Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) OILFIELDS (REGULATION AND DEVELOPMENT) AMENDMENT BILL, 2024 Syllabus: Mains – GS 2 & GS 3 Context: Rajya Sabha recently passed the Oilfields (Regulation and Development) Amendment Bill, 2024. Background: – The Bill amends the Oilfields (Regulation and Development) Act of 1948. It draws a clear line between the law governing the mining of “minerals” — defined under the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 — and the Oilfields Act. What is the Oilfields Bill? When the Oilfields Act was first passed it was known as the Mines and Minerals (Regulation and Development) Act, 1948. This sole legislation governed and regulated oilfields, mines and minerals until 1957, when the present-day Mines and Minerals Act came into force. To demarcate the spheres in which the two Acts would operate, the 1948 legislation was renamed the Oilfields (Regulation and Development) Act, 1948, and its language was amended to replace references to “minerals” with “mineral oils”. However, the Act does not define “mineral oil”, an oversight that the current Oilfields Bill aims to correct. Key provisions of the bill Expanded Definition of Mineral Oils: Includes unconventional hydrocarbons: coal bed methane, oil shale, shale gas, shale oil, tight gas, tight oil, and gas hydrates. Excludes coal, lignite, and helium occurring in the petroleum process. Petroleum Lease: It has been defined as a lease granted for “prospecting, exploration, development, production, making merchantable, carrying away or disposing of mineral oils”. Expanded Regulatory Powers of the Centre: Includes emission reduction, oilfield usage for green technologies (e.g., hydrogen production, carbon capture), lease mergers, and dispute resolution. Decriminalization of Offences: Shifts focus from criminal penalties to administrative fines for lease-related infractions. Raises fines  to ensure compliance. Opening No-Go Areas for Exploration: Allows exploration in previously restricted areas, such as near missile testing sites. Significance and Impact Boost to Domestic Output: Enhances exploration and production of both conventional and unconventional resources. Reduces reliance on oil imports, which currently outpace exports by threefold. Policy Stability for Producers: Enables efficient operations by reducing redundant approvals and providing a predictable regulatory environment. Green Energy Integration: Encourages use of oilfields for green initiatives like hydrogen production and carbon capture. Lays groundwork for future incentives to make decarbonization projects viable. Economic Implications: Streamlined processes improve private sector participation. Supports long-term goals of energy security and reduced import dependency. Source: Indian Express   LAKE EFFECT SNOW Syllabus: Prelims – GEOGRAPHY Context: Recently, parts of US north-east saw substantial snowfall thanks to a phenomenon known as “lake-effect snow”. Background: – Western New York state was hit particularly hard, with nearly 4ft (1.22m) of snow accumulating in just four days. In response to the heavy snowfall, New York and Pennsylvania declared states of emergency. Key takeaways Lake-effect snow is a weather phenomenon that occurs when cold air moves over relatively warmer lake waters. This process can lead to significant snowfall, especially in regions downwind of the lakes. Formation: Cold Air: Cold air moves over the warmer waters of large lakes. Moisture Uplift: The warm lake water heats the lower layer of air, causing it to rise. As the moist air rises, it cools and condenses, forming clouds. Snowfall: These clouds can produce heavy snowfall, often in narrow bands. The snowfall rates can exceed several inches per hour. Key Factors: Temperature Difference: A significant temperature difference between the lake surface and the air above is crucial for lake-effect snow formation. Wind Direction: The direction and speed of the wind determine where the snow bands will form and how far they will travel inland. Lake Size: Larger lakes, like the Great Lakes in North America, can produce more intense lake-effect snow. Examples: Great Lakes Region: The areas around the Great Lakes, such as Buffalo, New York, and parts of Michigan, often experience significant lake-effect snow. Other Locations: Similar phenomena can occur near other large lakes, such as the Great Salt Lake in Utah and Lake Baikal in Russia. Source: Guardian MAHAPARINIRVAN DIWAS Syllabus: Prelims – HISTORY Context: Mahaparinirvan Diwas is observed annually on December 6 to commemorate the death anniversary of Bharat Ratna Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar. Background: According to Buddhist texts, Lord Buddha’s death is considered to be Mahaparinirvan, the Sanskrit term for ‘nirvana after death’. Parinirvan is considered liberation from Samara, karma, and the cycle of death and birth. Ambedkar’s followers believe he was as influential as Lord Buddha, which is why his death anniversary is observed as Mahaparinirvan Divas.  Key takeaways Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, born on April 14, 1891, in Mhow, Madhya Pradesh, dedicated his life to uplifting marginalized communities who faced systemic social discrimination. He proposed revolutionary steps to empower the oppressed, including reservations in education, employment, and politics.  He launched the newspaper Mooknayaka (Leader of the Silent) to amplify the voices of the downtrodden. He established the Bahishkrit Hitkarini Sabha (Outcastes Welfare Association) in 1923 to spread education, improve economic conditions, and address societal inequalities.  His leadership in historic movements such as the Mahad March (1927) for access to public water and the temple entry movement at Kalaram Temple (1930) challenged caste hierarchies and priestly dominance. Dr. B R Ambedkar’s pivotal role in the Poona Pact of 1932, which replaced separate electorates with reserved seats for Dalits, marked a turning point in India’s fight for social justice. Ambedkar’s doctoral thesis inspired the establishment of the Finance Commission of India. At the same time, his ideas were instrumental in framing the guidelines for the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) Act, 1934. He was one of the founders of Employment Exchanges in our country.  He championed systemic advancements such as the foundation of Employment Exchanges, the establishment of the National Power Grid System, and pivotal projects like the Damodar Valley Project, Hirakud Dam Project, and Sone River Project, showcasing his foresight in infrastructure and resource management. As Chairman of the Constitution Drafting Committee, Ambedkar played a pivotal role in crafting the Indian Constitution, presenting a draft in 1948 that was adopted with minimal changes. Dr. BR Ambedkar’s multifaceted contributions from economic policy and infrastructure to constitutional law cemented his legacy as a nation-builder, committed to fostering a just and equitable India. Source:

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) AFRICA IN THE SPOTLIGHT Syllabus: Mains – GS 1 & GS 2 Context: During his recent visit to Nigeria, Prime Minister Narendra Modi emphasised India’s increasing engagement with the African continent. Background: – The Prime Minister highlighted Nigeria’s potential as a major hub for Africa’s development. He also noted that in the last five years, India has opened 18 new embassies across Africa, reflecting its commitment to fostering deeper ties. Key takeaways Africa is the world’s second-largest continent, covering about 20 per cent of Earth’s land area and 6 per cent of its total surface area.  As the second-most-populous continent, Africa’s population of approximately 1.52 billion accounts for about 18 per cent of the world’s population. Algeria is Africa’s largest country by area, and Nigeria is its largest by population. Notably, Africa’s population is the youngest, with a median age of 19.2 years, in comparison to the global average of 30.6 years.  Moreover, urbanisation is occurring at a rapid rate in Africa, reflecting on the trend of urban migration driven by economic opportunities and population growth.  Several factors such as geographic challenges, climate change, colonialism, the Cold War’s lingering impacts, neocolonialism and corruption contribute to Africa’s economic miseries. Despite challenges, Africa hosts some of the fastest-growing economies such as Ethiopia, Rwanda, and Ghana.  Economic expansion, vast natural resources (like oil, gas, minerals, and arable land), and the young population make Africa a vital region for the world.   Africa is one of the most biodiverse regions in the world. However, this rich biodiversity is under threat due to various environmental issues such as desertification, deforestation, water scarcity, and pollution. Climate change further amplifies these concerns.  The UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has identified Africa as the most vulnerable continent due to its low adaptive capacity, economic reliance on climate-sensitive sectors, and widespread poverty. Scramble for Africa The transatlantic slave trade between 15th and 19th centuries transported an estimated 7–12 million Africans to the New World (the Americas). Africans were primarily transported to work as laborers in mines or fields or on plantations (sugar, tobacco, and cotton).  Driven largely by the economic demands of the Second Industrial Revolution during the 19th and 20th centuries, rapid conquest and colonisation of most of the African continent by seven Western European powers occurred, often referred to as the “Scramble for Africa”.  The phenomenon resulted in nearly 90 per cent of Africa falling under European control by 1914, drastically reshaping the continent’s political, economic, and social landscapes. In 1870, only about 10 per cent of the continent was formally under European control (primarily coastal regions). The 1884 Berlin Conference, organised by Otto von Bismarck, regulated European colonisation and resulted in the “scramble” by dividing African territories among European powers and drawing arbitrary borders. Current challenges The continent currently faces multiple challenges like poverty, deprivation, epidemics, control of natural resources, conflict, civil strife and insurgencies. It is also becoming a battleground for global power struggle.  Almost every global and emerging power has established institutional mechanisms to regularly engage the continent, like FOCOC (Forum on China-Africa Cooperation) by China, TICAD (Tokyo International Conference on African Development) by Japan and IAFS (India-Africa Forum Summit) by India.  Source: Indian Express   MAURYAN EMPIRE Syllabus: Prelims – HISTORY Context: The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has resumed excavations at Kumhrar Park in Patna. It hides an ancient architectural marvel – stumps and pits where 80 sandstone pillars once stood, holding up what was possibly a Buddhist assembly hall from the Mauryan era. Background: – In 2004-2005, ASI had covered up the area with soil after the rising water table submerged the pillar stumps. Now, 20 years later, the ASI has decided to uncover the pillars that are a key part of the evidence linking Pataliputra, the seat of the Mauryan empire, to present-day Patna. Historians believe that it was here, in this open-air hall, with its 80 pillars standing on a wooden floor and holding up a wooden ceiling, that Emperor Ashoka, who ruled between 268 and 280 BCE, called a decisive meeting of the third Buddhist Council to unify the faction-ridden Buddhist sangha. Key Milestones and Rulers of Mauryan Empire Chandragupta Maurya (322 BCE – 297 BCE) Established the Mauryan Empire after overthrowing the Nanda Dynasty with the help of Chanakya (Kautilya). United most of India under one centralized administration, creating the first pan-Indian empire. Defeated Seleucus Nicator (305 BCE) in the northwest and signed a treaty, receiving territories like Afghanistan and Baluchistan. Retired and became a Jain monk in his later years. Bindusara (297 BCE – 273 BCE) Expanded the empire further into southern India (except Tamil Nadu and Kerala). Maintained diplomatic relations with the Hellenistic world. Known as Amitraghata (Slayer of Enemies) in Greek accounts. Ashoka the Great (268 BCE – 232 BCE) Consolidated and expanded the empire to its greatest extent, covering almost all of the Indian subcontinent. Famous for the Kalinga War (261 BCE), after which he embraced Buddhism due to its horrors. Promoted Buddhism across Asia and sent missionaries to Sri Lanka, Central Asia, and Southeast Asia. Convened the Third Buddhist Council at Pataliputra. Issued Edicts of Ashoka inscribed on pillars and rocks, spreading messages of Dhamma (righteousness). Administrative and Economic Features Capital: Pataliputra (modern-day Patna). Centralized Administration: A highly organized bureaucracy with provincial governors. Revenue System: Land revenue as the main source of income. Army: A large standing army and a well-organized spy system. Economic Growth: Encouraged trade and commerce; the empire had a well-maintained road system like the Grand Trunk Road. Decline of the Mauryan Empire Weak successors after Ashoka led to decentralization. The empire collapsed in 185 BCE after the assassination of the last ruler, Brihadratha, by his general Pushyamitra Shunga, who established the Shunga Dynasty. Source: Indian Express AKAL TAKHT Syllabus: Prelims – HISTORY Context: President of the Shiromani Akali Dal (SAD) Sukhbir Singh Badal faced an attempt on life at the entrance of the Golden Temple where he was on guard duty (as punishment). Background: The former Deputy

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) COPYRIGHT ACT Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: Recently, Dhanush sent a legal notice to Nayanthara, demanding Rs. 10 crore for allegedly infringing the copyright over a movie. Background: – The Copyright Act, 1957 is a comprehensive legal framework in India that governs copyright protection and enforcement. The Act has been amended multiple times, with significant amendments in 1983, 1984, 1992, 1994, 1999, and 2012. Key provisions of the Copyright Act Copyright grants exclusive rights to the creator of original works such as literary, artistic, musical, or dramatic works, including films, computer programs, and sound recordings. The Act provides the owner with economic and moral rights: Economic Rights: Right to reproduce, distribute, communicate to the public, and adapt the work. Moral Rights: Right to claim authorship and object to distortion or mutilation of the work. Duration of Copyright Protection: Literary, Artistic, Dramatic, and Musical Works: Life of the author + 60 years. Cinematograph Films, Sound Recordings, and Anonymous Works: 60 years from the year of publication. The law provides protection to the transformative work which is a creative/ artistic work that takes existing material (text, music, art) and significantly modifies, reinterprets, or builds upon it to create something new and distinct. For example, the comedy group AIB’s 2015 spoof video ‘Every Bollywood Party song’ starring the late actor Irrfan, was a parody of rapper Yo Yo Honey Singh’s ‘Party all night’, and it would not amount to infringement as it can be termed as inspired work. According to the copyright law, no exclusive intellectual property rights apply to creative works in the public domain. So, the Old Testament and New Testament, or the King James Version (KJV) of the Bible, one of the most widely used translations of the Bible, are not protected by copyright. Similarly, the Ramayana and Mahabharata are not protected by copyright, but the television series Ramayana created by Ramanand Sagar or B R Chopra’s Mahabharata are “transformative works” that are protected. Copyright infringement: A copyrighted work will be considered “infringed” only if a substantial part is made use of without authorisation. Section 52 lists acts that don’t constitute infringement, even in cases where one has a copyright over the work. Section 52(1)(a) exempts “a fair dealing with any work” from being termed “infringement” if it’s for private or personal use, like research, criticism or review, or reporting of current events and affairs. Source: Indian Express   MARBURG VIRUS DISEASE (MVD) Syllabus: Prelims – SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: The World Health Organisation (WHO) has issued a warning for the Marburg virus disease. Background: – An outbreak of deadly Marburg virus disease (MVD), often referred to as the ‘bleeding eye virus’, has killed at least 15 people, and infected at least 66 in Rwanda. Key takeaways The Marburg virus is a highly infectious pathogen that causes severe hemorrhagic fever in humans and non-human primates. Causative Agents: The Marburg virus (MARV) and Ravn virus (RAVV) are the causative agents of Marburg virus disease (MVD). Family: Both viruses belong to the Filoviridae family, which also includes the Ebola virus. First Detection: The virus was first identified in 1967 in Marburg and Frankfurt, Germany, and in Belgrade, Serbia, during laboratory work with African green monkeys imported from Uganda. Transmission: Natural Host: The natural host of the Marburg virus is the Egyptian fruit bat (Rousettus aegyptiacus). Animal to Human: Direct contact with bat feces, saliva, or tissues of infected animals. Human-to-Human Transmission: The virus spreads among humans through direct contact with the blood, secretions, organs, or other bodily fluids of infected individuals. High-Risk Activities: Transmission can occur through close contact with infected individuals, contaminated objects, and during burial ceremonies involving direct contact with the body of the deceased. Symptoms: Initial Symptoms: High fever, severe headache, chills, muscle aches, and a rash with flat and raised bumps. Severe Symptoms: As the disease progresses, symptoms can include liver failure, delirium, shock, bleeding (hemorrhaging), and multi-organ dysfunction. Fatality Rate: The average case fatality rate is around 50%, but it can vary from 24% to 88% depending on the virus strain and case management. Diagnosis and Treatment: Diagnosis: MVD is diagnosed through blood tests such as ELISA or RT-PCR. Treatment: There is no specific antiviral treatment for MVD. Supportive care, including rehydration therapy and symptomatic management, improves survival. Preventive Measures: Preventive measures include avoiding contact with bats in mines or caves, using protective clothing, and isolating infected individuals. Source: Hindustan Times PM SURYA GHAR MUFT BIJLI YOJANA Syllabus: Prelims – CURRENT EVENT Context: Around 1.45 crore registrations have been made under the PM Surya Ghar Muft Bijli Yojana and 6.34 lakh installations completed, Parliament was informed recently. Background: As per official data, Gujarat has seen the maximum solar installations under the scheme at 2,86,545, followed by Maharashtra with 1,26,344 installations and Uttar Pradesh at 53,423. Key takeaways The PM Surya Ghar Muft Bijli Yojana is a Central Sector Scheme.  Launch Date: February 15, 2024. Objective: PM Surya Ghar Muft Bijli Yojana targets to achieve 1 crore rooftop solar installations in residential sector by FY27 with an outlay of Rs 75,021 crore. Key Features: Subsidy: The scheme offers a subsidy of 60% for systems up to 2 kW capacity and 40% for systems between 2 to 3 kW capacity. Free Electricity: Eligible households will receive up to 300 units of free electricity every month. Eligibility: Indian citizens who own a house with a suitable roof and have a valid electricity connection. Application Process: Interested households can register on the national portal, select their state and electricity distribution company, and apply for the rooftop solar system. Benefits: Financial Relief: Reduces electricity costs for households. Sustainable Energy: Promotes the use of renewable energy and reduces carbon emissions. Energy Independence: Enhances energy security by reducing reliance on traditional power sources. Model Solar Village Under the “Model Solar Village” component of the scheme, the focus is on establishing one Model Solar Village per district throughout India.  This initiative aims to promote solar energy adoption and empower village communities to achieve energy

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) DIGITAL AGRICULTURE MISSION Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: Gujarat became the first State in the country to generate Farmer IDs for 25% of the targeted number of farmers in the State. The Farmer ID is part of  Digital Agriculture Mission. Background: – A Farmer ID is a unique digital identity of farmers based on Aadhaar, linked dynamically to the State’s land records system, which means the Farmer ID gets automatically updated with the changes in the land record details of an individual farmer. Key provisions of the Copyright Act The Digital Agriculture Mission is designed as an umbrella scheme to support various digital agriculture initiatives. These include creating Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI), implementing the Digital General Crop Estimation Survey (DGCES), and supporting IT initiatives by the Central Government, State Governments, and Academic and Research Institutions. The scheme is built on two foundational pillars: Agri Stack Krishi Decision Support System. Additionally, the mission includes ‘Soil Profile Mapping’ and aims to enable farmer-centric digital services to provide timely and reliable information for the agriculture sector. AgriStack: Kisan ki Pehchaan AgriStack is designed as a farmer-centric Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) to streamline services and scheme delivery to farmers. It comprises three key components: 1. Farmers’ Registry 2. Geo-referenced village maps 3. Crop Sown Registry A crucial feature of AgriStack is the introduction of a ‘Farmer ID’, similar to Aadhaar card, serving as a trusted digital identity for farmers.  Krishi Decision Support System The Krishi Decision Support System (DSS) will integrate remote sensing data on crops, soil, weather, and water resources into a comprehensive geospatial system.  Soil Profile Mapping Under the mission, detailed soil profile maps on a 1:10,000 scale for approximately 142 million hectares of agricultural land have been envisaged, with 29 million hectares of soil profile inventory already being mapped. The Digital Agriculture Mission focuses on grassroots implementation, targeting farmers as the primary beneficiaries. Some of the key benefits of the mission include: Digital authentication for accessing services and benefits, reducing paperwork and the need for physical visits. Enhanced efficiency and transparency in government schemes, crop insurance, and loan systems through accurate data on crop area and yield. Crop map generation and monitoring for better disaster response and insurance claims. Development of digital infrastructure to optimize value chains and provide tailored advisory services for crop planning, health, pest management, and irrigation. Source: PIB   MARKHOR Syllabus: Prelims – ENVIRONMENT Context: A male markhor, one of the most elusive large mammals in India, was rescued by wildlife authorities after straying into Noorkhah village near Baramulla in north Kashmir.  Background: – The village, located close to the Kazinag National Park and the Line of Control, forms part of the species. Key takeaways The Markhor (Capra falconeri) is a large wild goat species native to the mountainous regions of South Asia and Central Asia, particularly in Pakistan, Afghanistan, and parts of India (Jammu and Kashmir). Conservation Status: Listed as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List since 2015. CITES: Listed under Appendix I, prohibiting international trade of the species. National Animal: The national animal of Pakistan, where it is also known as the “screw-horned goat” due to its distinctive corkscrew-shaped horns. Etymology: The name “Markhor” comes from the Pashto and Persian words meaning “snake-eater,” referencing an ancient belief that the Markhor would consume snakes. Physical Characteristics: Horns: Both males and females have tightly curled, corkscrew-like horns, with males’ horns growing up to 160 cm (63 in) long. Coat: The coat is grizzled, light brown to black in color, and varies in length and thickness with the seasons. Habitat: Elevation: They inhabit mountainous terrain between 600 and 3,600 meters (2,000 and 11,800 feet) in elevation. Environment: They are typically found in shrub forests with oaks, pines, and junipers. Behavior: Activity: Diurnal, with peak activity in the early morning and late afternoon. Diet: Herbivorous, grazing on grasses in spring and summer, and browsing on leaves and shoots in winter. Reproduction: Mating season occurs in winter, with males engaging in horn-locking fights to establish dominance. Threats: Habitat Loss: Deforestation and land conversion for agriculture. Illegal Wildlife Trade: Poaching for meat and prized horns. Predation: Natural predators include snow leopards, brown bears, lynxes, jackals, and golden eagle. Source: Times of India LONAR LAKE Syllabus: Prelims – GEOGRAPHY Context: The Maharashtra government plans to submit a proposal to the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) to include the famous Lonar Lake in Buldhana district in the Unesco World Heritage Sites list. Background: After reaching ASI, the proposal will undergo a detailed review before being submitted to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation. If accepted, Lonar Lake will become India’s 41st Unesco World Heritage Site, alongside iconic places like the Ajanta and Ellora Caves, Elephanta Caves, and Mumbai’s Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus. Key takeaways Lonar Lake is a geological and ecological marvel located in the Buldhana district of Maharashtra. Formation: Lonar Lake is a meteor crater lake formed approximately 50,000 years ago by a high-velocity meteor impact. Geological Significance: It is one of only four known hyper-velocity impact craters in basaltic rock on Earth. The other three basaltic impact structures are in southern Brazil. It is a notified National Geo-heritage Monument. National Geological Monuments are geographical areas of national importance and heritage, as notified by Geological Survey of India (GSI), for their maintenance, protection, promotion and enhancement of geotourism. Dimensions: The lake has a diameter of 1.2 kilometers (3,900 feet) and a depth of 150 meters (490 feet). Physical Characteristics: Water Composition: The lake’s water is both saline and alkaline, making it unique. It is seven times saltier than seawater. Color Variations: The lake’s color changes from green to pink depending on the season and water conditions, caused by microorganisms thriving in its saline and alkaline environment. Ramsar Site: Declared a Ramsar Wetland in November 2020, highlighting its ecological importance. Cultural Significance: Temples: The lake is surrounded by over 15 ancient temples, some dating back 1,200 years. The most significant temple is the Daitya Sudan temple, dedicated to Lord Vishnu. Local

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) OPPOSITION SET TO SUBMIT NOTICE FOR RESOLUTION TO IMPEACH DHANKHAR Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – POLITY Context: In an unprecedented move, about 60 Opposition MPs belonging to the INDIA bloc submitted a notice in New Delhi on Tuesday at the Rajya Sabha Secretary General P.C. Mody’s office, seeking the removal of the Chairperson of the Upper House, Vice President Jagdeep Dhankhar.  Background: – Alleging that Mr. Dhankhar, since assuming the office of Chairperson of the Rajya Sabha, had conducted the proceedings in an “extremely biased” manner, the Opposition members also presented a six-point “charge-sheet” against him in the notice. Key takeaways The Vice President of India can be removed from office through a resolution passed by Parliament under Article 67(b) of the Constitution. While often referred to as “impeachment,” the process for the Vice President’s removal is distinct from the impeachment process for the President. Constitutional Provisions Article 63: Establishes the office of the Vice President. Article 64: States that the Vice President is also the ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha. Article 67(b): Outlines the removal procedure of the Vice President. Procedure for Removal Initiation: The removal resolution must be moved in the Rajya Sabha. The motion must be signed by at least one-fourth of the total members of the Rajya Sabha. Notice Period: A 14-day prior notice is required before the motion is taken up for consideration. Special Majority: The resolution must be passed by a majority of all members of the Rajya Sabha  whose seats are not vacant and agreed to by the Lok Sabha through a simple majority (majority of members present and voting). Grounds for Removal The Constitution does not specify the grounds for the removal of the Vice President. It is left to the discretion of Parliament, making the process political rather than judicial. Comparison with Presidential Impeachment Impeachment of the President (Article 61) involves: Judicial Inquiry: Charges of violation of the Constitution. Special Procedure: A more stringent process requiring two-thirds majority in both Houses. In contrast, the removal of the Vice President is simpler and purely a parliamentary procedure. Key Point to Note The process has never been invoked in Indian history, reflecting the stability of the office and its largely ceremonial nature. Source: The Hindu   EXTENT OF THE GLOBAL SOLAR Syllabus: Mains – ENVIRONMENT Context: The World Solar Report 2024 by the International Solar Alliance (ISA) was released recently. Background: – From 1.22 GW in 2000, the world’s solar capacity has surged to 1,419 GW in 2023, charting a CAGR of about 36%. Today, solar capacity represents three-quarters of all renewable capacity additions worldwide. What are new solar technologies? Quantum dot solar cells have achieved a record-breaking efficiency of 18.1%. Researchers are creating self-healing solar panels to extend the lifespan and reduce the maintenance of existing solar cell technologies.  Solar-powered phyto-mining uses solar energy to power the extraction of valuable metals from soil-using plants, offering a sustainable alternative to traditional mining practices.  Solar paver blocks integrated with building infrastructure and BIPV (Building Integrated PV), like transparent solar panels, allow light transmission and visibility. The development of these alternative technologies will reduce reliance on critical materials like lithium and rare earth elements.  The solar sector is also prioritising recycling panels and implementing circular economy practices to minimise environmental impact. Have reducing costs helped? The 2024 World Solar Report shows that the average auction prices for utility-scale solar photovoltaic (PV) projects have consistently decreased across all regions. Utility-scale solar PV costs averaged $40/MWh in 2024.  India topped the global charts in solar PV capacity granted through auctions, securing a notable auction price of $34/MWh. As of 2023, China dominates solar PV as 43% (609 GW) of the cumulative capacity of solar panels installed globally is from China. The U.S. contributes 10% (137.73 GW). Japan, Germany, and India each captured a 5-6% share.  Has solar impacted other industries? Employment in the solar PV sector rose to 7.1 million jobs in 2023, up from 4.9 million in 2022 worldwide, underscoring the sector’s role in job creation and economic development.  Solar-powered irrigation systems are transforming agriculture. Agrivoltaics systems are being used in livestock management, with solar panels installed in pastures to provide shade for animals while simultaneously generating electricity.  One of the key factors driving the adoption of solar systems has been the introduction of pay-as-you-go business models, allowing users to pay for their systems in small, regular instalments. Technological advancements have made solar energy more affordable, while new applications are further driving adoption. Source: The Hindu UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION TO COMBAT DESERTIFICATION (UNCCD) Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – ENVIRONMENT Context: Indigenous peoples of the world have a very important role to play in combating desertification, the 16th Conference of Parties (COP16) to the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) recognised in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Background: Other COPs which resulted from the 1992 Earth Summit – United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and Convention on Biodiversity – have already recognised indigenous communities’ traditional wisdom. Key takeaways The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) is a global agreement aimed at addressing desertification, land degradation, and drought (DLDD), with a focus on sustainable land management and ecosystem restoration. Established: Adopted in 1994 and came into force in 1996. Objective: To combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought through national action programs (NAPs) that incorporate a bottom-up approach. Secretariat Headquarters: Bonn, Germany. It is one of the Rio Conventions, alongside the UNFCCC (Climate Change) and CBD (Biodiversity), adopted during the Earth Summit in 1992. Focus Areas: Prevention of desertification in drylands (arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas). Land degradation neutrality (LDN). Community participation and sustainable land management practices. Binding Treaty: It is the only legally binding international agreement linking environment, development, and land management. Strategic Framework: Current framework (2018–2030) aligns with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 15.3, which targets achieving a land degradation-neutral world. India and UNCCD India ratified the convention in 1996. Hosted the 14th Conference of Parties (COP

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) IMPEACHMENT OF HIGH COURT JUDGE Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – POLITY Context: The Opposition has started efforts to move an impeachment motion against Allahabad High Court judge Shekhar Kumar Yadav for his controversial statements at a recent Vishwa Hindu Parishad event. Background: – No High Court judge has been impeached in India so far. Constitutional Provisions Article 217: Deals with the appointment and conditions of service of High Court judges. Specifies that judges hold office until the age of 62 unless they resign, are impeached, or are removed. Article 218: The process of impeachment of a judge of the Supreme Court is laid down in Article 124(4) of the Constitution of India. Article 218 says the same provisions shall apply in relation to a judge of the High Court as well. Grounds for Removal: Proved misbehavior or incapacity. The procedure to be followed for impeachment of a judge is laid down in the Judges Inquiry Act, 1968. Procedure for Impeachment Initiation of Motion – A removal motion must be signed by: At least 100 members in the Lok Sabha, or At least 50 members in the Rajya Sabha.  Upon admission of the motion, an inquiry committee is formed. A three-member      committee is constituted, comprising: A Supreme Court judge. A Chief Justice of a High Court. An eminent jurist. The committee investigates the charges and submits its report. Parliamentary Approval: If the committee finds the judge guilty, both Houses of Parliament must pass the motion with a two-thirds majority of members present and voting, and the majority must be no less than 50% of the total membership of the House. President’s Order: Upon approval by both Houses, the President orders the removal of the judge. Important Points High Threshold: The impeachment process is deliberately complex to ensure judicial independence. Significant Cases: Justice Soumitra Sen of the Calcutta High Court faced impeachment proceedings but resigned before the process was concluded. Justice V. Ramaswami of the Supreme Court faced impeachment, but the motion failed in the Lok Sabha. Source: The Hindu   MALARIA Syllabus: Prelims – SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: According to the World Malaria Report 2024 by WHO, the South East Asia Region contributes about 1.5% of global malaria cases, with India accounting for nearly half of all estimated cases in the region in 2023.   Background: – New data from the WHO revealed that an estimated 2.2 billion cases of malaria and 12.7 million deaths have been averted since 2000, but the disease remains a serious global health threat, particularly in the WHO African Region. About Malaria Malaria is a life-threatening disease caused by Plasmodium parasites, transmitted to humans through the bites of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes. Not all Anopheles mosquitoes have malaria, but if they bite a person with malaria, they can become infectious. People do not spread malaria to other people, like the common cold or the flu. Also, malaria is not sexually transmitted. Because the parasites that cause malaria affect red blood cells, people can acatch malaria from exposure to infected blood, including: From mother to unborn child Through blood transfusions By sharing needles used to inject drugs Symptoms Fever, chills, headaches, muscle pain, vomiting. Severe cases: Organ failure, cerebral malaria, or death. Global Initiatives: WHO’s Global Technical Strategy for Malaria (2016-2030) aims to reduce global malaria cases by 90% by 2030. India’s Measures: National Malaria Control Programme (NMCP): Aims to eliminate malaria by 2030. National Vector Borne Disease Control Programme (NVBDCP): Comprehensive approach to combat mosquito-borne diseases. Use of insecticide-treated bed nets (ITNs), indoor residual spraying (IRS), and rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs). Vaccination: RTS,S/AS01 (Mosquirix): First malaria vaccine approved by WHO in 2021 for pilot projects in high-burden regions. Source: The Hindu CLIMATE IMPACT OF EXPLORING SPACE Syllabus: Mains – ENVIRONMENT Context: As the world becomes more reliant on space technology for vital functions like climate monitoring, the environmental consequences of space activities need more attention.  The rapid growth of the number of satellites in orbit has led to concerns about interference with climate monitoring systems and the accumulation of orbital debris.  Background: Space activities currently fall outside international sustainability instruments like the Paris Agreement. Key Concerns: Climate Change: Rocket emissions (CO2, black carbon, water vapor) contribute to global warming.    Chlorine-based propellants deplete the ozone layer.    Satellite re-entry and burn up releases metallic ash, potentially altering the atmosphere.    Energy-intensive satellite production and mining activities have significant carbon footprints.    Orbital Debris: Rapid growth of satellites and debris poses collision risks to functional satellites.    Debris interferes with scientific observations and communication systems.    Increases the cost and complexity of space missions.    Poses a threat to human-crewed missions. Challenges to Space Sustainability: Lack of International Regulation: No specific international regulations address space debris and environmental impact. Technological Limitations: Reusable rockets have limitations in terms of payload capacity and fuel efficiency.    Cleaner fuels like hydrogen and biofuels face challenges in production and storage. Biodegradable satellite materials lack durability for space environments. Autonomous debris removal technologies are expensive and require legal clarity. International Cooperation: Data sharing and coordination among nations are hindered by security and commercial concerns. Path Towards Space Sustainability: International Cooperation: International cooperation through bodies like the Committee on the Peaceful Use of Outer Space (COPUOS) is necessary to create enforceable standards. Standardize emission limits, debris mitigation, and data-sharing practices. Technological Innovation: Invest in research and development of cleaner fuels, biodegradable materials, and autonomous debris removal technologies.    Policy and Incentives: Implement strict regulations and incentives for sustainable space practices. Encourage public-private partnerships to accelerate technological advancements. Establish a global space traffic management system to monitor and coordinate satellite activities. Source: The Hindu EXPANSION OF UNIVERSE Syllabus: Prelims – SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: Two years of data from NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope has corroborated the observation by Hubble Telescope that the universe is expanding more rapidly than expected.  Background: – The observations by Webb, the most capable space telescope ever deployed, appear to rule out the notion that

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) PRINCIPLES OF JUDICIAL CONDUCT Syllabus: Mains – POLITY & ETHICS Context: The comments made by Allahabad High Court judge, Justice Shekhar Kumar Yadav, against the Muslim community at an event organised by the legal cell of the Vishwa Hindu Parishad has drawn public flak. Background: – The “Restatement of Values of Judicial Life” and “Bangalore Principles of Judicial Conduct 2002” presents ethical framework for  judicial conduct. Key takeaways The ‘Restatement of Values of Judicial Life’ is the primary code of ethics governing judicial behaviour adopted by the Supreme Court in 1997. The code comprises 16 points: Justice must not merely be done but it must also be seen to be done. Members of the judiciary must reaffirm the people’s faith in the impartiality of the judiciary. Accordingly, any act of a judge of the Supreme Court or a high court, whether in official or personal capacity, which erodes the credibility of this perception, has to be avoided. A judge should not contest the election to any office of a club, society or other association. Close association with individual members of the bar, particularly those who practice in the same court, shall be eschewed. A judge should not permit any member of his immediate family, if a member of the Bar, to appear before him or even be associated in any manner with a cause to be dealt with by him. No member of his family, who is a member of the Bar, shall be permitted to use the residence in which the judge actually resides or other facilities for professional work. A judge should practice a degree of aloofness consistent with the dignity of his office. A judge shall not hear and decide a matter in which a member of his family, a close relation or a friend is concerned. A judge shall not enter into public debate or express his views in public on political matters or on matters that are pending or are likely to arise for judicial determination. A judge is expected to let his judgments speak for themselves. He shall not give interviews to the media. A judge shall not accept gifts or hospitality except from his family, close relations and friends. A judge shall not hear and decide a matter in which a company in which he holds shares is concerned unless he has disclosed his interest and no objection to his hearing and deciding the matter is raised. A judge shall not speculate in shares, stocks or the like. A judge should not engage directly or indirectly in trade or business, either by himself or in association with any other person. A judge should not ask for, accept contributions or otherwise actively associate himself with the raising of any fund for any purpose. A judge should not seek any financial benefit in the form of a perquisite or privilege attached to his office unless it is clearly available.  Every judge must at all times be conscious that he is under the public gaze and there should be no act or omission by him which is unbecoming of the high office he occupies and the public esteem in which that office is held. About the Bangalore Principles of Judicial Conduct, 2002 Adoption: Drafted under the guidance of the United Nations, the principles were formally adopted at a judicial colloquium in Bangalore, India, in 2002. It is a set of universal principles and not legally binding but serves as a reference guide for judiciaries worldwide. Six Core Values: Independence: Judges must ensure independence from executive, legislative, and other external influences. Judicial independence is a precondition for the rule of law. Impartiality: Judges must remain unbiased in all cases, both in conduct and perception. They must avoid conflicts of interest or favoritism. Integrity: Upholding honesty and moral uprightness is fundamental for judicial trustworthiness. Propriety: Judges must maintain propriety in personal and professional conduct, avoiding behavior that diminishes public confidence. Equality: Fair treatment must be ensured regardless of race, gender, religion, or socio-economic background. Competence and Diligence: Judges must continuously update their legal knowledge and ensure efficient case management. Source: The Hindu   VAIKOM SATYAGRAHA Syllabus: Prelims – HISTORY Context: Kerala Chief Minister Pinarayi Vijayan and his Tamil Nadu counterpart, M.K. Stalin, came together at Vaikom in Kottayam district of Kerala to inaugurate the renovated memorial to Tamil reformist leader E.V. Ramasamy Naicker, fondly known as Thanthai Periyar. Background: – The programme marks the valedictory function of the centenary celebrations of the Vaikom Satyagraha in which Periyar E V Ramasamy Naicker actively participated. Key takeaways The Vaikom Satyagraha was a significant social reform movement in Kerala that aimed to challenge the practice of untouchability and secure temple entry rights for all, irrespective of caste.  Location: Vaikom, a town in present-day Kottayam district, Kerala. Issue: The temple roads around the Vaikom Mahadeva Temple were restricted for use by upper-caste Hindus, denying access to lower-caste communities. Larger Aim: Address caste-based discrimination and ensure equal rights in public spaces. Key Events: Start of the Movement (March 30, 1924): Led by leaders of the Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalana (SNDP) movement inspired by Sree Narayana Guru’s philosophy of “One Caste, One Religion, One God for Man.” Organized by leaders such as T.K. Madhavan, K. Kelappan, and A.K. Gopalan with support from the Indian National Congress. Participation of Mahatma Gandhi: Gandhi advised the satyagrahis to adopt non-violence and resolve the issue through negotiations and public awareness. Resolution: After prolonged protests, dialogues, and arrests of satyagrahis, partial success was achieved in 1925, with the opening of three out of four roads  (except the eastern road) surrounding the temple to people of all castes. Only in 1936, after the Temple Entry Proclamation, was access to the eastern road and entry into the temple allowed to the lower castes. Source: Statesman DISEASE X Syllabus: Prelims – SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: The recent outbreak reported in the first week of December 2024 in the Democratic Republic of Congo, which has claimed over 400 lives and remains unclassified, has raised concerns

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) NINE YEARS OF PARIS AGREEMENT Syllabus: Mains – GS 2 & GS 3 Context: The Paris Agreement was supposed to save the world from the worst impacts of climate change. But nine years after it was finalised — on December 12, 2015 — it is perhaps more fragile than ever, appearing increasingly ineffective and helpless  in containing worsening climate situation. Background: – The main goal of the Paris Agreement — holding global annual average temperatures within 1.5 degree Celsius of pre-industrial averages, two degrees Celsius in the worst case scenario — seems more distant than ever. Key takeaways In the nine years, annual global emissions have grown 8% from about 49 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent to 53 billion tonnes. Average annual global temperatures have increased from 1.1 degree Celsius above the pre-industrial average to 1.45 degree Celsius above that level. Erosion of Trust Among Developing Nations Unmet Financial Obligations: Developed countries failed to meet the $100 billion annual climate finance goal by 2020. A finance deal in Baku only proposed increasing this to $300 billion by 2035, which is grossly inadequate given the trillions needed annually by developing nations. Equity Concerns: The Paris Agreement replaced the Kyoto Protocol, which held developed countries primarily accountable for emissions reductions. The Kyoto Protocol had assigned specific emissions reduction targets on developed countries, but placed virtually no responsibilities on the rest of the world. The Paris Agreement mandated everyone to take climate actions, but only in a “nationally-determined” manner, essentially freeing developed countries of their assigned responsibilities. Geopolitical Dimensions Role of Developed Nations: Developed nations have consistently resisted stringent climate obligations, fearing economic repercussions. The United States’ potential withdrawal under Donald Trump’s presidency could further weaken global climate action. Emerging Economies: The growing economic power of countries like China has shifted the climate narrative, with developed nations demanding greater contributions from such nations while ignoring their historical emissions. Alternative Strategies by Developing Nations Vanuatu’s Initiative: The resolution passed by the UN General Assembly to seek the ICJ’s advice on defining countries’ climate obligations is a significant step by vulnerable nations. Small island nations aim to establish clearer legal consequences for failing to meet climate commitments. Source: Indian Express   SOCIAL DIALOGUE REPORT OF THE INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANISATION (ILO) Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – ECONOMY Context: The Social Dialogue Report of the International Labour Organisation (ILO), released recently, has recommended the governments to uphold fundamental principles and rights at work, especially freedom of association and the effective recognition of the right to collective bargaining. Background: – Report found that countries’ compliance with freedom of association and the effective recognition of the right to collective bargaining had deteriorated by 7% between 2015 and 2022.  Key takeaways What is Social Dialogue? Definition: Social dialogue refers to discussions, consultations, negotiations, and other interactions between governments, employers, and workers on issues related to economic and social policy. Purpose: To promote consensus-building, resolve workplace conflicts, and ensure equitable economic and social development. The International Labour Organisation (ILO), a United Nations agency, champions social dialogue as one of its four strategic objectives under the Decent Work Agenda. The Social Dialogue Report provides a global perspective on: The effectiveness of social dialogue in different countries. The role of tripartite structures (governments, employers, and workers) in promoting decent work. Best practices and challenges in achieving workplace harmony. Highlights of the Latest Social Dialogue Report: The report has highlighted the experience of Rajasthan that brought in the Platform Based Gig Workers (Registration and Welfare) Bill to provide for the establishment of the Rajasthan Platform Based Gig Workers Welfare Board. The report argues that social dialogue can enable countries to pursue economic development alongside social progress, while ensuring fair and inclusive low-carbon and digital transitions.  The ILO has also recommended the national social dialogue institutions (NSDIs) of various countries to expand their outreach to under-represented groups. Source: The Hindu PORT OF LATAKIA Syllabus: Prelims – GEOGRAPHY Context: Israel Defense Forces (IDF) has attacked Syria’s naval fleet at the ports of Al-Bayda and Latakia. Background: Attacks are part of Israel’s effort to neutralise military assets in the country after the fall of the Assad regime. Key Concerns: The Port of Latakia is a significant seaport located on the Mediterranean coast in the city of Latakia, Syria. When Syria became independent in 1945 it was the only seaport in the country.  Since 2019, Iran leases parts of the port of Latakia for civilian and military use. This was followed closely by Russia, which operates its only naval base in the Mediterranean in nearby Tartus. Source: BBC SCHENGEN AREA Syllabus: Prelims – GEOGRAPHY Context: Romania and Bulgaria will become full members of Europe’s Schengen free-travel area from next month. Background: – Although the Schengen agreements guarantee free travel, several members including Germany and the Netherlands have recently increased controls to stem illegal immigration. About Schengen Area The Schengen Area is a zone comprising 29 European countries that have officially abolished border controls at their mutual borders. Establishment: The Schengen Area was established on March 26, 1995. Member Countries: The Schengen Area includes 25 EU member states and 4 non-EU countries (Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, and Switzerland). Key Features: Free Movement: Citizens of Schengen countries can travel freely within the area without needing to show a passport or go through border checks. Common Visa Policy: The Schengen Area has a common visa policy, allowing travelers to use a single visa to visit multiple Schengen countries. External Borders: Schengen countries have harmonized controls at their external borders, ensuring security while allowing free movement within the area Significance: Economic Benefits: The Schengen Area facilitates trade and tourism, benefiting the economies of member states. Cultural Exchange: It promotes cultural exchange and strengthens ties between European countries. Security: Harmonized external border controls enhance security while maintaining the freedom of movement within the area. Source: Reuters JAL JEEVAN MISSION Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – ECONOMY Context: The Prime Minister recently emphasised that Jal Jeevan Mission was furthering women empowerment, especially in rural areas. Background: – PM Modi pointed out that

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) CARBON MARKET Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – ENVIRONMENT Context: COP29, held at Azerbaijan’s capital Baku, has given a fillip to the idea of using carbon markets to curb carbon emissions by approving standards that can help in the setting up of an international carbon market as soon as the coming year. Background: – Carbon credits were first used in the 1990s in the U.S. What is a carbon market? A carbon market allows the buying and selling of the right to emit carbon. Suppose a government wants to limit the amount of carbon emitted. It can issue certificates called carbon credits that allow certificate holders to emit a certain amount of carbon. One carbon credit is equivalent to 1,000 kilograms of carbon dioxide. By limiting the number of carbon credits that are issued, governments can control how much carbon is released into the environment. It should be noted that anyone who doesn’t hold carbon credits would not be allowed to emit any carbon into the atmosphere. Individuals and firms that hold carbon credits but don’t actually need them for any reason can sell their credits to interested buyers. The price is determined by market forces, which in this case are the supply of carbon credits and the demand for these certificates. A carbon market can also include the trading of carbon offsets. In this case, a business that pollutes the environment for example, can purchase carbon offsets sold by a NGO that promises to plant trees that suck a certain amount of carbon emissions out of the atmosphere for each offset that it sells. What is Good about Carbon Markets? Addresses Externalities: Carbon emissions are a negative externality where the cost of pollution is not accounted for in market prices. Carbon markets impose a financial cost on polluters, incentivizing firms to reduce emissions. Monetary Incentive to Reduce Pollution: Firms must purchase the right to pollute, encouraging them to minimize emissions to save costs. Improved Carbon Accounting: Technological advancements and standardized accounting frameworks have enhanced the ability of corporations to monitor and report emissions. Flexibility for Firms: Firms can purchase credits from others that don’t need them, optimizing resource allocation. What Can Go Wrong with Carbon Markets? Manipulation by Governments:  Governments disinterested in reducing emissions may flood the market with carbon credits, reducing their price and effectiveness. Conversely, excessive restrictions on carbon credits may unnecessarily slow economic growth. Cheating and Non-Compliance: Firms may find ways to cheat the system and emit carbon illegally without purchasing credits. Enforcement of compliance is critical for market success. Ineffective Carbon Offsets: Firms may invest in carbon offsets as a form of virtue signaling without ensuring they truly reduce emissions. Limited Incentives for Small Businesses: Small businesses, particularly in developing nations, face challenges in accurately monitoring emissions. Varied Production Processes: Diverse supply chains and production methods make it difficult to establish uniform carbon budgets for all facilities. Source: The Hindu   GOLAN HEIGHTS Syllabus: Prelims – GEOGRAPHY Context: Israel is set to double its population on the occupied Golan Heights while saying threats from Syria remained despite the moderate tone of rebel leaders who ousted President Bashar al-Assad a week ago. Background: – Israel captured most of the strategic plateau from Syria in the 1967 Six-Day War, annexing it in 1981. Key takeaways The Golan Heights is a strategically significant plateau located in southwestern Syria, bordered by Israel, Lebanon, and Jordan.  The Golan Heights covers an area of approximately 1,800 km². It is characterized by its hilly terrain and basaltic rock formations. The Golan Heights offers a vantage point overlooking the Jordan River valley and the Sea of Galilee. It is bordered by the Yarmouk river in the south and the Sea of Galilee in the west.  The hilly land is fertile, and the volcanic soil grows apple and cherry orchards as well as vineyards. The region has vital water sources that feed the Jordan River, including the Hasbani River, which flows from Lebanon and through the Golan. Population: The region has a population of around 55,000 people, including 24,000 Druze who identify as Syrians. Highest Point: The highest elevation is Mount Hermon, which stands at 2,814 meters (9,232 feet). Ottoman Rule: The Golan Heights came under Ottoman control in the 16th century and later became part of the French Mandate in Syria. Modern History: During the Six-Day War in 1967, Israel captured the Golan HeDuring the 1973 Arab-Israeli War, Syria attempted to take back the Golan Heights but failed to do so. In 1974, the UN got involved, deploying peacekeeping forces in the area after Israel and Syria signed an armistice. The Security Council established the UN Disengagement Observer Force (UNDOF) the same year as it tried to maintain a ceasefire and creating a ceasefire buffer zone in the area. As of April, 1,274 UN personnel are deployed in the Golan Heights. In 1981, Israel formally declared its annexation of the Golan Heights. In 2019, the US, under then-President Donald Trump, recognised Israeli sovreignty over the Golan Heights. The recognition still stands, even under President Joe Biden’s administration. Source: The Hindu OLIVE RIDLEY TURTLES Syllabus: Prelims – ENVIRONMENT Context: Carcasses of Olive Ridley turtles, which are currently in their breeding season, continue to wash ashore along the Visakhapatnam coast. Background: Environmental experts say that a majority of the deaths are due to marine pollution and trawling activities for catching fish. Key takeaways: The Olive Ridley Turtle (scientific name: Lepidochelys olivacea) is the smallest and most abundant sea turtle species in the world. Size: Olive Ridley turtles grow to about 2 feet in length and weigh around 50 kg. Habitat: They inhabit warm and tropical waters of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans. Appearance: They get their name from their olive-colored carapace (shell), which is heart-shaped and rounded. Carnivorous: Olive Ridley turtles are carnivores, feeding mainly on jellyfish, shrimp, snails, crabs, mollusks, and various fish and their eggs. Unique Behavior: Arribada: Olive Ridley turtles are best known for their unique mass nesting behavior called arribada, where thousands of females

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) EUROPEAN FREE TRADE ASSOCIATION (EFTA) Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: India said that its double taxation treaty with Switzerland may require renegotiation in view of its trade pact with the member states of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). Background: – The remarks from the Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) came after the Swiss government suspended the most favoured nation status (MFN) clause in the India-Switzerland Double Taxation Avoidance Agreement (DTAA). About European Free Trade Association (EFTA) EFTA is an intergovernmental organization of four member countries that are not part of the European Union (EU): Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, and Switzerland. The organization operates in parallel with the European Union (EU), and all four member states participate in the European single market and are part of the Schengen Area. EFTA vs. EU: While EFTA countries are not part of the EU, three of them (Iceland, Liechtenstein, and Norway) are part of the European Economic Area (EEA), which gives them access to the EU’s single market. Switzerland has bilateral agreements with the EU but is not in the EEA. India and EFTA recently signed a landmark trade agreement, the Trade and Economic Partnership Agreement (TEPA), on March 10, 2024. This agreement aims to boost trade and investment between the two sides.   Key Features of the TEPA: Tariff Reductions: EFTA will eliminate tariffs on 92.2% of its tariff lines, covering 99.6% of India’s exports. India will eliminate tariffs on 82.7% of its tariff lines, covering 95.3% of EFTA exports.   Investment Promotion: EFTA is unique for its inclusion of a binding $100 billion investment commitment by companies in those countries into India over the next 15 years, with one million direct jobs to be created. Market Access: The agreement improves market access for both sides in various sectors, including industrial products, fish and marine products, processed agricultural products, and services.    Intellectual Property Rights: The agreement includes provisions for the protection and enforcement of intellectual property rights.    Sustainable Development: The agreement also addresses issues related to sustainable development, including environmental protection and labor rights. Source: Indian Express   LA NIÑA AND INDIA’S CLIMATE Syllabus: Prelims &  Mains – GEOGRAPHY Context: La Nina conditions are likely to develop in the next three months but the phase is expected to be relatively weak and short-lived, the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) said recently. Background: – Latest forecasts from WMO indicate a 55% likelihood of a transition from the current neutral conditions (neither El Niño nor La Niña) to La Nina conditions during December 2024 to February 2025. Key takeaways La Niña, a phase of the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), occurs when the region of the Pacific Ocean between Indonesia and South America is cooler than usual. Its counterpart, El Niño, represents a warming of the same region.  This decade began with three consecutive La Niña events (2020-2022), a rare occurrence known as Triple Dip La Niña, followed by an El Niño in 2023. Historically, the La Niña has usually formed during the monsoon or the pre-monsoon period, and it has formed only twice between October and December since 1950. La Niña and its affect on India’s climate and environment North India experiences  colder winter than usual during La Niña. Analysis of meteorological data by researchers at the Council on Energy Environment and Water, New Delhi, has revealed that while La Niña winters feature colder nights compared to El Niño, daytime temperatures tend to be higher.  Meteorological parameters like wind speed and planetary boundary layer height (PBLH) — the lowest atmospheric layer directly influenced by land-atmosphere interactions — also vary during ENSO phases, affecting air quality. The researchers found the average wind speed is higher throughout the day during La Niña winters. Faster winds help reduce air pollution by transporting pollutants away. They also found that the average PBLH is slightly lower during La Niña winters. If La Niña sets in, lower temperatures in north India may lead people to burn more biomass for heating, worsening pollution. A lower PBLH could also trap more pollutants near the ground. But higher wind speeds could disperse the pollutants, potentially leading to better air quality. A La Niña promotes robust monsoons as evidenced by the “normal” or “above-normal” rainfall in the La Niña years of 2020, 2021, and 2022.  Source: The Hindu POLAVARAM PROJECT Syllabus: Prelims – CURRENT EVENT Context: The Andhra Pradesh government has prepared an action plan and set a broad milestones for various works, including completing the first phase of the Polavaram Irrigation Project by October 2026. Background: The Polavaram project, considered the lifeline of Andhra Pradesh, has witnessed multiple delays over the last few years. Key takeaways: The Polavaram Project is a significant multi-purpose irrigation project on the Godavari River in the Eluru District and East Godavari District of Andhra Pradesh. Also known as the Indira Sagar Project. The project aims to provide irrigation, drinking water, and hydroelectric power. Project was approved initially in 2004 and declared a national project under the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014. Key Features Dam Type: Earth-cum-rock fill dam. Reservoir Capacity: Gross storage capacity of 194.6 TMC. Irrigation Potential: 4.36 lakh hectares in Andhra Pradesh. Hydroelectric Power: Generation of 960 MW. In this project, Godavari-Krishna inter-linking will be implemented under the inter-linking of rivers project. The project envisages transfer of 80 TMC of surplus water of Godavari river to Krishna river.  Source: The Hindu MAYOTTE Syllabus: Prelims – GEOGRAPHY Context: Rescuers raced against time to reach survivors and supply urgent aid after the devastating cyclone Chido ripped through the French Indian Ocean territory of Mayotte. Background: – Mayotte is France’s poorest region with an estimated third of the population living in shanty towns. About Mayotte Mayotte is an overseas department and region and single territorial collectivity of France.  It is located in the northern part of the Mozambique Channel in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Southeastern Africa, between Northwestern Madagascar and Northeastern Mozambique. Mayotte consists of a main island, Grande-Terre (or Maore), a smaller island, Petite-Terre (or Pamanzi), as well as several islets around these two. It is an outermost region of the European Union and, as an overseas department of