Archives (PRELIMS  Focus) Sir Creek Category: International Relations Context: Defence Minister Rajnath Singh warned Pakistan that “any aggression by Pakistan in the Sir Creek area will be met with a resounding response that will change both history and geography.” About Sir Creek: Disputed area: Sir Creek is a 96-km strip of water disputed between India and Pakistan in the Rann of Kutch marshlands. Nomenclature: Originally named Ban Ganga, Sir Creek is named after a British representative. Acts as a boundary: The Creek opens up in the Arabian Sea and roughly divides the Kutch region of Gujarat from the Sindh Province of Pakistan. Importance: Apart from strategic location, Sir Creek’s core importance is fishing resources. Sir Creek is considered to be among the largest fishing grounds in Asia. Possibility of oil and gas: The area has possible presence of great oil and gas concentration under the sea, which are currently unexploited thanks to the impending deadlock on the issue. Background of dispute: The dispute lies in the interpretation of the maritime boundary line between Kutch and Sindh. Pakistan claims the entire creek as per paragraphs 9 and 10 of the Bombay Government Resolution of 1914 signed between then the Government of Sindh and Rao Maharaj of Kutch, which set the boundary as the eastern flank of the creek popularly known as Green Line. But India claims that the boundary lies mid-channel as depicted in another map drawn in 1925, and implemented by the installation of mid-channel pillars back in 1924. In its support, it cites the Thalweg Doctrine in International Maritime Law, which states that river boundaries between two states may be divided by the mid-channel if the water-body is navigable. UNCLOS favours India’s stand: Acceding to India’s stance would mean shifting of the land/sea terminus point several kilometres to the detriment of Pakistan, leading in turn to a loss of several thousand square kilometres of its Exclusive Economic Zone under the United Nations Convention on Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). Sources: The Hindu Kathakali Category: History & Culture Context: Kerala Kalamandalam, Cheruthuruthy, witnessed history when 16-year-old Sabri, became the first Muslim girl to perform Kathakali at the prestigious institution since its founding in 1930. About Kathakali: Origin: Kathakali emerged in the 17th century in the kingdom of Travancore (present-day Kerala). The art form was initially performed in temple precincts and later gained popularity in the royal courts. Based on ancient texts: Kathakali is based on Natya Shastra, the ancient treatise on dance, written by Sage Bharata. However, It relies on Hasthalakshana Deepika, another classical text for its hand gestures. Precursors: Dance-drama art form called ‘Krishnanattam’ and Ramanattam based on Mahabharata and Ramayana are precursor of ‘Kathakali’. Composition: Kathakali combines elements of dance, music, mime, and drama. Features of dance: The four aspects of abhinaya – Angika, Aharya, Vachika, Satvikaand the Nritta, Nritya and Natya are combined perfectly in this dance form. Features of music: Kathakali music follows the traditional sopana sangeet of Kerala. It is said to be the ritual singing of the Ashtapadis on the flight of steps leading to the sanctum sanctorum. Use of Mudras: The movements are highly stylized and include intricate footwork, rhythmic swaying, and various hand gestures called mudras. Emphasis on facial expressions: The dancers use their facial expressions, known as rasas, to convey emotions and tell stories. Downfall in 20th century: Kathakali was in peril and on the verge of extinction in the beginning of 20th century. Revival: Renowned Poet Vallaththol Narayana Menon and Manakkulam Mukunda Raja took the initiative to set up Kerala Kalamandalam, a centre of excellence for classical art forms for the revival of kathakali. Major exponents: Kavungal Chathunni Panicker and Kalamandalam Gopi are its most eminent representatives. Source: The Hindu Thumri Category: History & Culture Context: Thumri (one of the ten main styles of singing in Hindustani music) lost its voice as Pandit Chhannulal Mishra passed away leaving a musical legacy. About Hindustani Music: Origin: While the historical roots of both the music types belong to the Bharata’s Natyasastra, they diverged in the 14th century. Focus: The Hindustani branch of music focuses more on the musical structure and the possibilities of improvisation in it. The Hindustani branch adopted a scale of Shudha Swara Saptaka or the ‘Octave of Natural notes’. Composition: The Hindustani music has elements of ancient Hindu tradition, Vedic philosophy and Persian tradition as well. Based on teacher-disciple tradition: Since ancient times, it has been passed from one to another through the Guru-Shishya Parampara. Musical instruments: The musical instruments used in Hindustani are Tabla, Sarangi, Sitar, Santoor, Flute and violin. Raga system: It is based on the Raga system. The Raga is a melodic scale comprising of basic seven notes. Major styles: There are ten main styles of singing in Hindustani music like the Dhrupad, Khayal, Tappa, Chaturanga, Tarana, Sargam, Thumri and Ragasagar, Hori and Dhamar. About Thumri: Origin: Originated in Eastern Uttar Pradesh, mainly in Lucknow & Benares, around 18th century. A romantic & erotic style of singing; also called “the lyric of Indian classical music.” Themes: Compositions are mostly on love, separation and devotion. Distinct feature: Erotic subject matter portrayed picturesquely from the various episodes of the lives of Lord Krishna & Radha. Language: Lyrics are typically in Brij Bhasha and are usually romantic & religious. Linkage with Khayal: A Thumri is usually performed as the last item of a Khayal concert. Gharanas: Three main gharanas of thumri are Benaras, Lucknow and Patiala. Exponent: Begum Akhtar is one of the most popular singers of thumri style. Source: The Hindu ICDS Scheme Category: Government Schemes Context: Recently, Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) scheme completed 50 years of its launch. About ICDS:   Launch: Launched in 1975, it is one of the world’s largest programmes providing for an integrated package of services for the holistic development of the child.  Ministry: The Umbrella ICDS is a centrally sponsored scheme implemented by the Ministry of Women and Child Development. Flagship programme: The ICDS Scheme providing for supplementary nutrition, immunization and

Archives (PRELIMS  Focus) Foreign Contribution Regulation Act (FCRA) Category: Polity & Governance Context: The Union Ministry of Home Affairs directed NGOs to submit applications for renewal of their Foreign Contribution (Regulation) Act (FCRA) registration at least four months before expiry. About Foreign Contribution (Regulation) Act (FCRA), 2010: Nature: The Foreign Contribution (Regulation) Act (FCRA), 2010, regulates foreign contributions to protect national sovereignty and security. It governs the receipt and use of foreign contributions by individuals, associations, and companies operating in India. Objective: The FCRA 2010 aims to ensure that foreign donations do not compromise the nation’s sovereignty or internal security. Amendments: Amendments were made in 2020 which brought certain changes. About Foreign Contribution (Regulation) Amendment Act, 2020: Validity & Renewal: FCRA registration is valid for five years, and NGOs are required to apply for renewal within six months of the registration’s expiry. Mandates Aadhaar: Office bearers must provide an Aadhaar or passport/OCI card for registration. Need for SBI account: Contributions must be received in a designated SBI branch in New Delhi. Puts a cap on administrative Use: Administrative expense limits were reduced from 50% to 20%. Suspension Extension: Initially, registration suspension can be enforced for a period of 180 days. This suspension can be further extended by an additional 180 days. Prohibits certain activities The applicant must not represent fictitious entities. The applicant should not have been involved in religious conversion activities, either directly or indirectly. The applicant must not be engaged in activities related to sedition. The FCRA prohibits candidates, journalists, media companies, judges, government servants, politicians, and political organizations from receiving foreign funds. FCRA Rules 2022 In July 2022, the MHA introduced changes to FCRA rules. These changes included increasing the number of compoundable offences from 7 to 12. The rules also raised the limit for contributions from relatives abroad that do not require government intimation from Rs 1 lakh to Rs 10 lakh and extended the time limit for intimation of the opening of bank accounts. Source: The Hindu Interstellar Mapping and Acceleration Probe (IMAP) Category: Science & Technology Context: Recently, NASA launched the Interstellar Mapping and Acceleration Probe (IMAP) to map the heliosphere’s boundary, trace energetic particles, and improve space weather forecasting. About IMAP: Nature: The Interstellar Mapping and Acceleration Probe, or IMAP, will explore and map the very boundaries of our heliosphere, a huge bubble created by the Sun’s wind that encapsulates our entire solar system. Functioning: The IMAP mission will use 10 scientific instruments to chart a comprehensive picture of what’s roiling in space, from high-energy particles originating at the Sun, to magnetic fields in interplanetary space, to remnants of exploded stars in interstellar space. Mass of the spacecraft: It weighs around 900 kilograms (1,984 pounds). Launch vehicle: It is launched using Falcon 9, which is a partially reusable, two-stage-to-orbit, medium-lift launch vehicle designed and manufactured by SpaceX. Location: The IMAP spacecraft is situated at the first Earth-Sun Lagrange point (L1), at around one million miles from Earth toward the Sun. There, it can provide about a half hour’s warning to voyaging astronauts and spacecraft near Earth of harmful radiation coming their way. Investigating heliophysics: The mission will primarily investigate two of the most important overarching issues in heliophysics, viz. how charged particles from the Sun are energized to form what’s known as the solar wind and how that wind interacts with interstellar space at the heliosphere’s boundary. Help astronauts: The IMAP mission will additionally support real-time observations of the solar wind, which can flood the near-Earth space environment with dangerous particles and radiation that could harm technology and astronauts in space and disrupt global communications and electrical grids on Earth. Expected outcomes of the mission: Uncover fundamental physics at scales both tiny and immense.  Improve forecasting of solar wind disturbances and particle radiation hazards from space. Draw a picture of our nearby galactic neighborhood. Help determine some of the basic cosmic building materials of the universe. Increase understanding of how the heliosphere shields life in the solar system from cosmic rays. Source: The Hindu RoDTEP Scheme Category: Government Schemes Context: The Government has extended the Remission of Duties and Taxes on Exported Products (RoDTEP) incentive scheme for exporters until March 31, 2026. About RoDTEP Scheme: Launch: It was launched in 2021 by the Ministry of Commerce and Industry. Objective: The RoDTEP scheme is designed to reimburse exporters for embedded duties, taxes, and levies that are not otherwise refunded under any other existing scheme. Eligibility: Manufacturer exporters and merchant exporters (traders) are both eligible for the benefits of this scheme. There is no particular turnover threshold to claim the RoDTEP. India as country of origin: The exported products need to have the country of origin as India. SEZs: The Special Economic Zone Units and Export Oriented Units are also eligible to claim the benefits under this scheme. Compliant with WTO norms: The RoDTEP scheme, which replaced the Merchandise Export from India Scheme (MEIS), is fully aligned with World Trade Organization norms. Role of CBIC: Rebates under RoDTEP Scheme will be issued as transferable duty credits or electronic scrips (e-scrips), maintained in an electronic ledger by the Central Board of Indirect Taxes and Customs (CBIC). Multi-sector scheme: Under RoDTEP, all sectors, including the textiles sector, are covered, so as to ensure uniformity across all areas. Source: The Hindu Partition of Bengal Category: History & Culture Context: Recently, Undivided Bengal’ emerged as the popular theme of Durga Puja in West Bengal. About Partition of Bengal: Background: The Partition of Bengal in 1905 was initiated by Lord Curzon, the then Viceroy of India, citing administrative efficiency due to the vast size and population of Bengal. However, the underlying motive was to weaken the growing nationalist movement by dividing Hindus and Muslims. Bengal was split into two provinces: Eastern Bengal and Assam (Muslim-majority) and Western Bengal (Hindu-majority). The move was widely opposed by Indian nationalists, who saw it as a strategy of “divide and rule.” The partition sparked widespread protests and gave rise to the Swadeshi Movement, eventually leading to its annulment in 1911. Course

Archives (PRELIMS  Focus) Wassenaar Arrangement Category: INTERNATIONAL Context:  Wassenaar Arrangement in governing modern digital technologies and argues for reforming export control regimes to address challenges posed by cloud services, AI, and surveillance tools. Modern Internet dependence: Cloud infrastructure, dominated by few companies like Microsoft, is crucial for states but can also aid repression (e.g., in Palestine). Export control regimes: Agreements like the Wassenaar Arrangement aim to regulate export of sensitive goods and dual-use technologies to prevent misuse. Limitations of current framework: Focused mainly on physical exports (devices, chips, hardware). Struggles to regulate cloud services, APIs, and remotely accessed technologies. Leaves loopholes for “intrusion software” and surveillance misuse. India’s role: Joined in 2017, regularly updates control lists but faces challenges in ensuring compliance. Reform needs: Expand definitions to cover remote access, cloud exports, and digital surveillance. Introduce binding global treaties with clearer licensing and oversight. Create domain-specific controls for AI and high-risk digital tools. Global implications: Divergent national licensing can create loopholes. Stronger coordination needed to prevent misuse across borders. Possible measures: Tighter export scrutiny for cloud services. Binding international commitments. Technical expert committees to guide regulation. Conclusion: Existing arrangements are outdated; comprehensive reforms are essential to regulate 21st-century technologies without stifling innovation. Learning Corner: Wassenaar Arrangement (WA) Nature: A multilateral export control regime for conventional arms and dual-use goods and technologies. Established: 1996, in Wassenaar, Netherlands. Objective: To promote transparency and responsibility in transfers of arms and sensitive technologies. To prevent destabilising accumulations of weapons and technologies that could aid in proliferation or repression. Membership: 42 participating states (as of 2025), including India, the U.S., most EU states, Japan, etc. India’s membership: Joined in December 2017. Mechanism: States exchange information on transfers/denials of items listed in WA control lists. It is non-binding; decisions on licensing remain at the discretion of each state. Scope: Covers conventional arms. Covers dual-use goods and technologies (civilian use but potential military/security application). In 2013, scope expanded to include “intrusion software” and surveillance technologies. Challenges: Primarily designed for physical goods, struggles to regulate cloud services, AI, and remote-access technologies. Implementation uneven across members; often influenced by political and commercial interests. Source: THE HINDU India’s Index of Industrial Production (IIP) Category: ECONOMICS Context : India’s Index of Industrial Production (IIP) grew by 4.0% in August 2025, showing broad-based recovery in industrial activity. IIP growth accelerated from 3.5% in July 2025 to 4.0% in August. Mining output rose sharply by 6.0%, rebounding from contraction. Manufacturing grew 3.8%, led by basic metals (12.2%), motor vehicles (9.8%), and petroleum products (5.4%). Electricity generation increased by 4.1%. Use-based growth: Infrastructure/Construction Goods: +10.6% (highest). Primary Goods: +5.2%, Intermediate Goods: +5.0%, Capital Goods: +4.4%. Consumer Durables: +3.5%; Consumer Non-durables: –6.3% (weak demand). Growth driven by post-monsoon mining recovery, strong demand in metals, vehicles, and construction activity. Learning Corner: Index of Industrial Production (IIP) Definition: The IIP measures the volume of production of a basket of industrial products in the economy. It serves as a short-term indicator of industrial growth. Base Year: Current base year: 2011–12 (revised periodically to reflect structural changes). Released by: National Statistical Office (NSO), Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI). Released monthly with a time lag of about six weeks. Coverage: Divided into 3 major sectors: Mining (14.4% weight) Manufacturing (77.6% weight – largest share) Electricity (8.0% weight) Further classified into Use-based categories: Primary Goods, Capital Goods, Intermediate Goods, Infrastructure/Construction Goods, Consumer Durables, and Consumer Non-durables. Significance: Acts as a proxy for industrial activity and short-term economic performance. Influences monetary policy (RBI monitors it for inflation and growth signals). Used by businesses, analysts, and policymakers for planning and forecasting. Limitations: Provisional data, often revised later. Limited coverage compared to GDP or GVA. Heavily manufacturing-driven, may not fully capture services-led growth in India’s economy. Core Industries Definition: The Core Industries are the eight key industries of India that form the backbone of the economy and have a high impact on overall industrial growth. They have a combined weight of 40.27% in the Index of Industrial Production (IIP). The Eight Core Industries (with weights in IIP): Coal – 10.33% Crude Oil – 8.98% Natural Gas – 6.88% Refinery Products – 28.04% (highest weight) Fertilizers – 2.63% Steel – 17.92% Cement – 5.37% Electricity – 19.85% Released by: Office of Economic Adviser (OEA), Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT), Ministry of Commerce and Industry. Released monthly, usually at the end of the following month. Significance: Acts as a lead indicator of industrial performance and overall GDP trends. Closely tracked by policymakers, RBI, and businesses to gauge economic health. Growth or slowdown in these industries directly affects related sectors (e.g., steel impacts construction, coal impacts power generation). Source: PIB Siphon Principle Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Context: IISc has developed a siphon-powered desalination technology that converts saltwater into clean drinking water more efficiently than conventional solar stills. Uses a fabric wick with a grooved metal surface to create a siphon, moving salty water onto a heated surface. Continuous flushing prevents salt crystallization, avoiding blockages common in older designs. Water evaporates as a thin film and condenses just 2 mm away, enhancing efficiency. Modular design allows stacking multiple units, recycling heat for higher output. Produces over six liters of potable water per sq. meter per hour, much higher than standard solar stills. Handles high salinity (up to 20% salt) without clogging. Built with low-cost materials like aluminum and fabric; powered by solar or waste heat. Suitable for off-grid villages, disaster zones, and arid coastal areas. Represents a scalable, sustainable, and affordable solution for global water security. Learning Corner: Siphon Principle Definition: A siphon is a device that allows liquid to flow from a higher level to a lower level through a tube, even if the tube rises above the surface of the liquid in the higher container. Working Principle: Relies on gravity and the difference in liquid pressure at the two ends of the tube. Once the tube is filled, the liquid continues to flow because the pressure at the lower outlet

Archives (PRELIMS  Focus) National Security Act Category: POLITY Context:  Climate activist Sonam Wangchuk was recently detained under the National Security Act (NSA), reigniting debate over its scope and misuse. About NSA (1980): Allows preventive detention to safeguard defence, foreign relations, security of India, public order, or essential supplies. Powers: Centre, states, District Magistrates, and Police Commissioners can authorize detention. Nature: Not punitive but preventive — meant to stop individuals before they act. Safeguards: Grounds of detention must be communicated within 5–15 days. Review by Advisory Board of High Court judges within 3 weeks. Detention can extend up to 12 months. No legal representation before Advisory Board; government can withhold facts citing “public interest.” Past use: Invoked against separatists, gangsters, and protesters. Controversies: Criticized for misuse against dissenters and activists. High-profile cases: Dr. Kafeel Khan (2020), Chandrashekhar Azad (2017), Amritpal Singh (2023). Used during anti-CAA protests and in states like UP and MP against cow slaughter and habitual criminals. Criticism: Civil liberties groups see it as a draconian law often misused by governments to silence opposition rather than protect security. Learning Corner: National Security Act (NSA), 1980 The NSA, 1980 is a preventive detention law that empowers the Central and State governments to detain individuals to prevent them from acting in any manner prejudicial to the defence of India, relations with foreign powers, national security, public order, or maintenance of essential supplies and services. It continues India’s long history of preventive detention laws, tracing back to the colonial era and the Maintenance of Internal Security Act (MISA). Key Provisions Authority to Detain: The Central or State government can issue detention orders. District Magistrates and Police Commissioners can also exercise this power when authorised. Grounds of Detention: Defence of India, security of the state, public order, and maintenance of essential supplies. Duration of Detention: A person can be detained up to 12 months, though orders can be revoked earlier. Communication of Grounds: Detainee must be informed of the grounds of detention within 5–15 days. Review Mechanism: An Advisory Board of High Court judges reviews the detention within 3 weeks. If the Board finds “no sufficient cause,” the detainee must be released. Safeguards and Limitations: No legal representation before the Advisory Board. Government can withhold facts citing “public interest.” Preventive, not punitive — meant to stop anticipated threats. Source:  THE INDIAN EXPRESS OPEC+ Category: INTERNATIONAL Context : OPEC+ is planning another oil output hike in November 2025 amid rising global oil prices and market pressures. Decision timeline: OPEC+ countries will meet online on October 5 to decide on November production levels. Expected hike: At least 1,37,000 barrels per day increase likely, equal to October’s hike. Background: OPEC+ had reversed April’s output cuts and already boosted production by 2.5 million bpd between April–September. Market impact: Oil prices have risen above $70 per barrel due to tight supply and geopolitical tensions, including Ukraine–Russia conflict. Group output cuts: Current reduction stands at 5.85 million bpd (voluntary 2.2m, 1.65m by 8 members, and 2m by whole group). Further scope: Additional increases under discussion to stabilize market supply. UAE approval: Separate 300,000 bpd boost approved for UAE between April–September. Long-term plan: The third group-wide layer of cuts (1.65m bpd) is scheduled to last till end of 2026. Learning Corner: OPEC+ (Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries Plus) Composition: OPEC (13 member states, mostly Middle Eastern and African oil producers) + 10 major non-OPEC oil exporters, most notably Russia, Kazakhstan, Mexico, etc. Origin: Formed in 2016 when OPEC partnered with non-OPEC countries to stabilize oil markets through coordinated output decisions. Objective: To manage global oil supply, stabilize prices, and safeguard revenues for oil-producing countries. Functioning: Sets collective production quotas. Adjusts supply to balance market demand and global price fluctuations. Key influence on international energy markets and global inflation trends. Recent relevance (2025): Reversed earlier cuts (April 2025) and increased output by 2.5 million barrels/day till September. Plans another hike of 1,37,000 barrels/day in November amid rising oil prices and geopolitical tensions (Ukraine–Russia conflict, energy security concerns). Long-term strategy includes gradual easing of supply cuts lasting until end-2026. Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS Corporate Average Fuel Efficiency (CAFE-3) Category: POLITY Context: India has released draft Corporate Average Fuel Efficiency (CAFE-3) rules proposing new vehicle emission norms, with relief for small cars and incentives for EVs.. What’s new: Draft CAFE-3 norms issued by the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) for public consultation, covering all M1 category passenger cars (max 9 seats, 3,500 kg). Efficiency formula: Based on fleet weight with stricter targets over FY28–FY32; lighter vehicles get more relaxed targets. Relief for small cars: Special exemptions for models ≤1200cc engine, ≤4000mm length, and ≤900kg unladen weight → eligible for CO₂ reduction credits. Emissions pooling: Allows multiple carmakers to pool emissions targets, reducing compliance costs. EV incentives: Each EV sale counts three times in compliance calculations. Hybrid EVs, plug-in hybrids, and strong hybrids get multipliers. EVs under 3,500 kg get special weight-based relaxation. Carbon Neutrality Factor (CNF): Additional relaxation based on fuel types (ethanol, CNG, biogas, hybrids). Penalties: Non-compliance attracts penalties under the Energy Conservation Act, 2001. Current norms: CAFE-2 (from FY22–23) required fleet CO₂ emissions ≤113 g/km; penalties apply for exceeding limits. EV charging infra: Govt plans ~72,300 stations under PM E-Drive, with subsidy support for installation across cities. Learning Corner: Corporate Average Fuel Efficiency (CAFE) Norms Definition: CAFE norms are fuel efficiency and emission standards that automobile manufacturers must follow for their fleet, aimed at reducing fuel consumption and lowering carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions. Origin in India: Introduced by the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) under the Energy Conservation Act, 2001. CAFE–1: Notified in 2011, effective from 2017. CAFE–2: Implemented from 2022–23, targeting 113 g/km CO₂ fleet average. CAFE–3 (Draft, 2025): Proposes stricter norms for FY28–FY32 with new incentives for small cars and EVs. Key Features: Applies to all M1 category cars (passenger vehicles ≤9 seats, ≤3,500 kg). Uses a formula based on average fleet weight; heavier cars allowed slightly higher emissions than lighter cars. Manufacturers must ensure that their entire

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) Soilification Category: AGRICULTURE Context:  Researchers in Rajasthan successfully grew wheat in desert land using an indigenous bioformulation-based soilification technology, showing potential to stop desertification and boost agriculture in arid regions. Experiment site: Conducted by Central University of Rajasthan (CUoR) at Banseli village, Ajmer district. Technology: Used desert ‘soilification’ with indigenous bioformulation to convert desert sand into soil-like structure. Water efficiency: Wheat required only 3 irrigations (vs. 5–6 normally) due to high water retention. Key features: Bioformulation enhanced water retention, improved soil structure, stimulated microbial activity, and increased crop stress resistance. Pilot results: 13 kg wheat seeds yielded 26 kg harvest per 100 sq. metres in April 2025. Higher yield: Experimental field with bajra, guar gum, and chickpea showed 54% higher yield in bioformulation-amended sand. Support: Facilitated by Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) and Rajasthan Horticulture Department. Impact: Reduced water input, higher productivity, and potential to curb desertification in Thar desert region. Future plan: Expand technology to crops like millet and green gram in Rajasthan’s dry regions. Learning Corner: Soilification Meaning: Soilification is a process of transforming loose, infertile sand (desert soil) into soil-like material that can support plant growth. How it works: Uses polymers, bioformulations, or natural binders to cross-link sand particles. Improves soil aggregation and water retention capacity. Enriches the substrate with microbial activity to provide nutrients and resilience to crops. Key Objectives: Convert arid, barren desert land into productive agricultural fields. Reduce irrigation demand by retaining more water in sandy soils. Combat desertification and land degradation. Applications: Tested in Rajasthan’s Thar Desert for wheat, bajra, guar gum, and chickpea cultivation. Used in dry and semi-arid regions globally (China, Middle East, Africa) to reclaim deserts. Significance: Provides a sustainable land restoration method. Helps ensure food security in desert-prone countries. Supports climate change adaptation by reclaiming degraded lands. Source: THE HINDU MiG-21 Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Context : India has formally decommissioned the MiG-21 jets after six decades of service, marking the end of an iconic era in the Indian Air Force. Key Statement: Defence Minister Rajnath Singh called MiG-21 a “symbol of India-Russia ties” and a lesson for future indigenous platforms. Aircraft: Last MiG-21 jets belonged to No. 23 Squadron (Panthers). Ceremony: Included symbolic switch-off of six MiG-21s and handing over of aircraft documents to Air Chief. Attendees: Senior IAF officials, veterans, pilots, engineers, and technicians who worked with MiG-21. Tribute Performances: Surya Kiran aerobatic team, Tejas, and Jaguar fighter jets performed aerial manoeuvres. Legacy: Played crucial roles in 1971 war, Kargil conflict, Balakot air strike, and Operation Sindoor. Impact: Reduced IAF’s effective fighter squadron strength to 29, the lowest since 1960s. Future Outlook: Govt emphasized success of indigenous platforms like LCA-Tejas and upcoming Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA). Learning Corner: MiG-21 Fighter Aircraft Full Name: Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21. Origin: Developed by the Soviet Union (first flew in 1956). Induction in India: Entered Indian Air Force (IAF) service in 1963, becoming the first supersonic fighter jet of India. Service Duration: Served for over 60 years, the longest-serving combat aircraft in IAF history. Role in Wars: 1971 India-Pakistan War: Played a decisive role, including shooting down enemy aircraft. Kargil War (1999): Actively used in ground attack and support missions. Balakot Air Strike (2019): MiG-21 Bison piloted by Wing Commander Abhinandan Varthaman engaged in aerial combat. Operation Sindoor and other missions. Variants in India: MiG-21FL, MiG-21M, MiG-21MF, and upgraded MiG-21 Bison. Legacy: Known as the “backbone” of the IAF for decades. Symbol of India-Russia defence cooperation. Provided combat experience to generations of IAF pilots. Source:  THE HINDU H3N2 Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Context: Delhi and nearby cities are witnessing a surge in H3N2 influenza cases, with doctors urging precautions due to rising infections, especially among vulnerable groups. Disease: H3N2 is an Influenza A subtype virus causing respiratory illness. Current trend: Hospitals report rise in cases; August saw ~80, September ~100 cases. Symptoms: Fever, body ache, cough, sore throat, congestion; symptoms more intense this year. Spread: Transmitted through coughing, close contact, and contaminated surfaces. Vulnerable groups: Elderly, children, pregnant women, people with diabetes, asthma, heart/kidney disease, or low immunity. Illness duration: Typically lasts 5–7 days; cough and weakness may persist for weeks. Complications: Risk of secondary bacterial infection in those with comorbidities. Precaution: Avoid close contact, wear masks, maintain hygiene, get vaccinated. Challenge: Difficult to confirm if H3N2 cases are rising due to inadequate surveillance. Doctors’ advice: Urgent need for vaccination, especially for high-risk groups. Learning Corner: Avian Influenza (Avian Flu)  A zoonotic viral infection caused by Influenza A viruses that primarily affect birds but can infect humans and other animals. Classified into Low Pathogenic Avian Influenza (LPAI) and Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) depending on severity in poultry. Major Types / Strains H5N1 First detected in humans in 1997 (Hong Kong). Highly pathogenic; causes severe respiratory illness with high fatality rate. Endemic in parts of Asia and Africa. Limited human-to-human transmission. H7N9 First reported in humans in China (2013). Usually low pathogenic in birds but can cause severe illness in humans. High mortality among reported human cases. H5N6 Reported in poultry outbreaks in Asia. Sporadic human infections (mostly in China). Causes severe respiratory disease in humans. H9N2 Low pathogenic in birds. Human infections are usually mild. Important because it can mix with other influenza viruses, acting as a “gene donor” for new strains. H10N3 / H10N8 Rare human cases reported in China. H10N8 caused fatal cases in 2013. Still considered sporadic but monitored for pandemic potential. H3N2 (variant of concern for humans, not birds alone) Causes seasonal influenza in humans, but also linked with zoonotic spillover. Not classified as a classic “avian flu,” but shares cross-species transmission risks. Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS Tejas Mk1A Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Context India has signed its largest-ever contract for indigenous fighter jets with HAL to procure 97 Tejas Mk1A aircraft for the IAF.” Deal Value: ₹62,370 crore Date Finalized: 25 September 2025 Aircraft Ordered: 68 single-seat Tejas Mk1A 29 twin-seat Tejas Mk1A Delivery Timeline: From 2027, spread over six years Indigenous Content: Over

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) Agni-Prime (Agni-P) ballistic missile Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Context:  India successfully test-fired the Agni-Prime (Agni-P) ballistic missile from a rail-based mobile launcher, marking a strategic milestone.  The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) tested the Agni-P missile from a rail-based launcher, placing India among a select group of nations with such “canisterised launch systems.” Rail-based platforms enhance second-strike capability by providing mobility, concealment, and survivability against enemy surveillance compared to vulnerable fixed silos. They are cheaper and easier to scale than submarine-based systems, leveraging India’s extensive railway network. Agni-P, a two-stage solid-fuel missile with a range of 1,000–2,000 km, succeeds Agni-I with improved guidance, propulsion, and warhead technology. Learning Corner: Agni-P (Agni-Prime) missile: Type: New-generation, medium-range ballistic missile (MRBM). Developer: Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO). Range: 1,000 – 2,000 km. Propulsion: Two-stage, solid-fuel propulsion system. Launch Platforms: Canisterised system—deployable from road and rail-based mobile launchers, enhancing mobility and survivability. Features: Advanced navigation and guidance system. Improved accuracy compared to earlier Agni variants. Lighter composite materials, making it more efficient. Strategic Importance: Enhances India’s second-strike capability. Provides flexibility to evade enemy surveillance by using mobile launchers. Cheaper alternative compared to submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs). Successor: Designed as a successor to Agni-I with modernised systems. Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP) Launch: 1983, by DRDO, under the leadership of Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam. Aim: To make India self-reliant in missile technology and develop a series of indigenous guided missiles. Significance: Reduced dependence on foreign technology (especially due to MTCR restrictions), created a strong base for future missile projects, and strengthened India’s defence preparedness. Closure: Officially declared completed in 2008, after most projects achieved their objectives. Missiles Developed under IGMDP Prithvi – Surface-to-surface short-range ballistic missile (SRBM); first missile developed under IGMDP. Agni – Initially a technology demonstrator for re-entry vehicles; later evolved into a family of medium to intercontinental range ballistic missiles (MRBM → ICBM). Akash – Medium-range, surface-to-air missile (SAM); inducted into the Indian Air Force and Army. Trishul – Short-range, quick-reaction surface-to-air missile; served mainly as a technology demonstrator. Nag – Third-generation, fire-and-forget anti-tank guided missile (ATGM); inducted after extensive trials. Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS Article 304(a) Category: POLITY Context : The Supreme Court struck down Rajasthan’s 2007 VAT exemption on locally made goods, ruling that taxation cannot discriminate against goods from other states. The Supreme Court quashed a Rajasthan notification that exempted VAT on locally manufactured asbestos sheets and bricks, which disadvantaged goods imported from other states. The bench held this violated Article 304(a) of the Constitution, which prohibits states from imposing discriminatory taxes on out-of-state goods. The Court emphasized that taxation cannot be used as a tool to restrict trade or create unfair advantages for local products, reaffirming the principle of free and non-discriminatory trade across India. Learning Corner: Article 304(a) of the Constitution: Provision: Article 304(a) of the Indian Constitution allows State Legislatures to impose taxes on goods imported from other States or Union Territories, but such taxation cannot discriminate between imported goods and similar goods produced within the State. Objective: To ensure free trade, commerce, and intercourse throughout India (as guaranteed under Article 301) while permitting States to levy taxes for revenue purposes. Key Principle: Taxes must be non-discriminatory—i.e., goods from other States should not be treated unfavorably compared to locally produced goods. Judicial Interpretation: The Supreme Court has consistently held that taxation cannot be used as a weapon to create economic barriers or protectionism within a State. Discriminatory tax laws violate the spirit of national economic unity. Source:  THE INDIAN EXPRESS BRICS Category: INTERNATIONAL Context: India and Russia are exploring a BRICS grain exchange plan to strengthen agricultural trade cooperation. Prime Minister Narendra Modi met Russian Deputy Prime Minister Dmitry Patrushev in New Delhi during the World Food India 2025 event, where they discussed creating a common BRICS agricultural food exchange to boost trade in food, fertilizers, and processing. The talks also covered the ongoing Free Trade Agreement between India and the Eurasian Economic Union. Both leaders reaffirmed their commitment to deepening India-Russia ties, highlighting growing bilateral trade, which saw record levels in 2024. Russia emphasized its “special and privileged” partnership with India, while India conveyed greetings to President Putin ahead of the upcoming India-Russia summit. Learning Corner: BRICS  Full Form: BRICS stands for Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa. Origin: Started as BRIC in 2006 (Brazil, Russia, India, China); South Africa joined in 2010, making it BRICS. Current Members (11 as of 2025) Original Five: Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa New Members (2024): Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates Newest Member (2025): Indonesia Nature and Weight Represents over 40% of the world’s population and a growing share of global GDP (PPP), surpassing the G7. Functions as an informal grouping of emerging economies, not a treaty-based organisation. Objectives Promote multipolarity in international politics. Reform global institutions like the UN, IMF, and World Bank to reflect the voices of developing nations. Strengthen cooperation in trade, finance, energy, agriculture, technology, health, and security. Promote South-South cooperation and de-dollarisation in global trade. Key Institutions and Mechanisms New Development Bank (NDB): Finances infrastructure and sustainable development projects. Contingent Reserve Arrangement (CRA): Provides liquidity support during balance of payment crises. BRICS Pay: Digital payment initiative to reduce dependence on the US dollar. BRICS Vaccine R&D Centre: Cooperation on medical research and vaccines. Source: THE HINDU Ladakh’s statehood demand Category: POLITY Context Leh is under curfew after violent protests over Ladakh’s statehood demand left four people dead and dozens injured Following violent clashes in Leh, where four protesters were killed and many injured, authorities imposed a strict curfew and detained dozens of people. The bodies were handed over to families for last rites, with the Ladakh Buddhist Association involved in arrangements. Protests, led by activists including Sonam Wangchuk, are pressing for statehood and Ladakh’s inclusion under the Sixth Schedule. Meanwhile, Kargil observed a complete shutdown in solidarity. The Union Home Ministry has cancelled the FCRA registration of Wangchuk’s organisation for alleged violations. Political

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) Goods and Services Tax Appellate Tribunal Category: POLITY Context:  Goods and Services Tax Appellate Tribunal (GSTAT) launched on 24 September 2025.  Highlights Statutory appellate body under GST laws to hear appeals against orders of GST Appellate Authorities. Aims to clear over 4.8 lakh pending appeals, ensuring faster and consistent dispute resolution. Structure: Principal Bench in New Delhi and 31 State Benches across 45 locations. Each Bench: 2 Judicial Members + 1 Technical (Centre) + 1 Technical (State) for balanced decisions. Hearings to begin December 2025, starting with legacy appeals. From April 2026, Principal Bench will also serve as the National Appellate Authority for Advance Ruling. Digital platform for filing appeals, tracking, and virtual hearings. Significance Provides one-stop, independent, and transparent forum for GST disputes. Reduces compliance burden, boosts certainty in legal outcomes, and supports business growth. Symbol of cooperative federalism and institutional strengthening in India’s GST regime. Learning Corner: Goods and Services Tax Appellate Tribunal (GSTAT) The GSTAT is a statutory appellate body established under the GST laws to provide an independent forum for resolving disputes arising under India’s indirect tax regime.  Purpose: To hear appeals against orders passed by GST Appellate Authorities and ensure quicker, consistent, and fair resolution of tax disputes. Structure: Principal Bench in New Delhi and 31 State Benches across 45 locations. Each Bench consists of two Judicial Members, one Technical Member (Centre), and one Technical Member (State). Functioning: Will begin hearings from December 2025, prioritising pending (“legacy”) appeals. From April 2026, the Principal Bench will also act as the National Appellate Authority for Advance Ruling (NAAAR). Digital Interface: Taxpayers can file appeals, track progress, and attend hearings online, enhancing transparency and ease of compliance. Significance: Reduces backlog of appeals (over 4.8 lakh cases pending). Promotes certainty, fairness, and cooperative federalism in GST administration. Strengthens India’s institutional framework for tax dispute resolution. Source: PIB INS Androth Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Context : The Indian Navy will commission INS Androth, the second Anti-Submarine Warfare Shallow Water Craft (ASW-SWC). Key Highlights Built by GRSE, Kolkata, with over 80% indigenous components, showcasing Aatmanirbhar Bharat. Named after Androth Island (Lakshadweep), continuing the legacy of its predecessor INS Androth (P69). Equipped with advanced weapons, sensors, waterjet propulsion, and modern communication systems. Multi-role platform for ASW, maritime surveillance, search & rescue, and coastal defence. Enhances India’s anti-submarine warfare capability and strengthens security in the Indian Ocean. Learning Corner: Anti-Submarine Warfare Shallow Water Craft (ASW-SWC) Definition: Small, fast naval vessels designed for detecting, tracking, and neutralising submarines in coastal and shallow waters where larger ASW platforms are less effective. Key Features: Mobility: Compact, waterjet-propelled, highly manoeuvrable. Sensors & Weapons: Hull/towed sonars, lightweight torpedoes, depth charges, small guns. Uses: Littoral ASW patrols, coastal surveillance, convoy escort, SAR. Strengths: Cost-effective, ideal for choke-points/islands, quick deployment. Limitations: Limited endurance, smaller payload, challenges in shallow-water sonar detection. Strategic Role: Boosts coastal defence and layered ASW capability, vital for India’s maritime security and Aatmanirbhar shipbuilding drive. Source:  PIB Greater One-Horned Rhino Category: ENVIRONMENT Context: Global rhino populations, though stable at around 27,000, remain dangerously low compared to over 500,000 a century ago, raising concerns of “shifting baseline syndrome.” Context Key Highlights Population trends: Black rhinos have recovered to ~6,800 (from 100,000 in 1960); white rhinos continue to decline (~15,700); Asian rhinos vary—greater one-horned (~4,000) are stable, while Sumatran (34–47) and Javan (~50) remain critically endangered. Threats: Poaching for horns, illegal trafficking, habitat loss, and inbreeding in small, fenced reserves. Shifting baseline danger: Treating low populations as “normal” risks complacency and undermines long-term recovery. Way forward: Disrupt horn trade, reduce demand, expand genetic diversity, engage local communities, and restore habitats. Learning Corner: Greater One-Horned Rhino / Indian Rhino Habitat & Range: Found mainly in the terai grasslands and riverine forests of India and Nepal. Strongholds include Kaziranga, Orang, and Pobitora (Assam, India) and Chitwan National Park (Nepal). Population: Around 4,000+ individuals today, up from fewer than 200 in the early 20th century, making it a conservation success story. Appearance: Known for its single black horn (20–60 cm long) and thick, grey-brown skin with folds, giving an ‘armour-plated’ look. Conservation Status: IUCN: Vulnerable CITES: Appendix I (highest protection) Protected under Schedule I of Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 (India). Threats: Poaching for horn, habitat loss due to floods and encroachment, human–wildlife conflict, and small isolated populations. Conservation Measures: Project Rhino initiatives in Assam. Translocation programmes under Indian Rhino Vision 2020 (e.g., Kaziranga to Manas). Strict patrolling, use of drones, and community involvement in conservation. Global Rhino Species and Their Status White Rhino (Ceratotherium simum) Largest rhino species, native to Africa. Two subspecies: Southern white rhino (~15,700) and Northern white rhino (functionally extinct, only 2 females left). Status: Near Threatened, but facing decline due to poaching. Black Rhino (Diceros bicornis) Smaller than white rhino, native to eastern and southern Africa. Population: ~6,800 (up from 2,500 in the 1990s, but far below 100,000 in 1960). Status: Critically Endangered, recovering slowly under conservation. Greater One-Horned Rhino / Indian Rhino (Rhinoceros unicornis) Found mainly in India and Nepal (Kaziranga, Pobitora, Chitwan). Population: ~4,075. Status: Vulnerable, but a conservation success story with steady growth. Javan Rhino (Rhinoceros sondaicus) Found only in Ujung Kulon National Park, Indonesia. Population: ~50 individuals. Status: Critically Endangered, most threatened of all rhino species. Sumatran Rhino (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis) Smallest rhino species, covered with reddish-brown hair. Found in small, fragmented populations in Sumatra and Borneo. Population: Only 34–47 left. Status: Critically Endangered, on the brink of extinction. Source: DTE AI and Energy Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Context AI-driven data centres are projected to massively increase global and India’s energy demand, raising questions about whether AI will help optimize energy use or worsen the crisis. Global data centre capacity demand may rise 19–22% annually (2023–2030), potentially reaching 171–219 GW, with AI being the main driver. India’s data centre demand may grow from 1.2 GW (2024) to 4.5 GW (2030), led by AI and digital adoption; Mumbai, Chennai, and Hyderabad are major hubs. AI could both worsen energy pressure and help improve efficiency

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) India’s first overseas defence facility Category: DEFENCE Context:  India has launched its first overseas defence manufacturing facility in Morocco, led by Tata Advanced Systems Limited (TASL).  Defence Minister Rajnath Singh and his Moroccan counterpart inaugurated TASL’s first overseas defence plant in Berrechid, Morocco (20,000 sq. m). The facility will manufacture the indigenously developed WhAP 8×8 (by TASL and DRDO). Project aligns with India’s “Make with Friends” and “Make for the World” vision. It will generate local jobs, sourcing one-third of components locally, to rise to 50% in future. Aims to make Morocco a strategic defence manufacturing hub for Africa and Europe.   Learning Corner: Indian Overseas Defence Facilities Farkhor Air Base, Tajikistan: Often regarded as India’s first overseas base. India has had an arrangement with Tajikistan for operating/supporting this base, mainly for strategic depth in Central Asia. Ayni (Gissar) Air Base, Tajikistan: Renovated and upgraded by India with extended runway, air traffic control and defence infrastructure. It can host IAF aircraft during contingencies, though full operational rights remain limited. IMTRAT, Bhutan: The Indian Military Training Team trains Bhutanese armed forces. It is one of India’s longest-standing overseas defence missions. Listening / Surveillance Posts: India is reported to maintain radar or surveillance facilities in parts of the Indian Ocean Region, such as Madagascar, to monitor maritime traffic and enhance domain awareness. Source: THE HINDU Fusion power plants Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Context : IPR Gandhinagar has outlined a roadmap to build SST-Bharat, a steady-state superconducting tokamak, aiming for fusion and fusion–fission hybrid power demonstration by mid-century. Core Device: Focus on SST-Bharat, a steady-state superconducting tokamak for long-duration plasma. Hybrid Approach: Fusion-fission hybrid considered to boost net output. Q Factor Goal: Improve power gain (Q > 1) beyond past sub-unity results. Plasma Sustainment: Aim for steady-state, multi-minute plasmas; SST-1 progress noted. Magnetic Confinement: Chosen route over inertial confinement; needs ~100 million °C plasma control. Superconducting Tech: Advanced superconducting magnets and cryogenics are key. Materials Challenge: Develop divertors and plasma-facing components to withstand heat/erosion. Heating & Current Drive: Requires neutral beams, RF heating, and non-inductive drives. Digital Twinning: Virtual replicas to model, test, and troubleshoot. R&D Priorities: Magnets, radiation-hard materials, plasma models, high-temperature engineering. Timelines: Experiments to prototypes (~2040), demo reactor by mid-century/2060. Caveats: Commercial viability uncertain; hinges on breakthroughs in confinement, materials, and economics Learning Corner: ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor): Overview: ITER is the world’s largest international collaborative project in nuclear fusion research, under construction at Cadarache, France. Members: It involves 35 countries, including India, EU, USA, Russia, China, Japan, and South Korea. Objective: To demonstrate the feasibility of fusion power as a large-scale, carbon-free energy source by producing self-sustaining plasma. Technology: ITER is a tokamak (doughnut-shaped magnetic confinement device) designed to confine plasma at over 150 million °C, using powerful superconducting magnets. Power Goal: ITER aims for a Q ≥ 10, meaning it will generate 10 times more fusion power (500 MW) than the external heating power required (50 MW). Timeline: First plasma is targeted for the 2030s (delayed from original 2025). India’s Role: India, through the Institute for Plasma Research (IPR), Gandhinagar, contributes critical components like cryostat, cooling systems, in-wall shielding, and diagnostic tools. Significance: ITER is not a power plant but a demonstration facility — a stepping stone toward future demonstration and commercial fusion reactors (DEMO stage). Source:  THE HINDU Oju Hydroelectric Project Category: ENVIRONMENT Context: Union Environment Ministry’s expert committee has given clearance to the 2,200 MW Oju Hydroelectric Project on the Subansiri river in Arunachal Pradesh, near the China border. Key Summary in Bullet Points Location & Project Details Proposed on the Subansiri river in Upper Subansiri district, Arunachal Pradesh. Close to the China border; part of India’s border infrastructure push. To be developed by Oju Subansiri Hydro Power Corporation Pvt. Ltd. Technical Features Installed capacity: 2,200 MW. Dam type & height: Gravity dam, 120 m high. Reservoir: Submergence area of 434 hectares forest land (total diversion of ~750 hectares forest). Annual design energy: ~7,934 million units. Displacement: Only nine families affected. Strategic & Development Significance One of India’s largest hydroelectric projects. Strengthens infrastructure in Northeast, especially near the China border. Boosts India’s renewable energy capacity. Concerns & Criticism The Cumulative Impact Assessment (CIA) and Carrying Capacity Study (CCS) of the Subansiri basin were done in 2014, now considered outdated. Critics warn of landslides, dam-break scenarios, flash floods, and ecological impacts in the fragile Himalayan terrain. Environmentalists argue that the approval process did not sufficiently update scientific studies before clearance. Learning Corner: Subansiri River – Overview Origin: Rises in the Tibet Plateau (China), where it is known as the Chayul Chu. Course: Flows east and south-east through Tibet, then enters Arunachal Pradesh (India) near Taksing, before flowing into Assam, where it joins the Brahmaputra River at Lakhimpur district. Length: About 442 km (192 km in Tibet, 250 km in India). Significance: Largest tributary of the Brahmaputra, draining a major part of the Eastern Himalayas. Tributaries of Subansiri Right-bank tributaries: Kamla, Kurung, Panior, Ranga Nadi. Left-bank tributaries: Panyor, Dikrong, Pare. Collectively these streams drain the Upper Subansiri basin and feed the main Subansiri channel before it meets the Brahmaputra. Hydroelectric Projects on Subansiri Lower Subansiri Hydroelectric Project (2000 MW) Located at Gerukamukh (on Assam–Arunachal border). Being developed by NHPC. India’s largest hydroelectric project under construction, but facing delays due to environmental and safety concerns. Upper Subansiri Projects (Cascade system) Includes projects like Oju (2200 MW), Niare, Naba, Nalo, Denger, and others. Together, they form a series of cascade hydropower projects planned to harness the river’s steep gradient in Arunachal Pradesh. Oju Subansiri Hydroelectric Project (2200 MW) Recently given environmental clearance (Sept 2025). Located near Taksing in Upper Subansiri, close to the China border. To be developed by Oju Subansiri Hydro Power Corporation Pvt. Ltd. Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS Super Typhoon Ragasa Category: GEOGRAPHY Context Hong Kong shut down as Super Typhoon Ragasa, the world’s most powerful tropical cyclone of the year, approached southern China. Nature: Ragasa is the world’s most powerful tropical cyclone of

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) Bodoland Territorial Council (BTC) Category: POLITY Context:  Assam held elections for the Bodoland Territorial Council (BTC), which governs five districts in the Bodoland Territorial Region bordering Bhutan.  The BTC election saw a triangular contest among the United People’s Party Liberal (UPPL), Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), and Bodoland People’s Front (BPF). A total of 316 candidates are in the fray for 40 constituencies, with key leaders like Pramod Boro (UPPL) and Hagrama Mohilary (BPF) contesting. The results will be declared on September 26. Learning Corner: Bodoland Territorial Council (BTC): Formation: The BTC was formed in 2003 under the Sixth Schedule of the Indian Constitution after the signing of the Bodo Accord between the Government of India, Government of Assam, and Bodo Liberation Tigers. Jurisdiction: It governs the Bodoland Territorial Region (BTR), comprising four districts initially (Kokrajhar, Baksa, Chirang, Udalguri), later reorganized into five districts. The area is along Assam’s border with Bhutan. Structure: It has 40 elected members and 6 nominated by the Governor of Assam. The BTC enjoys legislative, executive, and administrative powers in 40 subjects, including land, forests, agriculture, education, and culture. Significance: Provides autonomy and self-governance for the Bodo people within Assam. Aims to protect and promote the social, cultural, linguistic, and ethnic identity of the Bodos while ensuring development in the region. Recent Developments: The 2020 Bodo Accord renamed BTC’s area as the Bodoland Territorial Region (BTR) and expanded its scope of development initiatives. Sixth Schedule of the Indian Constitution: Context & Purpose: The Sixth Schedule (Articles 244(2) and 275(1)) was incorporated to provide autonomous administration for certain tribal-dominated areas in the North-Eastern states. It seeks to protect the distinct culture, traditions, and administrative practices of tribal communities while ensuring their socio-economic development. Applicable States: Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, and Mizoram. Institutions Created: Autonomous District Councils (ADCs): Each district has its own council with 30 members (26 elected, 4 nominated by the Governor). Regional Councils: For smaller tribal groups within the districts. Powers & Functions: Legislative powers over subjects like land, forests (other than reserved forests), shifting cultivation, village administration, inheritance of property, marriage and divorce, social customs, etc. Executive powers to run departments like education, health, and local governance. Judicial powers through village and district courts for cases involving tribals. Financial powers include levy of taxes, fees, and receiving grants from the state government. Significance: Provides a unique model of self-governance within India’s federal structure. Balances tribal autonomy with the unity of the Indian Union. Source: THE HINDU Optical computing Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Context : Scientists are exploring light-based (optical) computing to overcome the speed and energy limitations of conventional electronics, especially for AI. Recent research found that nonlinear interactions of light in optical fibres can perform AI tasks faster and more efficiently. Optical computing uses photons instead of electrons, making it faster, more energy-efficient, and capable of handling massive data transfers. Researchers from Finland and France showed that intense light pulses in optical fibres can process AI tasks using physics rather than traditional algorithms. Their experiments trained AI models using optical signals, achieving high accuracy with lower energy use. While challenges remain, this breakthrough could revolutionize AI, offering unprecedented speed and efficiency for future computing. Learning Corner: Optical Fibres: Definition: Optical fibres are thin, flexible strands of glass or plastic that transmit data as pulses of light. Working Principle: They function on the principle of total internal reflection, where light signals bounce within the core of the fibre without escaping, allowing data to travel long distances with minimal loss. Structure: Core: The innermost part where light travels. Cladding: Surrounds the core and reflects light back into it. Buffer Coating: Provides protection and strength. Types: Single-mode fibres: Narrow core, transmit light directly, used for long-distance communication. Multi-mode fibres: Larger core, multiple light paths, used for short distances. Applications: High-speed internet and telecommunication networks. Medical imaging (endoscopy). Defense and aerospace communication. Emerging uses in optical computing and AI. Advantages: High bandwidth and faster data transfer. Low signal loss and immune to electromagnetic interference. Lightweight and durable. Source:  THE HINDU Quasi-moons Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Context: Astronomers have discovered a new asteroid, 2025 PN7, which follows an orbit similar to Earth’s and is classified as a quasi-moon. Quasi-moons and mini-moons are small celestial objects that temporarily accompany Earth in its orbit. The newly observed quasi-moon, 2025 PN7, spotted this summer, could be the smallest of its kind at under 52 feet. Such objects often originate from the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter or as debris from the Moon. Unlike permanent moons, they are temporary companions, staying for decades before drifting away. Earth has had similar followers before, with quasi-moons providing opportunities for research and possible future space missions. Learning Corner: Quasi-moons and Mini-moons: Mini-moons: Small natural objects that temporarily orbit Earth. Unlike the permanent Moon, they are short-term companions, often staying a few months to years. Many are captured asteroids or chunks of the Moon ejected after meteorite impacts. Example: 2006 RH120, a mini-moon that orbited Earth for about a year. Quasi-moons: Objects that orbit the Sun, but follow a path very similar to Earth’s orbit, appearing like companions. They are not true satellites but remain in Earth’s vicinity for decades in a stable gravitational “dance.” Example: 2025 PN7 (recently spotted), 469219 Kamo‘oalewa (discovered in 2016). They maintain a constant average distance from Earth, often staying in a resonant orbital pattern. Significance: Both are temporary companions of Earth. Useful for scientific studies, space missions, and potential resource exploration, as they are relatively close and easier to reach than main-belt asteroids. Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS New START treaty Category: INTERNATIONAL Context Russia has proposed a one-year extension to the New START nuclear arms control treaty with the US, set to expire in February 2026. President Vladimir Putin offered the US a one-year extension of the New START treaty, the last remaining nuclear arms pact between the two nations, which limits each side to 1,550 deployed strategic nuclear warheads. Russia said it is willing to continue

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) Supercomputers Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Context:  Can be directly asked in Prelims. Purpose & Use Normal laptops handle daily tasks like browsing or essays. Supercomputers solve massive, complex, calculation-heavy problems—e.g., weather forecasting, simulating nuclear reactions, modelling the early universe. How They Work Use parallel computing: thousands of processors work simultaneously. Each processor tackles a small part of a problem, combining results into one solution. Require special infrastructure: high-speed networks, bespoke cooling (pipes, refrigeration, or special liquids). Structure (Organised in Layers) Processors: CPU + GPU (for parallel operations, simulations, scientific computations). Nodes: Groups of processors bundled together. Network: High-speed connections linking nodes, with Internet connections for remote access. Software Specialised software divides large problems into tasks across many processors. Users write scripts describing required computing and expected outputs. Outputs (numbers, images, simulations) stored and used for analysis. India’s Supercomputing Journey Began in the late 1980s when Western countries refused to export high-end machines. Led to the creation of C-DAC (1988). Developed PARAM series (from 1991). Now part of the National Supercomputing Mission (NSM), which aims to build ~70 supercomputers across India. Used in IITs, IISERs, IISc, and key institutes for weather forecasting, drug discovery, space research, AI models, etc. Future Outlook Quantum computers could surpass supercomputers in handling certain problems. European Commission has invested in exascale supercomputers (10¹⁸ operations/sec). India continues building indigenous systems for scientific research and strategic needs. Learning Corner: India’s Supercomputing Journey Background (1980s) In the late 1980s, Western countries, especially the U.S., refused to export high-end supercomputers to India due to technology embargoes. This triggered India’s indigenous supercomputing programme. C-DAC Establishment (1988) The Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC) was set up in 1988 by the Government of India to build domestic supercomputing capabilities. PARAM Series India’s first supercomputer PARAM 8000 was launched in 1991. It marked India’s entry into the global supercomputing community. The PARAM series evolved with improved speed and capacity over the years. Expansion (2000s onwards) Supercomputers were installed across IITs, IISc, IISERs, and national laboratories. Used for weather forecasting, climate modelling, molecular biology, drug discovery, space research, AI, and defence applications. National Supercomputing Mission (NSM) Launched in 2015 as a joint initiative of the Department of Science and Technology (DST) and the Ministry of Electronics and IT (MeitY), implemented by C-DAC and IISc. Aims to build 70+ high-performance computing (HPC) facilities across India, with indigenous hardware and software development. Recent Progress Supercomputers like Pratyush and Mihir have been deployed for weather and climate research. India is moving towards petascale and exascale computing capabilities. Source: THE HINDU H-1B visa Category: INTERNATIONAL Context : President Donald Trump announced an increase in H-1B visa fees to $100,000. Decision by U.S. Government The White House later clarified: It is a one-time fee, not an annual charge. Applies only to fresh H-1B visa applicants (next upcoming lottery cycle). Does not apply to renewals or existing visa holders re-entering the U.S. Reason & Remarks U.S. Commerce Secretary Howard Lutnick initially created confusion by suggesting the fee might be annual. He justified the fee saying tech companies should stop training foreign workers and instead train American graduates. Impact on Indian H-1B Holders The announcement caused panic among Indian H-1B visa holders outside the U.S., leading to a surge in last-minute flight bookings before the fee clarification. Travel agents reported a rush to return before the proclamation took effect on September 20–21, 2025 midnight. Learning Corner: Types of U.S. Visas U.S. visas are broadly classified into two categories: Non-Immigrant Visas (temporary stay) Issued for travel, study, business, or work on a temporary basis. Some major types: B-1 / B-2 Visa – For business (B-1) and tourism/medical treatment (B-2). F-1 Visa – For students enrolled in U.S. academic institutions. J-1 Visa – For exchange visitors, scholars, researchers, and interns. H-1B Visa – For skilled workers in specialty occupations (IT, engineering, etc.). H-2B Visa – For temporary or seasonal non-agricultural workers. L-1 Visa – For intra-company transferees (executives, managers, specialized knowledge staff). O Visa – For individuals with extraordinary ability in sciences, arts, education, business, or athletics. P Visa – For athletes, artists, and entertainers. R-1 Visa – For religious workers. Immigrant Visas (permanent stay – leads to Green Card) For individuals intending to live permanently in the U.S. Family-sponsored visas – For spouses, children, parents, or siblings of U.S. citizens or permanent residents. Employment-based visas (EB-1 to EB-5) – For workers with extraordinary abilities, professionals, skilled/unskilled workers, and investors. Diversity Visa (DV) Lottery – Known as the “Green Card Lottery,” for nationals of countries with low immigration to the U.S. Special Immigrant Visas (SIV) – For specific categories like Afghan/Iraqi interpreters who assisted U.S. forces. Source:  THE HINDU Extreme Nuclear Transients Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Context: Astronomers have spotted the biggest bangs since the Big Bang. Discovery Astronomers from the University of Hawaii’s Institute for Astronomy (IfA) have identified a new category of cosmic events called Extreme Nuclear Transients (ENTs). ENTs are more powerful than gamma-ray bursts (GRBs), previously thought to be the most energetic events in the universe. What are ENTs? ENTs occur when stars stray too close to supermassive black holes in galactic centers. Extreme gravitational forces stretch and compress the star into a long stream (“spaghettification”), releasing massive electromagnetic energy. ENTs can be up to 10 times more energetic than the brightest previously known explosions. Rarity & Observation ENTs are far rarer than Tidal Disruption Events (TDEs), which are already uncommon. Their immense brightness makes them detectable across vast cosmic distances. Data from the Gaia spacecraft helped detect and study these phenomena. Significance ENTs are considered the biggest explosions since the Big Bang. They offer astronomers a new way to study black holes, galactic centers, and the evolution of the universe. ENTs differ from GRBs as they last much longer and are not just bursts but sustained emissions of energy. Future Prospects With new telescopes like the Vera C. Rubin Observatory and the Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope, astronomers expect to detect more ENTs. Studying