seva Kendras will serve as single-window centers for scheme saturation. Focus: community-driven development, participatory governance, and improved scheme utilization in tribal regions. Dharti Aba Janjatiya Gram Utkarsh Abhiyaan A flagship tribal welfare programme launched by the Government of India. Aims to ensure last-mile delivery and saturation of government schemes in tribal villages. Works on participatory governance by involving tribal communities in identifying local challenges and solutions. Includes the Adi Karmayogi initiative, which trains tribal “change leaders” at the village level to drive development. Encourages preparation of “Village Vision 2030” documents and community murals to guide planning and governance. Establishes Adi Seva Kendras as single-window service centres for welfare schemes. Overall focus: empowerment, capacity building, and inclusive development of tribal communities. Source: THE HINDU INS Udaygiri & INS Himgiri Commissioned Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Context : Defence Minister Rajnath Singh commissioned two multirole stealth frigates — INS Udaygiri and INS Himgiri — at Visakhapatnam Key Points Defence Minister Rajnath Singh commissioned two multirole stealth frigates — INS Udaygiri and INS Himgiri — at Visakhapatnam. Part of Project 17A, with 75% indigenous components, reflecting Make in India and Aatmanirbhar Bharat. Equipped with advanced weapons, sensors, and propulsion systems; designed by the Navy’s Warship Design Bureau. Built with contributions from 200+ MSMEs, generating thousands of jobs. Strategic Impact Enhances India’s maritime strength in the Indian Ocean. Useful for maritime security, disaster relief, and humanitarian missions. Represents a leap in stealth, design, and indigenous shipbuilding capacity. Technical Highlights Combined diesel/gas propulsion, modern management systems, and high indigenous technology. Follow-on to Project 17 Shivalik-class frigates, with major improvements in stealth and combat capability. Learning Corner: Frigates Definition: Frigates are medium-sized, multi-role warships, smaller than destroyers but larger than corvettes. Role: Primarily designed for escorting naval fleets, anti-submarine warfare (ASW), anti-air warfare (AAW), and surface warfare. Features: Equipped with modern radar, sonar, surface-to-air missiles (SAMs), anti-ship missiles, and torpedoes. Some carry helicopters for extended ASW capability. Advantages: Cost-effective compared to destroyers; versatile in both offensive and defensive naval operations. In India: The Indian Navy operates classes such as Shivalik-class (stealth frigates), Talwar-class, and is building advanced Nilgiri-class frigates under Project 17A. Global context: Frigates are a key component in modern navies due to their balance of firepower, agility, and affordability. Indian Defence Projects  Project 15A – Kolkata-class Destroyers (INS Kolkata, Kochi, Chennai) Project 15B – Visakhapatnam-class Destroyers (INS Visakhapatnam, Mormugao, Imphal, Surat – ongoing) Project 17 – Shivalik-class Stealth Frigates Project 17A – Nilgiri-class Stealth Frigates (under construction) Project 28 – Kamorta-class Anti-Submarine Warfare Corvettes Project 75 – Kalvari-class Scorpene Submarines (diesel-electric) Project 75I – Next-generation conventional submarines (future, under planning) IAC-1 – INS Vikrant (Indigenous Aircraft Carrier) IAC-2 (proposed) – Vishal-class Aircraft Carrier Source:  THE HINDU Integrated Air Drop Test (IADT-1) Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Context: To test the parachute-based deceleration system for safe crew module landing. Purpose & Method An IAF helicopter dropped a 5-tonne dummy crew capsule from 3 km altitude; parachutes deployed in sequence for splashdown simulation. Agencies Involved Supported by Indian Air Force, DRDO, and Coast Guard for materials, safety systems, and recovery. Importance Multiple tests will validate parachute safety, crew escape systems, and subsystems for human certification. Future trials will simulate ascent, descent, and on-orbit operations. Long-term Goals Gaganyaan is the foundation for India’s human spaceflight roadmap. Targets: Bharatiya Antariksh Station by 2035 and crewed lunar landing by 2040. Learning Corner: Gaganyaan Mission India’s first crewed spaceflight programme, led by ISRO. Objective: Send a 3-member Indian crew to low-Earth orbit (~400 km) for 3 days and return safely. Crew module designed with parachute-based deceleration, life-support, and safety systems. Supported by IAF (astronaut training), DRDO (life-support & materials), Coast Guard/Navy (recovery ops). Multiple tests include: Integrated Air Drop Tests (IADT), Pad Abort Tests, Crew Escape System trials, Uncrewed flights. Roadmap: Human spaceflight (Gaganyaan) – foundation stage. Bharatiya Antariksh Station by 2035. Crewed lunar landing by 2040. Significance: Boosts Aatmanirbhar Bharat in space technology, human-rating of launch vehicles, and positions India among elite spacefaring nations. Source: THE HINDU Kuttiyadi Coconut Category: ECONOMICS Context: Kuttiyadi Coconut gets GI tag Unique Qualities High-yielding: Starts fruiting in 5 years; over 150 nuts per year. Long lifespan: Productive for 100+ years. Strong trunk: Pest- and drought-resistant. Large fruits: 600–800 g (without husk), thicker kernels, high oil content. Aromatic oil: Up to 70% yield, more fragrant than other varieties. Learning Corner: Geographical Indication (GI) Tag A Geographical Indication (GI) is a sign used on products that have a specific geographical origin and possess qualities, reputation, or characteristics essentially linked to that location. In India, GI tags are governed by the Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999, effective from 2003. It provides legal protection against unauthorized use, helps preserve traditional

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) Greenfield Airports Context: The Andhra Pradesh government has drawn up plans to develop greenfield airports at Srikakulam, Bhogapuram, Tuni–Annavaram, Tadepalligudem, Ongole, Dagadarthi, Kuppam and Nagarjuna Sagar. About Greenfield Projects: A greenfield airport is a new aviation facility built from scratch on previously undeveloped land. India’s first Greenfield airport built in the northeastern region is Pakyong Airport, located in Sikkim. The development of Greenfield airports is regulated by the Greenfield Airports (GFA) Policy, 2008. As per the Policy, a State Government or an Airport Developer, willing to establish an airport is required to send a proposal to the Ministry of Civil Aviation (MoCA) for 2-stage approval i.e. ‘Site-Clearance’ followed by ‘In-Principle’ approval. Advantages of Greenfield Projects: Engineers do not have to spend time tearing down old buildings, making the construction process faster and more efficient. Enhances regional and international air travel. Helps decongest existing airports in urban areas. Encourages investment and trade in surrounding regions. Can be planned with eco-friendly measures like green energy and sustainable construction. Source: THE HINDU Collegium System Context: The Supreme Court Collegium headed by Chief Justice of India B.R. Gavai on Monday recommended the elevation of the Chief Justices of the Bombay and Patna High Courts, Justices Alok Aradhe and Vipul Manubhai Pancholi, respectively, as top court judges. Appointment of judges in HCs and SC: The Judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the President under clause (2) of Article 124 of the Constitution. Judges of the higher judiciary are appointed through the collegium system. The term “collegium” is not mentioned in the Indian Constitution but has been established through judicial pronouncements. Salaries, allowances, privileges, leave, and pension of Supreme Court judges are determined by Parliament. The Salaries, Pension, and Allowances of the Supreme Court Judges are charged upon the Consolidated Fund of India. After retirement, a judge of the Supreme Court is prohibited from practicing law in any court in India or pleading before any government authority. Evolution of Collegium System: First Judges Case (1981): It declared that the “primacy” of the CJI’s (Chief Justice of India) recommendation on judicial appointments and transfers can be refused for “cogent reasons.” Second Judges Case (1993): It introduced the Collegium system, holding that “consultation” really meant “concurrence”. It added that it was not the CJI’s individual opinion, but an institutional opinion formed in consultation with the two senior-most judges in the Supreme Court. Third Judges Case (1998): SC on the President’s reference (Article 143) expanded the Collegium to a five-member body, comprising the CJI and four of his senior-most colleagues. Source: THE HINDU Salwa Judum Context: A group of 18 retired judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts have penned a joint statement against Home Minister Amit Shah’s remarks on the Supreme Court’s Salwa Judum judgment, saying that such “prejudicial misinterpretation” will have a “chilling effect on the judges of the Supreme Court, shaking the independence of the judiciary”. About Salwa Judum: Meaning “Peace March” or “Purification Hunt” in the language of the Gonds, the Salwa Judum was a militia specifically mobilised with the intention of countering the Left-Wing Extremism (LWE) or naxalism in the Chhattisgarh region. It consisted of local tribal youth mobilized for resistance against outlawed armed naxalites. The group was reportedly backed by government machinery in Chhattisgarh. There were reports that Salwa Judum forcibly recruited minor boys for its armed forces. According to a survey by the Forum for Fact-finding Documentation and Advocacy (FFDA), over 12,000 minors were being used by the Salwa Judum in the southern district of Dantewada. The Salwa Judum displaced large numbers of villagers. They even killed those that refused to leave, accusing them of being naxalite collaborators. Following a number of petitions, the Supreme Court ordered the state government in 2008 to refrain from allegedly supporting and encouraging the Salwa Judum. In 2011, the Supreme Court of India in a case filed by Nandini Sundar and others declared the militia to be illegal and unconstitutional, and ordered its disbanding. However, despite the order, the Salwa Judum remains a part of the auxiliary force of the state police. Other government initiatives to control Left-Wing Extremism (LWE): SAMADHAN doctrine is the one-stop solution for the LWE problem. It encompasses the entire strategy of government from short-term policy to long-term policy formulated at different levels. SAMADHAN stands for- S- Smart Leadership A- Aggressive Strategy M- Motivation and Training A- Actionable Intelligence D- Dashboard Based KPIs (Key Performance Indicators) and KRAs (Key Result Areas) H- Harnessing Technology A- Action plan for each Theatre N- No access to Financing The national strategy to counter LWE was formed in 2015 as a multipronged approach to combat LWE. Its main aim was to ensure participatory governance and protection of the rights of local tribals, inter alia. Operation Green Hunt was started in 2009-10 and massive deployment of security forces was done in the naxal-affected areas. Source: THE HINDU Vantara Context: The Supreme Court on Monday constituted a Special Investigation Team (SIT) chaired by a former top court judge, Justice J. Chelameswar, to conduct an “independent factual appraisal” of complaints and allegations of violations raised against Vantara, a zoological rescue and rehabilitation centre conceptualised by Anant Ambani at Gujarat’s Jamnagar. About Vantara: Vantara (meaning Star of the Forest) is a private, non-commercial wildlife rescue and rehabilitation centre. Developed by the Reliance Foundation, it is led by Anant Ambani as a philanthropic initiative under Reliance Industries. Located inside the Jamnagar Refinery Township, Gujarat, it spans 3,500 acres in Motikhavdi village, Jamnagar district. It was inaugurated in March 2025 and it aims to provide care, conservation, and rehabilitation for injured, abandoned, and rescued animals. It contains Greens Zoological Rescue and Rehabilitation Centre (GZRRC), which covers around 650 acres with dedicated enclosures for big cats, reptiles, birds, and herbivores. It also has a specialised Elephant Centre, which is equipped with hydrotherapy pools, imaging systems, and recovery zones. It is the first-of-its-kind in India as it is the largest privately managed facility for animal welfare and biodiversity rescue. It

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) Integrated Air Defence Weapon System Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Context:  The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) has successfully conducted the first flight tests of the Indigenous Integrated Air Defence Weapon System (IADWS) off the coast of Odisha. Key Points Purpose: Enhances India’s multi-layered air defense against aerial threats and protects strategic facilities. Components: Includes Quick Reaction Surface-to-Air Missiles (QRSAM), Very Short-Range Air Defense System (VSHORADS), and a high-power laser-based Directed Energy Weapon, all managed via a central command system. Testing: Successfully destroyed three aerial targets—two high-speed UAVs and a drone—using QRSAM, VSHORADS, and the laser weapon. Performance: All elements including radars, missiles, communication, and command systems functioned flawlessly. Learning Corner: India’s Multi-Layered Air Defence System India has developed a multi-tiered air defence shield to neutralize threats from long-range ballistic missiles to low-flying drones. The system integrates indigenous and imported platforms under centralized command and control. Long-Range / Outer Layer S-400 Triumf (Russia) – Range up to 400 km, counters stealth aircraft, cruise and ballistic missiles. Ballistic Missile Defence (BMD) Program – Includes Prithvi Air Defence (PAD) and Advanced Air Defence (AAD) interceptors for high and low-altitude ballistic missile interception. Medium-Range Layer MR-SAM (Medium Range Surface-to-Air Missile) – Jointly by DRDO & Israel; ~70 km range; used by Air Force, Army, and Navy. Akash & Akash-NG – Indigenous, ~25–70 km; protects air bases and strategic assets. Short-Range / Tactical Layer QRSAM (Quick Reaction SAM) – 25–30 km range, mobile and radar-guided. SPYDER (Israel) – 15–35 km range, counters aircraft, UAVs, and precision-guided munitions. Very Short Range / Point Defence Igla (Russia) and Indigenous VSHORADS – Man-portable missiles for last-mile defence against low-flying targets. Anti-Drone Systems – DRDO and private-sector developed, deployed at borders and sensitive installations. Directed Energy Weapons (Emerging Layer) High-Power Laser Systems (DEW) under DRDO’s Integrated Air Defence Weapon System (IADWS) – tested for drone and UAV neutralization. Integrated Command & Control Integrated Air Command and Control System (IACCS) – Nationwide radar and sensor network linking all layers for real-time surveillance, detection, and interception. Important Air Defence Systems of the World United States Patriot PAC-3: Combat-proven, medium-to-long range system against aircraft and tactical ballistic missiles. THAAD (Terminal High Altitude Area Defense): Intercepts ballistic missiles in the upper atmosphere. Aegis Combat System (Navy): Uses SM-2/SM-3/SM-6 missiles for layered defence at sea and on Aegis Ashore sites. Iron Dome (co-developed with Israel): Short-range, highly effective against rockets and UAVs. Russia S-400 Triumf: Long-range system (up to 400 km), counters stealth aircraft and ballistic missiles. S-500 Prometey: Next-generation system with anti-ballistic and anti-satellite capability. Pantsir-S1: Short-range point defence with missiles and guns, effective against drones and low-flying aircraft. Israel Iron Dome: Famous short-range system for rockets, artillery, and drones. David’s Sling: Medium-range defence against cruise missiles and tactical ballistic missiles. Arrow-2 & Arrow-3: Long-range interceptors developed with the US to counter ballistic missiles. China HQ-9: Long-range SAM, comparable to the S-300/S-400. HQ-19: Designed for ballistic missile defence. HQ-17: Short-range, mobile SAM system. Europe / NATO ASTER Missile System (France-Italy): Used on land and naval platforms, covers short to long ranges. NASAMS (Norwegian Advanced Surface-to-Air Missile System): Medium-range, deployed in many NATO countries and the US (for Washington, D.C. defence). Sky Sabre (UK): New medium-range air defence system with high accuracy. Source: THE HINDU Invasive plants Category: ENVIRONMENT Context : A new international study shows that invasive plants and animals have caused over $2.6 trillion in global damage since 1960, with costs in India severely underreported. Key Points Global Impact: Plants, arthropods, and mammals are the most damaging groups, affecting agriculture, forestry, fisheries, and infrastructure. India’s Blind Spot: Management costs are underreported by over 1,100%, reflecting weak documentation and funding. Drivers of Costs: Losses stem from both economic damage and expenses for detection, control, and eradication. Gaps: India lacks robust data, funding, and coordinated strategies, worsening ecological and financial risks. Way Forward: Experts urge stronger policies, better data systems, and global cooperation for prevention and management. Learning Corner: Invasive Species of India Invasive Alien Species (IAS) are non-native plants, animals, or microbes introduced—intentionally or accidentally—that spread rapidly, harm native biodiversity, disrupt ecosystems, and cause economic loss. India, with its rich biodiversity, is especially vulnerable. Examples of Major Invasive Species in India Plants Lantana camara – A hardy shrub from Central/South America; invades forests, suppresses native plants. Parthenium hysterophorus (Congress Grass) – From tropical America; affects agriculture, causes skin allergies and respiratory issues. Eichhornia crassipes (Water Hyacinth) – Aquatic weed from the Amazon; clogs water bodies, reduces oxygen, harms fisheries. Prosopis juliflora (Vilayati Babool) – From South America; dominates drylands, displaces native grasses. Animals Common Carp & Tilapia – Non-native fishes that outcompete local species, affecting inland fisheries. African Catfish (Clarias gariepinus) – Aggressive predator, threatens native fish diversity. Apple Snail (Pomacea canaliculata) – Damages paddy fields and aquatic vegetation. Insects / Others Papaya Mealybug (Paracoccus marginatus) – Destroys papaya and other crops. Fall Armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) – Major pest in maize, spreading rapidly in India. Impacts Ecological: Displacement of native flora and fauna, habitat degradation. Economic: Heavy losses in agriculture, forestry, and fisheries. Health: Allergies, poisoning, and diseases linked to some species. Management in India National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) and Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) monitor IAS. Biological control: Example – Mexican beetle introduced to control Parthenium. Awareness & Policy: Need for stronger prevention, early detection, and coordinated eradication strategies. Source:  THE HINDU Integrated Food Security Phase Classification (IPC) Category: INTERNATIONAL Context: The Integrated Food Security Phase Classification (IPC) has declared famine in parts of Gaza Key Points What is IPC: An independent global hunger monitor working with UN bodies, NGOs, and governments to assess food insecurity. Famine Criteria: Declared when 20% of people face extreme shortages, over 30% of children are acutely malnourished, and at least 2 adults (or 4 children) per 10,000 die daily from starvation or disease. Precedents: Rare—previously declared only a few times in Africa and Sudan; this is the first for Gaza. Gaza Assessment: Around 280,000 people face catastrophic hunger, with 80% of