Current Affairs

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) SPEAKERS AND DEFECTION Syllabus:   POLITY Context: The Supreme Court took a strong stand against prolonged inaction by Speakers in deciding disqualification petitions under the anti-defection law, asserting that it cannot remain “a mute spectator”. Decoding the context: The court was hearing a case related to the disqualification of Bharat Rashtra Samithi (BRS) MLAs from Telangana who defected to the ruling Congress. The petitions, pending before the Speaker for an extended period, prompted the bench to question whether courts should remain powerless if no action is taken for years. Learning Corner: The Tenth Schedule was inserted into the Indian Constitution by the 52nd Amendment Act of 1985. Its primary purpose is to curb political defections (often called “horse-trading”) by presiding over the issue of disqualification of legislators who defect from their political parties.  Grounds for Disqualification under Anti-Defection Law – A legislator (MP or MLA) can be disqualified: If an elected member voluntarily gives up the membership of their political party. If they vote or abstain from voting in the legislature against the party’s directive (whip) without prior permission. If an independent member joins a political party after the election. If a nominated member joins a party after six months of nomination. Exceptions –  Merger provision: If 2/3rd of a legislative party merges with another party, it will not be considered defection. Earlier exception for split by 1/3rd members was removed by the 91st Amendment Act, 2003. Role & Powers of the Speaker (or Chairman) Final Authority: The Speaker or Chairman is the final deciding authority on disqualification under the Tenth Schedule. Quasi-Judicial Authority: The Speaker’s decision acts in a quasi-judicial capacity. Judicial Review: Initially, the Speaker’s decision was not subject to judicial review. However, in the Kihoto Hollohan case (1992), the Supreme Court ruled that: Speaker’s decision is subject to judicial review. Courts can review the legality and constitutionality of the Speaker’s decision after it is made. Criticism of Speaker’s Role: Bias concerns arise as the Speaker belongs to a political party. Delays in decision-making allow legislators to hold power despite defection. Source : Hindustan Times HEARD ISLAND AND MCDONALD ISLANDS Syllabus:           GEOGRAPHY  Context: Heard and McDonald islands featured in a list released by the White House of “countries” that would have new trade tariffs imposed. Decoding the context: Heard Island and McDonald Islands are among several “external territories” of Australia listed separately in the tariff list to Australia, which will see a 10% tariff imposed on its goods. External territories are part of Australia and not self-governing but have a unique relationship with the federal government. Such territories featured on the White House list were the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, Christmas Island and Norfolk Island. Learning Corner: Heard Island and McDonald Islands (often abbreviated as HIMI) are a remote group of subantarctic volcanic islands that form an external territory of Australia. Located in the southern Indian Ocean, the islands lie roughly 4,100 kilometers southwest of Perth, Australia, and about 1,600 kilometers north of Antarctica. As the only volcanically active subantarctic islands they ‘open a window into the earth’, thus providing the opportunity to observe ongoing geomorphic processes and glacial dynamics.  Composition: The territory consists primarily of two island groups: Heard Island: The larger of the two, known for its rugged terrain, extensive glaciation, and active volcanic features. McDonald Islands: A smaller group that, while less extensive than Heard Island, has experienced notable volcanic activity in recent decades. Geological and Volcanic Features Volcanic Origin: Both Heard and McDonald Islands are volcanic in origin. They lie on the Kerguelen Plateau, which is a vast submarine volcanic province. Volcanism: Heard Island is home to Big Ben, an impressive volcanic complex, whose highest point is Mawson Peak (approximately 2,745 meters above sea level). This active volcano is one of only two in the Australian external territories. McDonald Islands have also exhibited volcanic activity, including eruptions that have altered the shape and size of the landmass. Ecological and Environmental Significance Pristine Ecosystems: The islands possess exceptionally well-preserved subantarctic ecosystems. Their isolation has helped protect these areas from invasive species and significant human disturbance. Biodiversity Hotspot: Despite being uninhabited, the islands serve as breeding grounds for a variety of marine birds (such as penguins, albatrosses, and petrels) and marine mammals, including seals. Protected Status: Recognized for their outstanding natural values, the territory is designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. These islands are administered by Australia and are managed as a nature reserve. Access is highly restricted, typically limited to research expeditions due to the challenging environmental conditions and the emphasis on conservation. Source : The Guardian EXERCISE INDRA Syllabus:         INTERNATIONAL Context: The 14th edition of the Indian – Russia bilateral naval exercise INDRA, a cornerstone of the enduring maritime partnership between India and Russia, has concluded. Decoding the context: Since its inception in 2003, Exercise INDRA epitomises the long-term strategic relationship between the two Navies. Learning Corner: Exercise Indra is a biennial bilateral naval exercise between the Indian Navy and the Russian Navy. Objectives and Significance Enhancing Interoperability: Exercise is designed to improve mutual understanding and coordination. The drills focus on interoperability in a wide range of operations—from tactical maneuvers to anti-air drills—thereby enhancing the ability of both sides to work together during times of crisis. Strategic Maritime Partnership: Beyond its operational focus, Indra serves as a symbol of the strategic relationship between India and Russia, echoing decades of defense collaboration. Skill Enhancement and Knowledge Exchange: Through subject matter expert exchanges (SMEEs), reciprocal visits, and joint pre-sail briefings, both navies gain valuable insights into each other’s operational tactics, thereby enriching their tactical acumen and strategic planning. Exercise Indra is typically conducted in two distinct phases: Harbour Phase: This phase is geared toward planning and the exchange of technical and tactical information, ensuring both sides are aligned before heading out to sea. Sea Phase: The sea phase demonstrates and tests the operational effectiveness of both navies in a realistic maritime setting. Source : PIB PRIME MINISTER’S NATIONAL RELIEF

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) PAMBAN RAIL BRIDGE Syllabus: Category: GEOGRAPHY Context: The vertical lift span of the new Pamban Rail Bridge, inaugurated by Prime Minister Narendra Modi on Sunday (April 6, 2025), caused concern among senior railway officials when the lifted centre span became stuck midway as it was being lowered. Decoding the context: For nearly a century, Pamban Rail Bridge remained the longest sea bridge in India until the Bandra-Worli Sea Link (Mumbai) came up. Learning Corner: The Pamban Rail Bridge is a historic and vital railway bridge in India, connecting Rameswaram Island (Pamban Island) to the mainland in Tamil Nadu, across the Palk Strait. It was India’s first sea bridge, originally opened in 1914 and and was the only link to Rameswaram until a road bridge was opened in 1988. Key Features Original Structure: The old Pamban Bridge was a bascule bridge, meaning it had a section that could be lifted to allow ships to pass. New Vertical Lift Bridge: Recently, a new Pamban Rail Bridge was inaugurated, featuring a vertical lift mechanism that allows ships to pass underneath more efficiently. Length: The bridge spans 2.07 kilometers across the Palk Strait. Engineering Marvel: The new bridge is designed to last 100 years, with stainless steel reinforcements and fully welded joints to withstand harsh marine conditions Source : The Hindu KHELO INDIA YOUTH GAMES Syllabus:  Category: NATIONAL Context: The seventh edition of the Khelo India Youth Games will be staged in five cities of Bihar from May 4 to 15. Decoding the context: This edition is expected to feature over 10,000 athletes competing in more than 25 sports disciplines. Learning Corner: The Khelo India Programme is a national initiative launched by the Government of India in 2018 to promote a robust sports culture at the grassroots level. Key Components of the Khelo India Programme: Creation and Upgradation of Sports Infrastructure: Developing and modernizing sports facilities across the country to provide athletes with world-class training environments. Sports Competitions and Talent Development: Organizing events like the Khelo India Youth Games to scout and nurture young athletes. Promotion of Inclusiveness through Sports: Ensuring equal opportunities for women, differently-abled individuals, and other marginalized groups to participate in sports. Revival of Indigenous Games: Traditional Indian sports like Mallakhamba, Kalaripayattu, and Gatka are promoted. Major Initiatives Under Khelo India:  Khelo India Youth Games (KIYG) – Annual multi-sport event for under-17 and under-21 athletes. Khelo India University Games (KIUG) – National-level competition for university students. Khelo India Winter Games – Held in Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh to promote winter sports. Khelo India Centres – Specialized training centers for different sports. Khelo India Youth Games (KIYG): The Khelo India Youth Games are an integral part of the Khelo India Programme, serving as a platform for young athletes under the age categories of 17 and 21 to showcase their talents.  The inaugural edition was held in 2018 in New Delhi, featuring 18 sports disciplines. 2024 (6th Edition): Held from January 19 to 31 across four cities in Tamil Nadu—Chennai, Madurai, Trichy, and Coimbatore. The event featured 26 sports disciplines, including traditional games like Kalaripayattu and Mallakhamb. 2025 (Upcoming 7th Edition): Scheduled from May 4 to 15, 2025, with Bihar hosting events across five cities: Patna, Rajgir, Gaya, Bhagalpur, and Begusarai. Additionally, select disciplines such as shooting, gymnastics, and track cycling will be held in New Delhi. Source : The Hindu VIBRANT VILLAGE PROGRAMME (VVP) Syllabus:     Category: GOVERNMENT SCHEMES Context:The Union Cabinet has approved phase two of the Vibrant Villages Programme (VVP) for the comprehensive development of strategic villages along all international land borders, with a total outlay of ₹6,839 crore. Decoding the context: While VVP-I was aimed at villages along the China border, the second phase of the programme will be implemented in select strategic villages in Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Punjab, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tripura, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal, until the financial year 2028-29. Learning Corner: The Vibrant Villages Programme (VVP) phase 1 was a centrally sponsored scheme launched by the Government of India in 2023 to develop border villages with sparse population, limited connectivity, and infrastructure. Vibrant Villages Programme -II (VVP-II) is a Central Sector Scheme (100% Centre funding), furthering its commitment for the vision of Viksit Bharat@2047 for ‘Safe, Secured & Vibrant land borders’. The Programme would help in the comprehensive development of the villages located in the blocks abutting international land borders (ILBs), other than the Northern border already covered under VVP-I. The objective of the programme is to create better living conditions and adequate livelihood opportunities to ensure prosperous and safe borders, control trans-border crime and assimilate the border population with the nation and inculcate them ‘as eyes and ears of the border guarding forces’, crucial for internal security. The interventions would be border-specific, state and village specific, based on Village Action Plans prepared in a collaborative approach. Key Components: Infrastructure Development: Roads, housing, water supply, electricity, internet, and mobile connectivity. Social Development: Healthcare, education, skill development, and livelihood opportunities. Tourism and Cultural Promotion: Promoting local culture, traditions, and eco-tourism. Security Dimension: Enhances eyes and ears on the border — discouraging migration and boosting strategic presence. Convergence Model: Coordination among multiple central and state schemes like PMGSY, Jal Jeevan Mission, PMAY-G. Source : The Hindu PRESIDENT AND STATE BILLS Syllabus:        Category: POLITY Context: President Droupadi Murmu has withheld assent to Tamil Nadu’s Bill seeking exemption from the mandate of National Eligibility-cum-Entrance Test (NEET)-based admissions for undergraduate medical courses in government medical colleges. Decoding the context: The Tamil Nadu Admission to Undergraduate Medical Degree Courses Bill was passed unanimously in the Assembly in September 2021. After the Bill was returned by the Governor, an all-party meeting was held in February 2022. The Bill was then re-adopted in the Assembly. Learning Corner: When a Bill is passed by the Legislature of a State, it is presented to the Governor for assent. In certain cases, the Governor may reserve the Bill for the consideration of the President. Step-by-Step Legislative Process

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) BREAKTHROUGH PRIZE 2025 Category: INTERNATIONAL Context: The 2025 Breakthrough Prize in Fundamental Physics was awarded to 13,508 physicists across four collaborative projects at CERN, the European particle physics laboratory near Geneva, Switzerland. Decoding the context: The award was announced on April 5th as part of the 11th annual Breakthrough Prizes. Six prizes worth $3 million each were announced in Life Sciences, Mathematics and Fundamental Physics. Learning Corner: The Breakthrough Prize is one of the most prestigious awards in science, often referred to as the “Oscars of Science”.  The awards were established in 2013 by Mark Zuckerberg and his wife Priscilla Chan, former Google chief Sergey Brin, genomics company 23&Me founder Anne Wojcicki, and tech investor couple Yuri and Julia Milner to recognize groundbreaking achievements in Life Sciences, Fundamental Physics, and Mathematics. Breakthrough Prize In Life Sciences – The award in this category was given to three groups of scientists: Weight-loss drugs : Five scientists — Daniel J. Drucker, Joel Habener, Jens Juul Holst, Lotte Bjerre Knudsen, and Svetlana Mojsov — were awarded a prize for discovering and characterizing the GLP-1 hormone, which led to the development of weight loss and diabetes drugs like Ozempic and Wegovy. Multiple Sclerosis treatment : Multiple Sclerosis is an unpredictable chronic disease caused by the immune system attacking the protective sheath that covers nerve fibres of the central nervous system. Alberto Ascherio and Stephen L. Hauser were awarded the Prize for identifying the role of the B-cells of the immune system in Multiple Sclerosis (MS) and devising treatments targeted at the same.  Gene-editing technologies : David R Liu was awarded the Prize for developing the base editing and prime editing technologies widely used to edit the DNA of living organisms. These are significant as they can edit the DNA without cutting its double helix, and rewrite entire stretches of defective DNA with a corrected version. Breakthrough Prize In Fundamental Physics The Breakthrough Prize in Fundamental Physics was awarded to four collaborations at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) in CERN – ALICE, ATLAS, CMS and LHCb. The LHC is the world’s largest and most powerful particle accelerator, causing protons to accelerate and collide, thus helping scientists study the properties of matter. The four collaborations studied the Higgs boson. The Higgs boson, also known as the ‘God Particle’, is known to impart mass to every other particle. Source : Indian Express CAPTCHA Category: SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: In the ever-changing world of Internet technology, keeping users safe and verifying their identities is important. One of the most important security systems for this is CAPTCHA (Completely Automated Public Turing test to tell Computers and Humans Apart) Decoding the context: CAPTCHA was introduced in the early 2000s when the internet was flooded with automated bots. Learning Corner: CAPTCHA stands for Completely Automated Public Turing test to tell Computers and Humans Apart. It is a security mechanism used on websites to differentiate between human users and automated bots. The test is designed to be easy for humans to solve but difficult for machines. Purpose of CAPTCHA Prevent spam (e.g., in comments or registrations) Block brute-force attacks Protect online polls from manipulation Limit abuse of online services (like ticket booking) Types of CAPTCHA Text-based CAPTCHA – Distorted letters/numbers that users must type in. Image-based CAPTCHA – Users select images matching a given prompt (e.g., “select all images with traffic lights”). Audio CAPTCHA – For visually impaired users; users type spoken words or numbers. ReCAPTCHA – Developed by Google. Includes: Checkbox (“I’m not a robot”) Invisible CAPTCHA (analyzes user behavior without requiring input). How CAPTCHA Works It presents a challenge that is easy for humans but difficult for bots. Bots struggle with image recognition, distorted text, and behavioral analysis. Advanced CAPTCHAs use AI-based detection to analyze user interactions. Turing Test The Turing Test was proposed by British mathematician and computer scientist Alan Turing in 1950 as a way to assess a machine’s ability to exhibit intelligent behavior indistinguishable from that of a human. How It Works In the test, a human judge communicates with both a human and a machine (AI) via text-based conversation. If the judge cannot reliably determine which one is the machine, the AI is said to have passed the Turing Test, demonstrating human-like intelligence. While early computers struggled with this challenge, modern AI systems have made significant progress, creating more natural, human-like conversations. Connection Between Turing Test & CAPTCHA – CAPTCHA is actually a reverse Turing Test—instead of a human testing a machine, CAPTCHA is designed so that a machine tests whether the user is human. Source : The Hindu SHYAMJI KRISHNA VERMA Category: HISTORY Context: Recently, Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi paid tributes to the great freedom fighter Shyamji Krishna Verma on his death anniversary. Decoding the context: Shyamji Krishna Verma is remembered as a pioneer of the Indian revolutionary movement in Europe. Learning Corner: Shyamji Krishna Varma was a prominent freedom fighter, lawyer, scholar, and nationalist revolutionary during the Indian independence movement. He was a pioneer of Indian nationalism in Europe. Key Facts & Contributions Born: 4 October 1857, Mandvi, Gujarat (Kutch region) Education: Studied Sanskrit and law; later went to Oxford University in England. Profession: Barrister; also appointed Diwan of a princely state in India for a short period. Major Contributions: India House (1905, London): Founded India House, a hostel and hub for Indian students and revolutionaries in London. India House  Became a center of nationalist and revolutionary activity abroad. The Indian Sociologist (1905): Started this monthly journal to promote nationalist ideas and expose British colonial rule. The British government banned its publication for spreading seditious content. Support to Revolutionaries: Mentored and supported Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, Lala Har Dayal, and Madam Cama. Advocated armed revolution against British rule. Exile: Faced persecution in Britain; moved to Paris and later Switzerland, continuing his work in exile. Died in Geneva, Switzerland in 1930. In 2003, his ashes were brought back to India by the Government of Gujarat and enshrined at Kranti Teerth, Mandvi (Kutch). Source :

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) REPO RATE Category: ECONOMY Context: The Reserve Bank of India’s (RBI’s) six-member Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) on April 9th decided to cut the repo rate by 25 basis points to 6%. Decoding the context: The rate setting panel also changed the monetary policy stance from “neutral” to “accommodative”, signaling further reductions in the repo rate in the near future. Learning Corner: The repo rate is the interest rate at which a central bank (Reserve Bank of India  – RBI), lends money to commercial banks for a short period.  The term “repo” stands for repurchase agreement, which means that banks borrow funds from the RBI by selling securities (usually government bonds) with an agreement to repurchase them at a later date, typically overnight or within a few days. The repo rate essentially represents the cost of borrowing for these banks. When the RBI lowers the repo rate (like reducing it from 6.25% to 6% on April 9, 2025), it becomes cheaper for banks to borrow money. This typically encourages banks to lend more to businesses and individuals, boosting economic activity, increasing money supply, and potentially stimulating growth About Reverse Repo The reverse repo rate is the interest rate at which the RBI borrows money from commercial banks. It’s essentially the opposite of the repo rate. When banks deposit their excess funds with the RBI, they earn interest at the reverse repo rate. This rate is typically lower than the repo rate and helps the RBI absorb liquidity from the economy.  If the RBI wants to reduce the amount of money circulating (to control inflation, for example), it might increase the reverse repo rate, incentivizing banks to park more funds with it instead of lending them out. Source : Indian Express PANCHAYAT ADVANCEMENT INDEX (PAI) Category: POLITY Context: In a push for data driven governance, the Department of Panchayati Raj has come up with the first ever Panchayat Advancement Index (PAI).  Decoding the context: There are 2.5 lakh gram panchayats in the country. Out of these, data of around 2.16 lakh gram panchayats from 29 States have been assessed. Learning Corner: The Panchayat Advancement Index (PAI) is a comprehensive, multi-domain, and multi-sectoral tool introduced by the Ministry of Panchayati Raj in India to assess the holistic development, performance, and progress of Gram Panchayats across the country.  The PAI reflects India’s commitment to achieving the SDG 2030 Agenda through participatory, bottom-up development.  The first baseline report, released for FY 2022-23, analyzed data from 2,16,285 panchayats with validated inputs. Purpose of PAI : Measures the overall well-being and development status of local communities under a panchayat’s jurisdiction. Identifies development gaps and supports evidence-based planning and policy-making at the grassroots level. Encourages panchayats to adopt best practices and set local targets to enhance their performance. Indicators: Panchayat Advancement Index (PAI) is a composite Index & has been compiled based on 435 unique local Indicators (331 mandatory & 104 optional) consisting of 566 unique data points across 9 themes of LSDGs (Localization of Sustainable Development Goals) aligned with National Indicator Framework (NIF) of the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI). Nine Themes of Localized SDGs: Poverty-Free and Enhanced Livelihoods Panchayat Healthy Panchayat Child-Friendly Panchayat Water-Sufficient Panchayat Clean and Green Panchayat Self-Sufficient Infrastructure in Panchayat Socially Just and Socially Secured Panchayat Panchayat with Good Governance Women-Friendly Panchayat Based on the PAI scores & thematic Scores achieved by different Gram Panchayats, these GPs are grouped into one of the five categories Achiever: 90+ score (none achieved this in 2022-23) Front Runner: 75 to <90 (e.g., 699 panchayats, 0.3%) Performer: 60 to <75 (e.g., 77,298 panchayats, 35.8%) Aspirant: 40 to <60 (e.g., 1,32,392 panchayats, 61.2%) Beginner: <40 (e.g., 5,896 panchayats, 2.7%) Source : The Hindu BEAR MARKET Category: ECONOMY Context: The S&P 500 —- a stock market index that tracks the performance of 500 of the largest publicly traded companies in the US — on Monday briefly entered bear market territory for the first time since 2022. Decoding the context: A bear market (or for that matter, all types of market decline) takes place when investors are more motivated to sell than to buy stocks. Learning Corner: A bear market refers to a condition in which a stock index declines by at least 20% from its most recent peak value. This designation lacks an official or standardized determination and serves primarily as an informal term to succinctly indicate a significant downturn in the stock index. A bear market is the opposite of a bull market, which refers to when a stock index has increased at least 20% from its recent low. Note that a bear market is different from a market correction which occurs when there is a decline of at least 10% or more. Why does a bear market occur? There could be a host of different reasons. These include a weak economy, the anticipation of an economic slowdown, or investor sentiment that the market is too hot and prices too high. Events that are not purely economic — such as wars, oil supply shocks, etc — can also spook investors, leading to a dip in the market. A bear market often precedes a recession — a slowdown in economic output and is usually defined as at least two consecutive quarters of decline in gross domestic product (GDP). However, this is not always the case. The Indian stock market has also experienced bear markets over the years. One of the worst bear markets occurred during the 2008 global financial crisis. Between September 8, 2008, and November 6, 2008, the Nifty 50 index had dropped over 35%. Source : Indian Express THAR DESERT Category: GEOGRAPHY Context: The Thar Desert in India saw a striking 38 per cent rise in greening annually over the last two decades, driven by a significant increase in monsoon rainfall and agricultural expansion, a new study showed. Decoding the context: In fact, Thar was the only desert in the world with the highest concurrent increase in population, precipitation and vegetation during the last few decades, scientists from IIT Gandhinagar

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) RIGHT TO INFORMATION ACT Category: POLITY Context: Congress leader Gaurav Gogoi recently criticized the Digital Personal Data Protection (DPDP) Act, calling it “draconian” and expressing concern that it limits access to information. Decoding the context: Other opposition leaders have also urged Union Minister Ashwini Vaishnaw to repeal Section 44(3) of the DPDP Act, arguing that it effectively dilutes the RTI framework. Learning Corner: The DPDP Act propose to amend the Section 8(1)(j) of the RTI Act, 2005. This section prevents a public authority from sharing anyone’s personal information on two main grounds – that the disclosure will have no bearing on any public activity, and that revealing such information would cause unwarranted invasion of the privacy of an individual, unless such disclosure is justified in larger public interest. According to the proposed DPDP law, the two key grounds, that such information could be disclosed provided it serves a larger public interest, have been done away with.  Union Minister Vaishnav, in response to the opposition claims, underlined that protection of personal information was important as the Supreme Court in the Puttaswamy judgment had held privacy to be an integral part of the Right to Life. About RTI Act The RTI Act came into force in October 2005. Roots: Emerged from grassroots movements, notably the Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathan (MKSS) in Rajasthan, advocating for access to government records in the 1990s. Built on earlier laws like the Freedom of Information Act, 2002 (never implemented) and state-level RTI laws (e.g., Tamil Nadu, 1997; Rajasthan, 2000). Influenced by Article 19(1)(a) of the Constitution (freedom of speech and expression), which implies the right to know. According to the official site of the Right to Information, “the basic object of the RTI Act is to empower the citizens, promote transparency and accountability in the working of the Government, contain corruption, and make our democracy work for the people in a real sense.” These are the four pillars of the Act. Key Provisions of the RTI Act, 2005 Scope: Applies to all public authorities (Central, State, and local governments, including bodies substantially funded by the government) across India. Process: Application: Citizens submit a written or electronic request to the Public Information Officer (PIO) or Assistant PIO of the concerned authority with a nominal fee (₹10; waived for BPL applicants). Timeline: Information must be provided within 30 days (48 hours for life/liberty matters). Appeals for non-compliance go to a First Appellate Authority (FAA) within the organization, followed by the Information Commission (Central/State). Penalties: PIOs face fines (up to ₹25,000) for delays, refusal, or misinformation (Section 20). Exemptions (Section 8): Information affecting national security, sovereignty, or foreign relations. Trade secrets, intellectual property, or personal privacy (unless public interest overrides). Cabinet papers and ongoing investigations (with caveats). Section 4: Mandates proactive disclosure of information (e.g., budgets, policies) by public authorities to reduce RTI requests. Information Commissions: The RTI Act, 2005, provided for a Central Information Commission and State Information Commissions to deal with appeals and complaints against public authorities.  Source : Indian Express DIGITAL THREAT REPORT 2024 Category: SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: Recently, the Digital Threat Report 2024 for the Banking, Financial Services, and Insurance (BFSI) sector was released by the Indian Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-In), the Computer Security Incident Response Team in the Finance sector (CSIRT-Fin), and SISA, a global Cybersecurity company. Decoding the context: The report acknowledged the targeting of crypto exchanges as a new strategy. WazirX, one of India’s major crypto exchanges, was hit by a cyber attack where hackers allegedly stole nearly half of the platform’s crypto reserves worth more than $230 million. More recently, hackers stole digital assets worth over $1.5 billion from Dubai-based crypto exchange Bybit, in what is said to be the largest crypto heist till date. Learning Corner: Deepfakes and AI-generated Content: The report identifies deepfakes and AI-generated content as powerful tools for cyber intrusion, particularly in social engineering attacks. Prompt Hacking Risks: Prompt hacking—manipulating AI models into producing harmful or unintended responses—is more common when LLMs are hosted locally (on company servers or devices), compared to when accessed via secure APIs from providers like OpenAI (ChatGPT) or DeepSeek. Jailbreaking of AI Systems Despite using secure APIs, OpenAI’s ChatGPT has faced successful jailbreak attempts. Jailbraking is the process of removing software restrictions imposed by the device’s manufacturer to install unauthorized software, modify the device’s operating system, and access hidden features.  For instance, in 2023, ChatGPT users discovered that they could bypass the AI chatbot’s safeguards by asking it to pretend to be a dead grandmother. This technique came to be known as the ‘grandma exploit’.  Beyond jailbreaking, the report noted that malicious LLMs such as WormGPT and FraudGPT are capable of writing convincing phishing emails, coding highly effective malware programmes, and automating the development of exploits. The report urges policymakers to: Introduce clear and comprehensive regulations for AI and machine learning use in the BFSI sector. Mandate security testing of APIs used in AI-powered applications to detect and fix hidden vulnerabilities. Source : Indian Express VITAMIN D Category: SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: A report by the Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations (ICRIER) has sounded the alarm over a worsening public health crisis in India: Vitamin D deficiency.  Decoding the context: With one in five Indians affected, the think tank has called for a national campaign, pricing reforms, food fortification and better diagnostics to tackle what it describes as a “silent epidemic”. Learning Corner: Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin essential for calcium and phosphorus absorption, and thus crucial for bone health. It also plays roles in immune function, cell growth, and inflammation reduction. Type Source D2 (Ergocalciferol) Plant-based sources, fortified foods D3 (Cholecalciferol) Synthesized in human skin on exposure to sunlight; also from animal sources like fish, eggs, liver ICRIER Report Findings: Prevalence is highest in eastern India (38.81%), with urban areas more affected than rural ones due to lifestyle factors. Despite India’s abundant sunlight, deficiency is widespread due to systemic, cultural, and policy barriers. Causes of Vitamin D Deficiency – The ICRIER

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) NILGIRI TAHR Category: ENVIRONMENT Context: Kerala and Tamil Nadu will jointly carry out a Nilgiri Tahr census from April 24 to 27. The survey will span 89 census blocks in Kerala and 176 blocks in Tamil Nadu over the four-day period. Decoding the context: Kerala Forest Minister A.K. Sase announced the initiative, stating that the synchronised survey of the mountain ungulate is being conducted to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the establishment of Eravikulam National Park. Learning Corner: Scientific Name: Nilgiritragus hylocrius. Common Name: Nilgiri Tahr (locally called Varayadu in Tamil/Malayalam). Taxonomy: Belongs to the Bovidae family (related to goats and antelopes), it is the only mountain ungulate species in southern India. Status: Classified as Endangered on the IUCN Red List due to habitat loss and population decline. Habitat: Found exclusively in the Western Ghats, primarily in Tamil Nadu and Kerala, at elevations between 1,200 and 2,600 meters. Key Locations: Tamil Nadu: Mukurthi National Park, and Anamalai Hills. Kerala: Eravikulam National Park, Silent Valley National Park and Parambikulam Tiger Reserve. Population: Estimated at around 3,000 individuals (as of recent surveys), with Eravikulam hosting the largest population (~700-800). Geographical Significance: Thrives in montane grasslands and shola forests, a unique ecosystem of the Western Ghats. Physical and Behavioral Characteristics Appearance: Males are larger, with curved horns, darker coats (greyish-brown), and a distinctive saddle-like patch after maturity. Females are smaller, with lighter coats and shorter horns. Adaptations: Agile climbers suited to steep, rocky terrains; grazes on grasses and herbs in montane ecosystems. Behavior: Lives in small herds (10-20 individuals), with males often solitary except during mating season (monsoon, June-August). Ecological Importance Role in Ecosystem: As a herbivore, it maintains grassland ecosystems by grazing, preventing shrub overgrowth and supporting shola forest dynamics. Indicator Species: Its presence reflects the health of high-altitude ecosystems in the Western Ghats, sensitive to climate change and habitat disturbance. Conservation Efforts Project Nilgiri Tahr (2023): Launched by the Tamil Nadu government to protect the species, declared the State Animal of Tamil Nadu. Aims to map habitats, boost populations, and raise awareness. Operation Tahr: Efforts to relocate small populations to new habitats (e.g., Mukurthi) to reduce overcrowding risks. International Frameworks: Covered under CITES Appendix I, restricting trade in its parts. Source : The Hindu ARCTIC BOREAL ZONE (ABZ) Category: ENVIRONMENT Context: According to a new study published in Nature Climate Change, the increasing ferocity of wildfires means that more than 30 % of Arctic Boreal Zone has now stopped capturing carbon and is instead releasing it. Decoding the context: The consequences of these changes creates a dangerous feedback loop. According to the study, as wildfires become more common and more intense, they burn through the natural carbon reservoirs that have historically helped regulate the earth’s climate. The carbon released from these fires further fuels global warming, which in turn creates conditions for more frequent and  intense wildfires. Learning Corner: Location: The ABZ spans the high-latitude Northern Hemisphere, roughly above 50°N, encompassing parts of the Arctic and sub-Arctic (boreal) regions. It includes: Countries: Canada, Russia, United States (Alaska), Nordic countries (Norway, Sweden, Finland), and Greenland (Denmark). Area: Covers approximately 26 million square kilometers, including boreal forests (taiga), treeless tundra, wetlands, and permafrost regions. Physiography: Boreal Forests (Taiga): World’s largest terrestrial biome, dominated by coniferous trees (pines, spruces, firs). Tundra: Treeless areas with low shrubs, grasses, and permafrost (permanently frozen soil). Transition Zone: Gradual shift from forested taiga to barren tundra. Climate: Cold, subarctic, with long winters (-50°C to 0°C) and short summers (0°C to 20°C). Annual precipitation is low (15-100 cm), often as snow. Ecological Significance Flora: Cold-tolerant species like conifers, mosses, lichens, and tundra grasses. Fauna: Polar bears, Arctic foxes, caribou, migratory birds (e.g., ducks), and fish in Arctic rivers. The ABZ is a breeding ground for over half of North America’s migratory birds. Historically, the ABZ acted as a carbon sink, storing vast amounts of carbon dioxide (CO₂) in permafrost soils (1,460-1,600 petagrams of organic carbon, nearly twice the atmospheric carbon). Recent studies (e.g., Nature Climate Change, 2025) indicate that 34-40% of the ABZ has become a carbon source, releasing more CO₂ than it absorbs due to permafrost thaw, wildfires, and microbial activity. Arctic Amplification: The ABZ warms 2.5-4 times faster than the global average due to reduced sea ice (albedo effect) and greenhouse gas emissions. Source : The Hindu LORD MAHAVIR Category: ART & CULTURE Context: India celebrated Mahavir Jayanti, a day of deep spiritual significance and profound peace, commemorating the birth of Lord Mahavir, the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism. Decoding the context: This year, the spirit of Mahavir Jayanti was powerfully invoked through the inauguration of Navkar Mahamantra Divas by Prime Minister Narendra Modi on April 9. The Navkar Mantra, central to Jain prayer, is more than a collection of sacred syllables, it is a rhythmic flow of energy, stability, and light. Learning Corner: Born as Vardhamana in 599 BCE (traditional date, though some sources suggest 615 BCE) in Kundagrama (modern-day Vaishali, Bihar). Belonged to the Kshatriya clan of the Ikshvaku dynasty, son of King Siddhartha and Queen Trishala of the Licchavi republic. He was spiritual successor of the 23rd Tirthankara Parshvanatha. Title Mahavir (“Great Hero”) reflects his spiritual conquest over worldly attachments. At age 30, after his parents’ death, he renounced royal life to pursue asceticism, seeking liberation from the cycle of birth and death (samsara). Underwent 12 years of intense meditation, austerity, and penance, achieving Kevala Jnana (omniscience) at 42 under a sal tree in Jrimbhikagrama (Bihar). Philosophical Contributions/ Core Teachings: Five Mahavratas (Great Vows) for ascetics (also guiding laypersons): Ahimsa (Non-violence): Absolute respect for all life forms, influencing diet (strict vegetarianism) and behavior. Satya (Truthfulness): Commitment to honesty in thought, word, and deed. Asteya (Non-stealing): Respecting others’ property and rights. Brahmacharya (Celibacy): Chastity for monks; fidelity for householders. Aparigraha (Non-possessiveness): Detachment from material and emotional attachments. Three Jewels (Triratna): Right Faith (Samyak Darshan): Belief in Jain principles. Right Knowledge (Samyak Jnana): Understanding the nature of reality. Right Conduct (Samyak Charitra): Living ethically per the

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) KOCH RAJBONGSHIS Category: NATIONAL Context: The Assam Cabinet announced the withdrawal of around 28,000 pending cases at the state’s Foreigner Tribunals against members of the Koch Rajbongshi community. Decoding the context: Foreigner Tribunals are quasi-judicial bodies are tasked with determining whether individuals fall within the definition of a “foreigner” under the Foreigners Act, 1946. Chief Minister Himanta Biswa Sarma said the decision was taken as the state government considered them an “indigenous community”. Learning Corner: The community traces its lineage to the Koch Dynasty of the Kamata Kingdom, which rose to power in the 16th century. Today, its members are spread across Assam and West Bengal, as well as parts of Bihar, Meghalaya, Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan, reflecting the geographical spread of the kingdom. In Assam, the community has a significant presence in the western districts. In 2020, the state government created a Kamatapur Autonomous Council for the advancement of the Koch Rajbongshi community. While the community has OBC status in Assam, it is one of six communities that has long been demanding Scheduled Tribe status.  Another demand that gathered steam in the 1990s, though stronger among West Bengal-based groups, has been for a separate Kamatapur state comprising parts of northern West Bengal and western Assam. Citizenship Concerns and “D-voter” Tag: The transborder nature of the community has played a role in the “D-voter” (Doubtful voter) tag being attached to many Koch Rajbongshis, putting a question mark on their citizenship.  Foreigner Tribunals are tasked with adjudicating whether “suspected foreigners” (D-voters and cases referred to them by the border police) are foreigners, that is, people who entered India after March 25, 1971, according to the 1985 Assam Accord. The selective withdrawal of cases against Koch Rajbongshis has raised questions regarding similar relief for other communities. In 2022, the Assam government identified five Assamese Muslim sub-groups—Goriya, Moriya, Julha, Deshi, and Syed—as “indigenous” but has not extended a similar withdrawal of cases against them. Source : Indian Express INDIA-MIDDLE EAST-EUROPE ECONOMIC CORRIDOR (IMEC) Category: INTERNATIONAL Context: India and Italy recently reiterated their commitment to work jointly on the ambitious India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEEC or the IMEC). Decoding the context: The project was mentioned during talks between External Affairs Minister S Jaishankar and Italian Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs, Antonio Tajani, in New Delhi. Learning Corner: The IMEC is a landmark project announced during the G20 Leaders’ event in New Delhi in 2023.  It is aimed at stimulating economic development through enhanced connectivity and economic integration between Asia, the Middle East, and Europe. It will have two separate corridors, the east corridor connecting India to the Arabian Gulf and the northern corridor connecting the Arabian Gulf to Europe, along with a railway route for supplementing trade exchanges between India, the UAE, Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Israel, and Europe. India, Saudi Arabia, the UAE, France, Germany, Italy, the European Union and the United States signed an MoU for its development, linked to the Partnership for Global Infrastructure and Investment (PGII).  First announced in 2021 during the G7 (or Group of Seven) summit in the UK, the PGII has been billed as an alternative funding source to China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). Challenges and progress The October 7, 2023 Hamas attack on Israel, and the ensuing Gaza conflict, cast uncertainty over the viability of IMEEC. Heightened tensions in the Middle East pose risks to infrastructure continuity and cooperation. During Prime Minister Modi’s visit to France earlier this year, he, along with French President Emmanuel Macron, visited the port city of Marseille.  President Macron highlighted Marseille’s strategic potential as a primary entry point into the European market, describing IMEC as a “fabulous catalyst” for “concrete projects and investment.”  Source : Indian Express KATHAK Category: ART & CULTURE Context: Celebrated Kathak dancer Kumudini Lakhia, aged 95, passed away in Ahmedabad weeks after receiving the Padma Vibhushan, India’s second-highest civilian award. Decoding the context: Lakhia was hailed for bringing group performances in Kathak, which was largely associated with solo renditions, to the mainstream. Learning Corner: Derived from the Sanskrit word ‘Katha’ (story), Kathak evolved from the tradition of Kathakars—storytellers who narrated mythological tales, primarily from the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Puranas, using music, dance, and mime. Historical Roots: Originated in North India, particularly in Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, and parts of Madhya Pradesh, during the Bhakti movement (8th-12th centuries CE). Evolution: Mughal Influence (16th-19th centuries): Kathak transitioned from temple to royal courts (e.g., Mughal darbars, Rajput palaces), incorporating Persian elements like intricate footwork and spins, patronized by rulers like Akbar and Wajid Ali Shah (Nawab of Awadh). Colonial Decline: British rule marginalized Kathak, labeling it frivolous, pushing it to private settings or courtesan performances (tawaifs). Post-Independence Revival: Recognized as a classical dance in the 1950s, with institutions like Sangeet Natak Akademi and gurus formalizing its pedagogy. Gharanas: Distinct schools shaping Kathak’s style: Lucknow: Emphasizes grace (nazakat), expression (abhinaya), and storytelling. Jaipur: Focuses on vigorous footwork, complex rhythms (taal), and technical precision. Banaras: Balances footwork and narrative, with unique chakkars (spins). Key Features Structure: Nritta: Pure dance with intricate footwork (tatkar), spins (chakkars), and rhythmic patterns, synchronized with percussion (e.g., tabla, pakhawaj). Nritya: Expressive dance conveying emotions (bhava) and stories through facial expressions (abhinaya), hand gestures (mudras), and body movements. Music: Accompanied by Hindustani classical music (e.g., thumri, dadra, ghazal) and instruments like sitar, sarangi, and harmonium. Performance Elements: Signature moves include rapid spins (chakkars), precise footwork (tatkar), and dynamic pauses (tihai). Major Exponents: Bindadin Maharaj (Lucknow Gharana), Wajid Ali Shah, Birju Maharaj. Source : Hindustan Times PHAWNGPUI NATIONAL PARK Category: ENVIRONMENT Context: Forest fires that erupted in several parts of Phawngpui National Park, Mizoram, have affected nearly one-ninth of the park’s total area, according to state forest officials. Decoding the context: The fire originated from slash-and-burn (jhum) cultivation near Archhuang village on March 11, 2025, and spread into forest zones of the park. Learning Corner: Establishment: Notified as a National Park in 1997, though often cited as established in 1992 for conservation planning.

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) TPU, GPU AND CPU Category: SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: Google recently launched a new computer chip, called Ironwood. It is the company’s seventh-generation TPU, or tensor processing unit, which has been designed to run artificial intelligence (AI) models. Decoding the context: Processing units are essentially hardware units that are the brain of a computer. In this context, it is important to understand the difference between CPU, GPU and TPU. Learning Corner: About CPU (Central Processing Unit) Developed in the 1950s, a CPU is a general-purpose processor that can handle various tasks. A CPU has at least a single core — the processing unit within the CPU that can execute instructions. In the initial years, CPUs used to have just one core but today, they can contain from two to up to 16 cores. As each core of the CPU can handle one task at a time, the ability to multitask is determined by the number of cores in the hardware. About GPU (graphics processing unit) Unlike a CPU, a GPU is a specialised processor (it is a type of application-specific integrated circuit, or ASIC) which has been designed to perform multiple tasks concurrently rather than sequentially (like in a CPU).  Modern GPUs comprise thousands of cores which break down complex problems into thousands or millions of separate tasks and work them out in parallel, a concept known as parallel processing. This makes GPUs far more efficient than CPUs. Initially developed for graphics rendering in gaming and animation, GPUs today are far more flexible and have become the bedrock of machine learning. About TPU (Tensor Processing Unit) A TPU is also a type of ASIC, meaning it is designed to perform a narrow scope of intended tasks. First used by Google in 2015, TPUs were specially built to accelerate machine learning workloads. TPUs are engineered to handle tensor — a generic name for the data structures used for machine learning — operations. They excel in processing large volumes of data and executing complex neural networks efficiently, enabling fast training of AI models.  While AI models can take weeks to be trained with the help of GPUs, the same process can be executed within hours using TPUs. Source : Indian Express INDIAN PLATE Category: GEOGRAPHY Context: Recent findings reveal that the Indian Plate is splitting into two, a phenomenon that could reshape the region’s geological landscape.  Decoding the context:  Published in the American Geophysical Union, this groundbreaking discovery points to delamination, where the plate is peeling apart and sinking into the Earth’s mantle.  Learning Corner: The Indian Plate is a tectonic plate encompassing the Indian subcontinent, parts of the Indian Ocean, and regions of South China and western Indonesia, extending up to but excluding Ladakh, Kohistan, and Balochistan.  Originally part of the supercontinent Gondwana, it broke away approximately 100 million years ago and began its northward journey, shaping the geological features of South Asia. Boundaries: North: Convergent boundary with the Eurasian Plate, forming the Himalayas. West: Transform boundary with the Arabian Plate (Owen Fracture Zone). Southwest: Divergent boundary with the African Plate (Central Indian Ridge). Southeast: Formerly fused with the Australian Plate as the Indo-Australian Plate, but recent studies suggest separation for at least 3 million years due to differing drift velocities. Movement: Currently moves northeast at 5 cm/year, while the Eurasian Plate moves north at 2 cm/year, causing compression at 4 mm/year and deformation of the Eurasian Plate. Thickness: Estimated at 100 km, half the thickness of other Gondwana-derived plates, possibly due to mantle plume activity that melted its lower part, enabling faster movement. Historical Evolution Gondwana Breakup (140–100 Mya): The Indian Plate was part of Gondwana, alongside modern Africa, Australia, Antarctica, and Madagascar. Around 100 million years ago, it split from Madagascar, forming Insular India, an island continent. Northward Journey: Moving at up to 20 cm/year, one of the fastest plate movements recorded, it collided with the Eurasian Plate between 55–35 million years ago during the Eocene epoch, forming the Himalayas and Tibetan Plateau. Deccan Traps: As it passed over the Reunion hotspot ~65 million years ago, massive volcanic activity formed the Deccan Traps, potentially contributing to the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event. Recent studies, reveal that the Indian Plate is undergoing delamination, a process where its dense lower layer (mantle rock) peels away from the buoyant upper layer (continental crust) and sinks into the Earth’s mantle. This phenomenon, observed beneath the Tibetan Plateau, is reshaping geological understanding. Source : Science RARE EARTH MAGNETS Category: SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: China has reportedly suspended exports of vital minerals and magnets, triggering concerns of widespread disruptions for global industries ranging from automotive and aerospace to semiconductors and defense. Decoding the context: The move is seen as retaliation for escalating US tariffs. Learning Corner: Rare Earth Magnets are permanent magnets that generate a magnetic field without external power, using alloys of REEs like neodymium, praseodymium, dysprosium, and samarium, combined with metals like iron, cobalt, or boron.  They are the strongest permanent magnets available, with high magnetic strength, durability, and resistance to demagnetization. Types: Neodymium-Iron-Boron (NdFeB) Magnets: Composition: Neodymium, iron, boron. Features: Highest magnetic strength, used in electric vehicles (EVs), wind turbines, hard disk drives, and drones. Limitations: Susceptible to corrosion, lower temperature resistance (up to 230°C). Samarium-Cobalt (SmCo) Magnets: Composition: Samarium, cobalt. Features: High-temperature stability, corrosion resistance, used in aerospace, military, and medical equipment. Key REEs Used: Neodymium (Nd): Most critical for NdFeB magnets, used in EVs and wind turbines. Praseodymium (Pr): Enhances magnet performance, often used with neodymium. Dysprosium (Dy): Improves high-temperature performance, critical for heavy REE applications. Samarium (Sm): Key for SmCo magnets, vital for defense systems. Applications: Defense: Permanent magnets in missile guidance systems, radar, sonar, and underwater mine detection. Renewable Energy: NdFeB magnets in wind turbine rotors and EV motors. Consumer Electronics: Used in smartphones, hard disk drives, digital cameras, and audio equipment. Medical: SmCo magnets in MRI machines and surgical lasers. Strategic: Critical for space shuttle components, jet engines, and robotics. Source : Times of India KAVACH Category: SCIENCE

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) CHETTUR SANKARAN NAIR Category: HISTORY Context: Prime Minister Narendra Modi attacked the Congress for having “abandoned” the memory of Chettur Sankaran Nair, who resigned as the sole Indian on the Viceroy’s Executive Council after the Jallianwala Bagh massacre of 1919. Decoding the context: Chettur Sankaran Nair is the subject of an upcoming film called Kesari Chapter 2. The film is an adaptation of the 2019 book, The Case That Shook the Empire: One Man’s Fight for the Truth about the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre. Learning Corner: Chettur Sankaran Nair was a prominent Indian jurist, statesman, and nationalist leader during the British Raj, remembered for his bold criticism of British policies and his advocacy for Indian rights. Born on July 11, 1857, in Mankara village, Palakkad district, Malabar (now Kerala), into an aristocratic Chettur family following matrilineal succession. Graduated with an Arts degree (1877) from Presidency College, Madras, and earned a Law degree (1879) from Madras Law College. Served as Public Prosecutor (1899) and Advocate-General of Madras (1906–1908), a rare position for an Indian. Appointed puisne judge at the Madras High Court (1908–1915), contributing landmark judgments: Budasna v. Fatima (1914): Ruled converts to Hinduism cannot be treated as outcastes, promoting social inclusion. Upheld inter-caste and inter-religious marriages, reflecting progressive values. An early member of INC (founded 1885), Nair was elected its President in 1897 at the Amravati session, the youngest ever and the only Malayali to hold the post. Appointed to the Raleigh University Commission (1902) by Lord Curzon, influencing education policy. Viceroy’s Executive Council: Served as Education Member (1915–1919), the only Indian in the council, pushing for constitutional reforms. Supported the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1918), introducing dyarchy for greater Indian participation, though he sought more liberal provisions. Simon Commission (1928): Chaired the Indian Central Committee to cooperate with the Simon Commission, preparing a report reiterating Dominion Status. Role in Jallianwala Bagh Aftermath – Resignation in Protest: As the sole Indian in the Viceroy’s Executive Council, Nair was appalled by the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919), where British troops under Reginald Dyer killed hundreds. Resigned in July 1919, protesting the British justification of martial law in Punjab under Michael O’Dwyer, despite advice from Motilal Nehru to stay and reform from within. His resignation shocked the British, leading to the revocation of martial law and amplifying nationalist sentiments. Gandhi and Anarchy (1922): Authored the book, critiquing both Gandhi’s Non-Cooperation Movement (fearing it would lead to disorder) and British repression, especially O’Dwyer’s Punjab policies. Accused O’Dwyer of abetting the massacre, sparking a defamation lawsuit in London (1924). O’Dwyer v. Nair Trial: Sued by O’Dwyer in the King’s Bench, London, Nair faced a biased system.He Lost the case and was ordered to pay £500 in damages; he refused to apologize, choosing principle over compromise. Source : Indian Express ARTICLE 143 Category: POLITY Context: A key takeaway from the Supreme Court’s judgment in the Tamil Nadu Governor case is its observation that when a Governor reserves a Bill for the President’s assent on grounds of perceived unconstitutionality, the President ought to seek the Supreme Court’s opinion. Decoding the context: The Court noted that both the Sarkaria Commission and the Punchhi Commission categorically recommended the President to seek the opinion of this Court under Article 143 in respect of bills that may be apprehended to be patently unconstitutional. Learning Corner: Article 143 of the Indian Constitution grants the President the power to seek advisory opinions from the Supreme Court on matters of public importance. This advisory jurisdiction allows the President to consult the Supreme Court on questions of law or fact. The April 8, 2025 judgement, says that, invoking Article 143, the President “ought to” seek its opinion where the Governor has reserved the Bill for his/her consideration on the ground of “perceived unconstitutionality.” Acknowledging that it’s not mandatory for the government to accept its opinion, the SC added that the same “holds high persuasive value and should ordinarily be accepted by the legislature and the executive” and “merely because the jurisdiction under Article 143 is not binding does not undermine the principles used by this Court to determine the constitutionality of the bill.” The ruling also spoke of the manner in which the SC would exercise its power in case of such a reference.  Ruling said that the court “in such situations…has to be mindful as to whether the reference received from the President under Article 143 pertains to pure legal questions regarding interpretation of the Constitution or questions that are in the nature of a policy consideration. In case of the latter, the Supreme Court, having regard to the relevant facts and circumstances, can refuse to express its advisory opinion upon being satisfied that the questions presented to it are purely socio-economic or political questions and have no relation to the Constitution.” Source : Indian Express DR. B.R. AMBEDKAR Category: HISTORY Context: April 14 marked the birth anniversary of Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar. Decoding the context: Fondly known as Babasaheb, Ambedkar was the chief architect of the Indian Constitution and is thus also called the ‘Father of the Indian Constitution. Ambedkar was also the first Law and Justice minister of Independent India. Learning Corner: Personal Details Born: April 14, 1891, in Mhow, Central Provinces (now Madhya Pradesh). Born into a Mahar (Dalit) family, faced caste discrimination. Died: December 6, 1956, in Delhi; cremated with Buddhist rites at Chaitya Bhoomi, Mumbai. Bharat Ratna: Awarded posthumously in 1990. Education First Dalit student at Elphinstone High School, Bombay Graduation: B.A. in Economics and Political Science (1912), Elphinstone College, University of Bombay. M.A., Ph.D.: Columbia University, New York, USA (1915, 1916; thesis: National Dividend of India). D.Sc.: London School of Economics (1923; thesis: The Problem of the Rupee). Bar-at-Law: Gray’s Inn, London (1923). Scholarships: Supported by Sayajirao Gaekwad III (Baroda ruler) for foreign education. Key Movements: Mahad Satyagraha (1927): Led for Dalits’ right to access Chavdar Tank water in Mahad, Maharashtra. Kalaram Temple Entry (1930): Protest for Dalits’ temple access in Nashik. Poona Pact (1932): Agreement with Gandhi,

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) GUJARAT PARTICULATE MATTER (PM) EMISSION TRADING SCHEME (ETS) Category: ENVIRONMENT Context: A new study on the world’s first-ever market for trading particulate emissions, which are tiny particles that can impact human health, revealed that employing the market mechanism helped reduce pollution by 20-30 per cent in an industrial cluster in Surat. Decoding the context: Published in the Quarterly Journal of Economics, the study saw researchers compare the emissions performance of participating plants with those complying with the business-as-usual pollution standards. It covered 162 plants, predominantly in the textile sector. Learning Corner: The Gujarat Particulate Matter (PM) Emission Trading Scheme (ETS), launched in Surat in 2019, is the world’s first market-based system for trading Particulate Matter (PM) emissions, aimed at reducing industrial air pollution. Key Points on Gujarat PM ETS Initiated on June 5, 2019 (World Environment Day) by the Gujarat Pollution Control Board (GPCB) in Surat, a textile and industrial hub. World’s first ETS for PM emissions, unlike carbon or SO₂ trading systems (e.g., EU ETS, Kyoto Protocol) and India’s first for any pollutant. Developed by: Gujarat Pollution Control Board (GPCB) in collaboration with the Energy Policy Institute at the University of Chicago (EPIC), Yale University, and Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab (J-PAL). Mechanism (Cap-and-Trade): Cap: Sets a total PM emission limit (initially 280 tonnes/month, reduced to 170 tonnes by 2022) for participating industries. Permits: 80% of permits allocated free based on emission sources (boilers, heaters); 20% auctioned at ₹5-100/kg. Trading: Industries exceeding caps buy permits from those under limits via the National Commodities and Derivatives Exchange (NeML). Monitoring: Continuous Emission Monitoring Systems (CEMS) track real-time PM emissions, replacing manual inspections. Source : Indian Express ADARSH SANSKRIT VILLAGE PROGRAMME Category: GOVERNMENT SCHEMES Context: The Uttarakhand cabinet approved the Adarsh Sanskrit village programme, which aims to teach the language to one village in each district of the hill state. Decoding the context:  The move is aimed at promoting Sanskrit, the second official language of the state, and comes on the heels of other similar schemes, such as financial incentives to girls and SC/ST students who opt for Sanskrit in schools. Learning Corner: The Adarsh Sanskrit Village Programme is an initiative by the Uttarakhand government to promote Sanskrit, the state’s second official language, by integrating it into the daily life of one village in each of the state’s 13 districts.  Objectives of the Adarsh Sanskrit Village Programme Promote Sanskrit as a Living Language: Encourage villagers to use Sanskrit in daily conversations, greetings, and community activities, moving beyond its traditional confinement to academic or religious contexts. Make Sanskrit as familiar as local languages like Hindi, Garhwali, or Kumaoni. Preserve Cultural Heritage: Connect communities with Indian philosophy and knowledge systems embedded in Sanskrit texts, fostering an understanding of Dharma Shastras, epics (e.g., Mahabharata, Ramayana), and other cultural works. Counter the perception that Sanskrit is tied to specific castes or communities, promoting inclusivity across social groups, including Muslims, Dalits, and tribals. Educational and Social Development: Teach Sanskrit through structured courses, shlokas, and stories from texts like the Panchatantra and Durga Saptashati, making learning accessible and engaging. Promote social values through Sanskrit-based education. Create employment opportunities by linking Sanskrit proficiency to industry needs, supported by industry associations. Status of Sanskrit in India Sanskrit is one of the oldest known Indo-Aryan languages, forming the basis of Vedic literature, Hindu philosophy, and classical Indian sciences (Ayurveda, Astronomy, Mathematics). As per Census 2011, only about 24,821 people reported Sanskrit as their mother tongue. It is more commonly used as a second or third language, especially in religious, academic, and traditional contexts. There are a few Sanskrit-speaking villages, especially in Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, and Uttarakhand (e.g., Mattur in Karnataka, Jhiri in Madhya Pradesh) Sanskrit is one of the 22 scheduled languages listed in the Eighth Schedule, added in the original Constitution of 1950. Article 351 directs the Union to promote Hindi as a link language while enriching it with vocabulary from other Indian languages, primarily Sanskrit. Source : Indian Express COUNTERCYCLICAL CAPITAL BUFFER Category: ECONOMY Context: The Reserve Bank of India, in its review of requirement of counter-cyclical capital buffer on Tuesday said it has decided against activating countercyclical capital buffer (CCyB) as it is not needed in the present circumstances.  Decoding the context: Counter-Cyclical Capital Buffer (CCyB) is a macroprudential tool mandated under the Basel III framework to enhance the resilience of banks during economic cycles. Learning Corner: CCyB is an additional capital buffer (0-2.5% of risk-weighted assets) that banks must hold during periods of excessive credit growth to prevent systemic risks. It aims to: Strengthen banks against potential losses during economic downturns. Moderate credit booms to prevent asset bubbles. Mechanism: Activation: RBI activates CCyB when credit growth (e.g., high credit-to-GDP gap) signals systemic risk, requiring banks to build capital reserves. Deactivation: During downturns, RBI reduces or removes CCyB, freeing capital to support lending and economic recovery. Capital is held as Common Equity Tier 1 (CET1), ensuring high-quality reserves. Source : Business Standard BOMBAY STOCK EXCHANGE (BSE) Category: ECONOMY Context: The Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE), Asia’s oldest stock exchange, marked a historic milestone as it celebrated its 150th anniversary, and Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman was the chief guest at the celebration. Decoding the context: Nirmala Sitharaman lauded the Bombay Stock Exchange’s (BSE) technological advancements and its vital role in India’s economic development. Learning Corner: Founded in 1875 as the “Native Share & Stock Brokers’ Association” in Mumbai, BSE is India’s first stock exchange. BSE evolved from informal trading to a modern, technology-driven exchange, symbolizing India’s financial growth. Structure and Governance: A corporate entity since 2005, listed on the National Stock Exchange (NSE) in 2017. Regulated by the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI), ensuring transparency and investor protection. Key Functions: Facilitates trading in equities, derivatives, mutual funds, and bonds, with over 5,500 listed companies (2025). Hosts the BSE SENSEX, India’s benchmark index of 30 major companies, reflecting market trends. Processes 1,500 crore orders daily and 14 lakh orders per second, with transactions