Current Affairs

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   SPEAKER Syllabus Prelims & Mains – POLITY Context: As the 18th Lok Sabha prepares to meet, the TDP and JD(U), key allies of the BJP in the National Democratic Alliance (NDA), are said to be jockeying for the post of Speaker. Background:- After a pro tem or temporary Speaker administers the oath to new members, the Speaker is chosen to be the Presiding Officer of the House. About Speakers post The Speaker has a key role in parliamentary democracy. The Constitution of India provides for the offices of the Speaker and Deputy Speaker who, according to Article 93, are to be elected “as soon as may be” after the commencement of the House. The Speaker is elected by a simple majority in the House. The term ends with the dissolution of the House, unless the Speaker resigns or is removed from office before that. A motion of no-confidence can be moved against the Speaker with notice of 14 days as per Article 94 of the Constitution. Separately, the Speaker, like any other member of the House, can face disqualification. There are no specific qualifications for becoming Speaker, which means any member is entitled to be considered. However, the post of Speaker is distinct from other members in the House. The salary of the Speaker is drawn from the Consolidated Fund of India unlike for other MPs, which flow from a statute voted on by the House itself. Powers of the Speaker Conducting house: The conduct of government business is decided by the Speaker in consultation with the Leader of the House. Prior permission of the Speaker is required for members to ask a question, or to discuss any matter. Question and Records: The Speaker decides the admissibility of a question raised by a member, as well as how the proceedings of the House are published. The Speaker has the power to expunge, in full or in part, remarks that she may consider to be unparliamentary. Critical remarks against the ruling party may not be published if the Speaker decides to expunge them. Casting Vote: According to Article 100 of the Constitution, which talks about voting in the Houses, the Chairman of Rajya Sabha or Speaker of Lok Sabha, or any person acting as such, “shall not vote in the first instance, but shall have an exercise a casting vote in the case of any equality of votes”. No-confidence Motion: One of the most important times when a Speaker’s impartiality impacts the Opposition is when a motion of no-confidence is moved against the government. Disqualification of members: The Tenth Schedule or the anti-defection law, introduced to the Constitution through the Fifty-Second (Amendment) Act, 1985, gives the Speaker of the House the power to disqualify legislators who ‘defect’ from a party. In the landmark case Kihoto Hollohan versus Zachillhu in 1992, the Supreme Court upheld the power vested in the Speaker and said that only the final order of the Speaker will be subject to judicial review. In 2020, the Supreme Court had ruled that Speakers of Assemblies and Lok Sabha must decide disqualification pleas within three months except in extraordinary circumstances. Source: Indian  Express BIRSA MUNDA Syllabus Prelims & Mains – HISTORY Context: The Jharkhand Governor and Chief Minister recently paid tribute to tribal icon Birsa Munda on his death anniversary. Background: Birsa Munda’s life and struggles are celebrated as an unparalleled example of service to the nation, and his legacy continues to inspire the ideals of patriotism and resistance against injustice. Key Takeaways Birsa Munda was a folk hero and a tribal freedom fighter from the Munda tribe. He was born on November 15, 1875, in Ulihatu village in present-day Jharkhand. Role in Freedom Struggle: He led an Indian tribal mass movement in the Bihar and Jharkhand belts in the early 19th century against British colonisation. He rallied the tribals to fight against the forceful land grabbing carried out by the British government. Birsa Munda Revolt: The Birsa Munda revolt, also known as the Munda Rebellion or Ulgulan (meaning ‘The Great Tumult’), was a significant tribal uprising against British colonial rule in India. It took place in the late 19th century, primarily in the Munda belt of Khunti, Tamar, Sarwada, and Bandgaon regions In response to the introduction of the Zamindari system in tribal areas, Birsa Munda declared “Ulgulan”, or revolt, against the British and the Dikus (outsiders) in 1894. Religious Influence: He created a faith called ‘Birsait’ and propagated the principles of Hindu religion. Known as ‘Dharti Abba’ or the Earth Father, Birsa Munda stressed the need for the tribals to study their own religion and not forget their cultural roots. Legacy: His struggle against exploitation and discrimination against tribals led to the Chotanagpur Tenancy Act being passed in 1908. The act restricted the passing on of land from the tribal people to non-tribals. The state of Jharkhand was created on his birth anniversary in 2000. Death: He died on June 9, 1900, at the age of 25. Source: Hindustan Times QUANTUM DATA Syllabus Prelims & Mains – Government schemes Context: A new quantum computing study claims that a recent finding in the production, storage and retrieval of “quantum data” has brought us one step closer to the quantum internet. Background: The study, conducted by researchers from Imperial College London, the University of Southampton, and the Universities of Stuttgart and Wurzburg in Germany, utilized a specialized photon source to achieve this feat. About QUANTUM DATA Quantum data refers to information stored and processed using the principles of quantum mechanics. Unlike classical data, which is represented by binary states (0s and 1s), quantum data is represented by quantum bits or qubits. Qubits can exist in multiple states simultaneously due to a property called superposition, and they can be entangled with other qubits, allowing for a kind of interconnectedness and correlation that classical bits cannot achieve. Applications of Quantum Data: Cryptography: Quantum key distribution (QKD) leverages the principles of quantum mechanics to create secure communication channels that are theoretically immune to eavesdropping. Optimization

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   NITROUS OXIDE EMISSIONS UP 40 % IN 40 YEARS Syllabus Prelims – ENVIRONMENT Context: Emissions of planet-warming nitrous oxide gas rose by 40 per cent between 1980 and 2020, a study by the Global Carbon Project revealed recently. Background:- China (16.7 per cent), India (10.9 per cent), US (5.7 per cent), Brazil (5.3 per cent) and Russia (4.6 per cent) were the top five emitters of the gas more potent than carbon dioxide and methane. About NITROUS OXIDE Nitrous oxide commonly known as laughing gas is a chemical compound, an oxide of nitrogen with the formula N2O. At room temperature, it is a colourless non-flammable gas, and has a slightly sweet scent and taste. At elevated temperatures, nitrous oxide is a powerful oxidiser similar to molecular oxygen. Nitrous oxide has significant medical uses, especially in surgery and dentistry, for its anaesthetic and pain-reducing effects. Its colloquial name, “laughing gas” is due to the euphoric effects upon inhaling it, a property that has led to its recreational use as a dissociative anaesthetic.It is on the World Health Organization’s List of Essential Medicines. Most recreational users are unaware of its neurotoxic effects when abused. When used chronically, nitrous oxide has the potential to cause neurological damage through inactivation of vitamin B12. It is also used as an oxidiser in rocket propellants, and in motor racing to increase the power output of engines. It is a major scavenger of stratospheric ozone, with an impact comparable to that of CFCs. Being the third most important greenhouse gas, nitrous oxide substantially contributes to global warming. Reduction of emissions is a popular topic in the politics of climate change. Key Takeaways from the study Agricultural production and livestock rearing were the two key human-driven sources of nitrous oxide. In the last decade agricultural production, chiefly owing to the use of nitrogen fertilisers and animal manure, contributed to 74 per cent of the total anthropogenic nitrous oxide emissions, according to the study. The world’s farmers used 60 million metric tonnes of commercial nitrogen fertilisers in 1980. By 2020, the sector used 107 million metric tonnes. Nitrous oxide is also emitted from natural sources such as oceans, inland water bodies and soil. These sources contributed to 11.8 per cent of the global emissions of the gas between 2010 and 2019. Agriculture activities and related waste generation, biomass burning, fossil fuels and industries together contributed to around six per cent of the global nitrous oxide emissions in 2010-2019, the study noted. The study involved examination of global data for all major economic activities that lead to nitrous oxide emissions and 18 anthropogenic and natural sources and three absorbent “sinks” of global nitrous oxide. The High levels of nitrous oxide in the atmosphere can deplete the ozone layer and compound effects of climate change, the study said. On the earth, excess nitrogen contributes to soil, water and air pollution. Among the 18 regions considered in this study, only Europe, Russia, Australasia, and Japan and Korea had decreasing nitrous oxide emissions. Europe had the largest rate of decrease between 1980 and 2020, resulting from reduced fossil fuel and industry emissions. China and South Asia, on the other hand, had the largest increases in nitrous oxide emissions from 1980 to 2020 at 92 per cent. Nitrous oxide emissions from human activities must decline in order to limit global temperature rise to 2 degrees Celsius as established by the Paris Agreement.Reducing nitrous oxide emissions is the only solution since at this point no technologies exist that can remove nitrous oxide from the atmosphere. Source: Indian Express RAM PRASAD BISMIL Syllabus Prelims & Mains – HISTORY Context: 11th June marked the birth anniversary of freedom fighter Ram Prasad Bismil. Background: His ideals of freedom struggle stood in contrast to that of Mahatma Gandhi and he would reportedly say “independence would not be achieved by means of non-violence”. About RAM PRASAD BISMIL Ram Prasad Bismil (11 June 1897 – 19 December 1927) was an Indian poet, writer, and revolutionary who fought againstBritish Raj. He composed poetry in both Urdu and Hindi, using pen names like Ram, Agyat, and Bismil. Early Life: Bismil was born on June 11, 1897, in Shahjahanpur district (present-day Uttar Pradesh, India). He came from a Brahmin family and showed early talent for writing patriotic poetry. Bismil learned Hindi from his father and Urdu from a moulvi. Despite his father’s disapproval, he attended an English-language school and joined the Arya Samaj. Revolutionary Activities: At 18, Bismil read about the death sentence passed on Bhai Parmanand, a scholar and companion of Har Dayal. Angered by this, he composed a Hindi poem titled “Mera Janm” (My Birth), expressing his commitment to removing British control over India. Bismil was associated with the Arya Samaj and became a founding member of the revolutionary organization Hindustan Republican Association (HRA). Conspiracies : Bismil participated in the Mainpuri Conspiracy of 1918 and the Kakori Conspiracy of 1925. Bismil got his name etched as a prominent freedom fighter with his participation in the Mainpuri conspiracy of 1918. Bismil along with Genda Lal Dixit, a school teacher from Auraiya, organised youth from Etahwah, Mainpuri, Agra and Shahjahanpur districts to strengthen their organisations, ‘Matrivedi’ and ‘Shivaji Samiti’. He published a pamphlet titled ‘Deshwasiyon ke Naam’ and distributed it along with his poem ‘Mainpuri ki Pratigya’ on January 28, 1918. To collect funds for the parties, they looted government coffers. The Kakori train robbery, masterminded by Bismil, aimed to fund revolutionary activities. On August 9, 1925, Ram Prasad Bismil along with companions Ashfaqulla Khan and others executed the plan of looting the train at Kakori near Lucknow. After the revolutionaries stopped the 8-Down Saharanpur Lucknow passenger train at Kakori, Ashfaqullah Khan, Sachindra Bakshi, Rajendra Lahiri and Ram Prasad Bismil subdued the guard and looted cash meant for the treasury. Within a month of the attack, the angered colonial authorities arrested more than a dozen HRA members.After the trial in the so-called Kakori conspiracy, these four revolutionaries were sentenced to be hanged. Source: PIB GENERAL ANTI-AVOIDANCE RULE (GAAR) Syllabus Prelims – CURRENT EVENT Context: The Telangana High Court has made a significant ruling regarding the General Anti-avoidance Rule (GAAR). Background: The court ruled against a taxpayer, Ayodhya Rami Reddy Alla, in

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   HIGH SEAS BIODIVERSITY TREATY Syllabus Prelims – ENVIRONMENT Context: Grethel Aguilar, the director general of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), urged countries worldwide “to strive for a fully functional High Seas Biodiversity Treaty”. Background:- The high seas are those areas of the world’s oceans that are outside national jurisdictions. They constitute a huge chunk of the world’s oceans and are home to a wide variety of biodiversity. About HIGH SEAS BIODIVERSITY TREATY The United Nations agreement on biodiversity beyond national jurisdiction or BBNJ Agreement, also referred to by some stakeholders as the High Seas Treaty or Global Ocean Treaty, is a legally binding instrument for the conservation and sustainable use of marine biological diversity of areas beyond national jurisdiction. It is an agreement under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). The text was finalised during an intergovernmental conference at the UN on 4 March 2023 and adopted on 19 June 2023 Here are some key points about the treaty: Protection Beyond Borders: While countries are responsible for the conservation and sustainable use of waterways under their national jurisdiction, the high seas now have added protection from such destructive trends as pollution and unsustainable fishing activities. Cleaner Oceans: The treaty aims at strengthening resilience and contains provisions based on the polluter-pays principle as well as mechanisms for disputes. It addresses the issue of toxic chemicals and plastic waste flooding into coastal ecosystems. Sustainable Management of Fish Stocks: More than one third of global fish stocks are over-exploited, according to the UN. The treaty underlines the importance of capacity building and the transfer of marine technology. Legal Framework: The treaty provides a legal framework for addressing various stressors affecting the marine environment in the high seas. Addressing Planetary Crisis: The treaty is crucial for addressing the triple planetary crisis of climate change, biodiversity loss, and pollution. The treaty recognizes traditional knowledge. It has articles regarding the “polluter-pays” principle, and different impacts of human activities including areas beyond the national jurisdiction of the countries making those activities. The agreement was adopted by the 193 United Nations Member States. Before the treaty can enter into force, it needs to be ratified by at least 60 UN member states. However, only seven countries — Belize, Chile, Mauritius, Federated States of Micronesia, Monaco, Palau and the Seychelles — have ratified the treaty. India has neither signed nor ratified the treaty. Greenpeace called it “the biggest conservation victory ever”. The main achievement is the new possibility to create marine protected areas in international waters. Source: Down To Earth STICKY INFLATION Syllabus Prelims & Mains – ECONOMY Context: RBI in its recent monetary policy review decided to retain the repo rate, for eighth time in a row, due to concerns of sticky inflation. Background: Therepo rate is the interest rate at which the RBI lends money to commercial banks. When RBI wants to incentivise economic activity in the broader economy, it reduces the repo rate, which makes it cheaper for banks to borrow from it and lend onwards to customers. When it wants to disincentivise economic activity, it raises the repo rate, which makes it costly for everyone in the economy to borrow money. Key Takeaways Sticky inflation refers to a phenomenon where prices do not adjust quickly to changes in supply and demand, leading to persistent inflation. When prices are sticky, inflation can persist even if the economy operates below its potential level. Sticky inflation has been a concern for many central banks, making it difficult to control inflation. Simply put, if inflation stays persistently high (‘sticky’), it would necessitate the RBI to keep raising interest rates — or, at the very least, keep them at a high level for a longer period — and, in doing so, hurt India’s economic There is a constant tradeoff between maintaining price stability (read containing inflation) and boosting growth (which hopefully creates jobs and reduces unemployment). Why is the RBI not cutting interest rates? Currently, the retail inflation rate has been coming down closer to the 4% mark. In fact, it has stayed within the so-called “comfort zone” of the RBI — anywhere between 2% and 6% — since September 2023 and yet, the RBI has not changed the repo rate since February 2023. There are four broad reasons for it: One, despite keeping the repo rate consistently high, the retail inflation has not dropped to touch the 4% mark since January 2021. Although it has declined, the rate of its decline has been very gradual. In fact, the RBI has expressed its concern over the stickiness of inflation. Two, the RBI does not cut the repo rate as soon as the overall inflation rate falls to (or below) the 4% target in any one month. The RBI has to be convinced that inflation rate will stay around the 4% mark sustainably. The RBI’s policy statement predicts that inflation is likely to fall below the 4% target in the near future but that fall would only be due to temporary reasons. Three, as explained earlier, the RBI typically cuts the repo rate when it finds that economic activity needs a boost. However, India’s gross domestic product (GDP) growth rate has been surprisingly strong over the past year in particular. Under the circumstances, it is unlikely that repo rates are holding back India’s economic growth. Four, although not articulated by the RBI per se, the decision may have to do with India’s forthcomingUnion Budget. Most economists are waiting to see how the political compulsions of a coalition government will impact the Centre’s commitment to fiscal deficit — the amount of money the government intends to borrow from the market. Higher than anticipated fiscal deficit has implications for both inflation (if more fresh money is printed) or interest rates (if there is less money for the private sector to borrow). Source: Indian Express INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION OF MIGRATION (IOM) Syllabus Prelims – INTERNATIONAL Context: The International Organization for Migration (IOM) reported at least 49 migrants died and 140 others were missing after their boat capsized

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   A NEW WAY TO PREDICT EL NIÑO, LA NIÑA Syllabus Prelims – GEOGRAPHY Context: Hyderabad-based Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) has developed a new product to predict the emergence of El Niño and La Niña conditions — they are different phases of El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) — up to 15 months in advance. Background:- In India, while El Niño conditions usually lead to a weak monsoon and intense heatwaves, La Niña conditions result in a strong monsoon. About ENSO ENSO is a climate phenomenon that involves changes in the temperature of waters in the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean, coupled with fluctuations in the overlying atmosphere. It can alter the global atmospheric circulation, which, in turn, influences weather across the world. ENSO occurs in irregular cycles of 2-7 years and has three different phases — warm (El Niño), cool (La Niña), and neutral. In the neutral phase, the eastern side of the Pacific Ocean (near the northwestern coast of South America) is cooler than the western side (near the Philippines and Indonesia). This is due to the prevailing wind systems that move from east to west, sweeping the warmer surface waters towards the Indonesian coast. The relatively cooler waters from below come up to replace the displaced water. In the El Niño phase, however, wind systems weaken, leading to lesser displacement of warmer waters. As a result, the eastern side of the Pacific becomes warmer than usual. In contrast, a La Niña event is characterized by a period of colder than average sea surface temperatures in the central and eastern Pacific Ocean and an intensification of the prevailing east to west surface winds. What is the new product? Known as Bayesian Convolutional Neural Network (BCNN), the new product uses the latest technologies such as Artificial Intelligence (AI), deep learning, and machine learning (ML) to improve forecasts related to the ENSO phases. The model’s prediction relies on the fact that El Niño or La Niña are connected to the slow oceanic variations and their atmospheric coupling, which gives sufficient lead time to issue early forecasts. How does BCNN compare with existing models? There are largely two kinds of weather models used for forecasting. One is the statistical model, which generates forecasts based on various information sets received from different countries and regions. The other is the dynamic model, which involves a 3D mathematical simulation of the atmosphere done using High Performance Computers (HPC). The dynamic model is much more accurate than the statistical model. The BCNN, however, is a combination of the dynamic model with AI. This helps it forecast the emergence of El Niño and La Niña conditions with a 15-month lead time — unlike other models which can give a prediction up to six to nine months in advance. Source: Indian Express GOVT LOOKS AT INCOME TAX RATE CUT TO BOOST DEMAND, TRIGGER PRIVATE INVESTMENT Syllabus Prelims & Mains – ECONOMY Context: As the Indian economy grapples with the problem of flagging consumption, policymakers in the government are in favour of rationalising the existing income tax structure, especially at lower income levels. Background: In the most recent GDP data release for the January-March quarter on May 31, Private Final Consumption Expenditure (PFCE), an indicator of consumption demand, dropped as a share of GDP to 52.9 per cent — the lowest level in the 2011-12 base year series. Key Takeaways According to senior government officials, it is likely that tax rate cuts for those earning less may likely take precedence over freebies or excessive welfare spending given the focus on fiscal consolidation. The tax cuts may be a more efficient measure to enhance disposable income, which in turn would result in higher consumption, and give a fillip to economic activities. A boost to consumption is being seen as crucial for reviving demand, which in turn is central to restarting the investment cycle, especially rekindling private capital expenditure in consumer-focused sectors. The revenue loss from any such measure requires a dynamic analysis, officials said. “Since it is expected to spur demand, it requires a general equilibrium analysis to assess the net effect. There will be more money in the hands of the people, leading to better consumption and more direct and indirect tax revenues. So even though revenue loss might be there, the net effect will be positive,” the official said. In the most recent GDP data release for the January-March quarter on May 31, Private Final Consumption Expenditure (PFCE), an indicator of consumption demand, dropped as a share of GDP to 52.9 per cent — the lowest level in the 2011-12 base year series. The government has been focusing on fiscal consolidation over the last few years, with an aim to bring down the fiscal deficit to 5.1 per cent of the GDP in 2024-25 and reduce it further to below 4.5 per cent in 2025-26. The discussions have taken note that the rise in marginal income tax is “too steep” in the existing tax structure. Right now, in the new tax system, first slab of 5 per cent starts at Rs 3 lakh. By the time it goes to Rs 15 lakh, which is five times, the marginal tax rate jumps from 5 per cent to 30 per cent — a six fold jump. So while income goes up five times, the marginal tax rate goes up six times, which is quite steep. Tax simplification is also being seen as a better tool than overt spending on welfare schemes, which may see possible leakages. Source: Indian Express TARAKNATH DAS Syllabus Prelims – HISTORY Context: Birth anniversary of Shri Taraknath Das was celebrated recently. Background: He was a pioneering immigrant in the west coast of North America and discussed his plans with Tolstoy, while organising the Asian Indian immigrants in favour of the Indian independence movement. About TARAKNATH DAS Taraknath Das (15 June 1884 – 22 December 1958) was an Indian revolutionary and internationalist scholar. Tarak was born at Majupara, in the 24 Parganas district

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   PRO-TERM SPEAKER Syllabus Prelims – POLITY Context: Senior Congress leader K Suresh, as the seniormost member of the Lok Sabha, is expected to be appointed as pro-tem Speaker when the first session of the 18th Lok Sabha begins. Background:- The 18th Lok Sabha will hold its first session from June 24 to July 3, during which the new Speaker of the House will be elected. Until this happens, a pro-tem Speaker will be chosen to swear in the new Members of Parliament. What is a pro-tem Speaker? Being the Presiding Officer of the Lok Sabha, the Speaker has to fulfil certain key duties related to its day-to-day proceedings. Article 94 of the Indian Constitution states: “Whenever the House of the People is dissolved, the Speaker shall not vacate his office until immediately before the first meeting of the House of the People after the dissolution.” In the new Lok Sabha, the Speaker of the House is decided by a simple majority. Until her selection, the pro-tem Speaker is chosen to administer some important duties. ‘Pro-tem’ essentially means ‘for the time being’ or ‘temporarily’. The Constitution does not mention the post. However, the official ‘Handbook on the Working of Ministry of Parliamentary Affairs’ speaks about the ‘Appointment and Swearing in of Speaker pro term’. How is the pro-tem Speaker chosen? The handbook states when the Speaker post falls vacant before a new Lok Sabha, “the duties of the Speaker are to be performed by a Member of the House appointed for this purpose by the President as Speaker pro tem”. Administering oaths to the new MPs is the pro-tem Speaker’s primary duty. Under Article 99 of the Constitution, “Every Member of the House shall, before taking his seat, make and subscribe before the President or some person appointed in that behalf by him, an oath or affirmation according to the form set out for the purpose in the Third Schedule of the Constitution.” Normally, three other elected members of the Lok Sabha are also appointed by the President for the MPs to take oath before them. According to the handbook, the seniormost members (in terms of number of years of membership of the House) are generally chosen for the purpose, though there have been exceptions. As soon as the new government is formed, the Legislative I Section of the Government of India prepares a list of the seniormost Lok Sabha members. It is then submitted to the Minister of Parliamentary Affairs or the Prime Minister for identifying an MP as Speaker pro-tem and another three members for oath-taking. How are new MPs administered oaths? After the Prime Minister’s approval, the consent of these members is obtained by the Minister of Parliamentary Affairs. The Minister then submits a note to the President, seeking approval for the appointment of the Speaker pro-tem and the other three members. They also decide the date and time of the swearing-in ceremony. Following the approval of the President, the Ministry informs the Speaker pro-tem and other members about their appointments. Finally, the President administers the oath to the Speaker pro-tem in the Rashtrapati Bhawan. The other three members appointed by the President are administered the oath by the Speaker pro-tem in the Lok Sabha. Source: Indian Express STRATEGIC IMPERATIVE AND ENVIRONMENT CONCERN IN GREAT NICOBAR PROJECT Syllabus Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: The Congress party has described the proposed Rs 72,000-crore infra upgrade at the Great Nicobar Island as a grave threat to the island’s indigenous inhabitants and fragile ecosystem, and demanded immediate suspension of all clearances and a thorough, impartial review of the proposed project. Background: The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are a cluster of 836 islands, split into two groups — the Andaman Islands to the north and the Nicobar Islands to the south — by the 150-km wide Ten Degree Channel. Key Takeaways Great Nicobar is the southernmost and largest of the Nicobar Islands, a sparsely inhabited 910-sq-km patch of mainly tropical rainforest in southeastern Bay of Bengal. Indira Point on the island, India’s southernmost point, is only 90 nautical miles (less than 170 km) from Sabang at the northern tip of Sumatra, the largest island of the Indonesian archipelago. Great Nicobar has two national parks, a biosphere reserve, small populations of the Shompen and Nicobarese tribal peoples, and a few thousand non-tribal settlers. The Great Nicobar Island has tropical wet evergreen forests, mountain ranges reaching almost 650 m above sea level, and coastal plains. The leatherback sea turtle is the island’s flagship species. The project for the “holistic development” of Great Nicobar Island was implemented after a report by NITI Aayog. A pre-feasibility report flagged the opportunity to leverage the strategic location of the island, which is roughly equidistant from Colombo in Sri Lanka to the southwest and Port Klang (Malaysia) and Singapore to the southeast.   It is close to the Malacca Strait, the main waterway that connects the Indian Ocean to the Pacific, and the infrastructure project is expected to allow Great Nicobar to participate in the regional and global maritime economy by becoming a major player in cargo transshipment. It has been alleged that the project violates the rights of the tribal population, and will impact the island’s ecology with the felling of nearly a million trees. The opposition — by wildlife conservation researchers, anthropologists, scholars, and civil society apart from the Congress — has focused on the potentially devastating impact on the Shompen, a particularly vulnerable tribal group (PVTG) of hunter-gatherers with an estimated population of a few hundred individuals who live in a tribal reserve on the island. It is feared that the port project will destroy coral reefs with spinoff effects on the local marine ecosystem, and pose a threat to the terrestrial Nicobar Megapode bird and leatherback turtles who nest in the Galathea Bay area. For Your Information: The Great Nicobar project is to be implemented in three phases over the next 30 years. The proposal: A

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   PANTANAL WETLAND Syllabus Prelims – GEOGRAPHY Context: Brazil’s Pantanal wetland is ablaze, with fires in June breaking historical records for that month. Background:- Brazil’s National Institute of Space Research (INPE) has detected 733 fires in the Pantanal biome so far this month, with the previous record for fires in Pantanal for June being 435 registered in 2005. About PANTANAL WETLAND   Situated in the heart of South America, the Pantanal is the world’s largest tropical wetland. At 42 million acres, the Pantanal covers an area slightly larger than England and sprawls across three countries—Bolivia, Brazil, and Paraguay. About 80 percent of the Pantanal is in Brazil. While not as globally familiar as the Amazon to the north, the Pantanal is one of the most biologically rich environments on the planet with more than 4,700 plant and animal species. In fact, the Pantanal contains South America’s highest concentration of some wildlife species, including the jaguar and caiman. From October to March, floodwaters fill the Pantanal like a giant reservoir and drain out slowly between April and September, providing ideal aquatic habitat, nutrient renewal, and flood control for millions of people downstream. The Pantanal also contains a hub of economic activity, ranging from cattle ranching to soy production to tourism. The economic activities of the states within the Pantanal contributed more than $70 billion to their respective economies in 2015. This wetland also provides an array of irreplaceable benefits that help the region’s economic development and environment, including river flow for boats to navigate, groundwater recharge, and regulation of floodwaters for millions of people. Source: CNN GREY ZONE WARFARE Syllabus Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: Since Lai Ching-te assumed office as Taiwan’s president, his tenure has faced a rocky start, marked by China’s belligerent reaction to his pro-independence stance. China has now shifted to a ‘grey-zone’ warfare strategy to consistently undermine Taiwan. Background: Experts from the US and Europe have characterised certain Russian actions also as examples of grey zone warfare. Key Takeaways Grey zone warfare generally means a middle, unclear space that exists between direct conflict and peace in international relations. A multitude of activities fall into the category grey zone warfare — from nefarious economic activities, influence operations, and cyberattacks to mercenary operations, assassinations, and disinformation campaigns. Experts also include economic actions such as debt traps and economic sanctions under grey zone. What grey zone warfare looks like: examples – Experts from the US and Europe have characterised certain Russian and Chinese actions of late as examples of grey zone warfare. It includes the Chinese military’s presence in the South China Sea. The Philippines is one of the countries which has challenged China’s claims in south china sea. In December 2023, it termed the presence of more than 135 Chinese maritime militia vessels near a disputed reef as “illegal”. It accused China of firing water cannons at its boats and ramming into others, while the Chinese coast guard blamed the Philippines for hitting Chinese boats. Another example can befound in a recent Reuters report, which said, “Taiwan has complained for four years of stepped-up Chinese military action, such as fighters regularly flying over the strait as part of a ‘grey zone’ strategy to wear down Taiwan with activities that stop short of a full-blown conflict.” US has also engaged in grey zone tactics . These include its economic sanctions against China and imposition of duties on Chinese imports to the US, along with maritime reconnaissance. Why is grey zone warfare seen as a separate category of action? Firstly, the challenges that grey zone warfare poses differ from those of an open conflict. Here, action is often covert or indirect, meaning a country’s response needs to be appropriate in terms of its scale. China might have other aims in mind.I ts actions could be designed to bait the other party into escalation, which would thus free Chinese forces to respond in kind – and the use of force would then be legitimised as a form of self-defence or response in kind to what the other party does. Other reasons for engaging in such tactics include the projection of strength, and to normalise disputed territorial claims by repeatedly marking a presence in those regions. Source: Indian Express MONTREAL PROTOCOL Syllabus Prelims & Mains – Environment Context: A new study released has reported the first significant decrease in atmospheric concentrations of hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), potent ozone-depleting substances (ODS). HCFC emissions peaked in 2021, earlier than the anticipated year of 2026, and are now on a downward trend. Background: This important milestone demonstrates the benefits of the Montreal Protocol for mitigating climate change and stratospheric ozone layer loss. About MONTREAL PROTOCOL The Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous substances that are responsible for ozone depletion. It was agreed on 16 September 1987, and entered into force on 1 January 1989. Since then, it has undergone nine revisions, in 1990 (London), 1991 (Nairobi), 1992 (Copenhagen), 1993 (Bangkok), 1995 (Vienna), 1997 (Montreal), 1999 (Beijing) and 2016 (Kigali). Due to its widespread adoption and implementation, it has been hailed as an example of successful international co-operation. Former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan stated that “perhaps the single most successful international agreement to date has been the Montreal Protocol”. The ozone treaty has been ratified by 198 parties (197 states and the European Union), making them the first universally ratified treaties in United Nations history. This truly universal treaty has also been remarkable in the expedience of the policy-making process at the global scale, where only 14 years lapsed between a basic scientific research discovery (1973) and the international agreement signed (1985 and 1987). The treaty is structured around several groups of halogenated hydrocarbons that deplete stratospheric ozone. All of the ozone depleting substances controlled by the Montreal Protocol contain either chlorine or bromine (substances containing only fluorine do not harm the ozone layer). Some ozone-depleting substances (ODSs) are not yet controlled by the Montreal Protocol, including nitrous oxide (N2O). For each group of ODSs, the

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   GLOBAL GENDER GAP INDEX Syllabus Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT, SOCIAL ISSUES Context: The 2024 edition of the Global Gender Gap Index places India at 129 out of the 146 countries it surveyed. This puts India at the 18th position from the bottom. Background:- For comparison, of the 156 countries included in 2021, India was at the 17th position from the bottom. Thus, overall, India’s ranking has remained in the bottom 20 over years. Key Takeaways The Global Gender Gap Index annually benchmarks the current state and evolution of gender parity across key dimensions.It is published by World Economic Forum Like all indices, the Global Gender Gap Index, first introduced in 2006, is a précis measure. It is a combination of four different sub-indices — economic participation and opportunity, educational attainment, health and survival and political empowerment — each summarising multiple indicators. The index lies between 0 and 1, with 1 denoting complete parity. It is important to note that this index focuses on gender gaps, that is, the focus is on the position of women relative to men (gender equality), rather than to their absolute position. The idea is to track changes in gender gaps both over time and across countries. The 2024 report shows that on “Health and Survival Score”, India’s value is at 0.951 which means that 95.1 per cent of the male-female gap has been closed. Similarly, in educational attainment, 96.4 per cent of the gap has been closed. India has done well on these indicators but since several other countries have done better, India is at 112th position in the educational ranking and at 142nd position in the health rankings among 146 countries. On economic participation, India’s score at 39.8 per cent places it at the 142nd position among 146 countries. While this is an improvement since 2021 (when it was 32.6 per cent), it is very low in absolute terms, and is lower than the 2012 score of 46 per cent. To put this score in perspective, countries with the lowest levels of economic parity are Bangladesh (31.1 per cent), Sudan, (33.7 per cent), Iran (34.3 per cent), Pakistan (36 per cent), India (39.8 per cent), and Morocco (40.6 per cent). In political participation, even though India has closed only 25.1 per cent of the gap, its global rank is 65. This reflects the fact that while the rest of the world has made significant forward strides towards gender equality in the economic, educational and health spheres, the global progress on gender equality in political participation remains low. We should note that India’s position was at 51 in 2021 with a value of 27.6 per cent, implying that India’s score has worsened over the last two years. There is ample research documenting the staggering economic costs of side lining women. An OECD estimate reveals that gender-based discrimination in social institutions could cost up to $12 trillion for the global economy, and that a reduction in gender discrimination can increase the rate of growth of GDP. Internalisation of this understanding would mean that gender equality has to be mainstreamed into economic policy making, rather than viewed as a residual concern to be tackled later, as an afterthought. Source: Indian Express KAVACH Syllabus Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: The accident involving the Sealdah Kanchanjunga Express on June 17, which claimed 10 lives, has brought to the fore once again the delay in installing Kavach, an indigenously developed automatic train protection (ATP) system, across the country’s rail network. Background: Experts, including former Railway Minister and West Bengal Chief Minister Mamata Banerjee, raised questions about the delay in the implementation of the system. About KAVACH The KAVACH is an indigenously developed Automatic Train Protection (ATP) system by the Research Design and Standards Organisation (RDSO) in collaboration with the Indian industry. It is a state-of-the-art electronic system with Safety Integrity Level-4 (SIL-4) standards. It is meant to provide protection by preventing trains to pass the signal at Red (which marks danger) and avoid collision. It activates the train’s braking system automatically if the driver fails to control the train as per speed restrictions. In addition, it prevents the collision between two locomotives equipped with functional Kavach systems. The system also relays SoS messages during emergency situations. An added feature is the centralised live monitoring of train movements through the Network Monitor System. ‘Kavach’ is one of the cheapest, SIL-4 certified technologies where the probability of error is 1 in 10,000 years. How does Kavach work on Railway Systems? The Traffic collision avoidance system (TCAS), with the help of equipment on board the locomotive and transmission towers at stations connected with Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) tags, helps in two-way communication between the station master and loco-pilot to convey any emergency message. The instrument panel inside the cabin helps the loco-pilot know about the signal in advance without visual sighting, and the permissible speeds to be maintained. If a red signal is jumped and two trains come face to face on the same line, the technology automatically takes over and applies sudden brakes. Additionally, the hooter activates by itself when approaching a level crossing which serves as a big boon to loco-pilots during fog conditions when visibility is low. Source: Hindu STATE OF GLOBAL AIR REPORT Syllabus Prelims & Mains – ENVIRONMENT Context: Air pollution has caused 8.1 million deaths around the world in 2021 with China and India accounting for more than half of the global burden at 2.3 and 2.1 million deaths respectively, according to the recently released State of Global Air Report. Background: The State of Global Air report is a comprehensive analysis of the levels and trends in air quality and health for every country in the world. They are produced annually by the Health Effects Institute and the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation’s (IHME’s) Global Burden of Disease (GBD) project. Key takeaways from the report As per the report, air pollution is considered to be one of the biggest killers globally, second only to

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   BIHAR QUOTA STRUCK DOWN Syllabus Prelims & Mains – SOCIAL JUSTICE Context: Patna High Court on Thursday set aside notifications by the Bihar government increasing reservation in government jobs and educational institutions from 50% to 65%. Background:- On November 7, 2023, the Nitish Kumar-led Mahagathbandhan government had raised the Bihar quota slab to 65 per cent. With this, reservation in the state effectively became 75 per cent when the 10 per cent quota for economically weaker sections (EWS) is taken into consideration. What did the high court say in its order ? The high court set aside the Bihar government’s move to hike quotas on various grounds, making it clear that population percentage cannot form the sole basis for it, merit cannot be totally compromised, and the move infringed upon the Constitution’s provisions for the right to equality. Another reason for the court’s decision to strike down the government’s decision is the Supreme Court-stipulated quota ceiling at 50%.The HC called enhancement of quota beyond 50% “bad in law based on principles of equality”. What is the 50% Ceiling on reservation? The 50% ceiling was introduced by the Supreme Court in its landmark 1992 decision in Indra Sawhney v Union of India in order to ensure “efficiency” in administration. The 6-3 majority verdict that upheld the 27% quota for socially and economically backward classes (SEBC) set two important precedents — first, it said that the criteria to qualify for reservation is “social and educational backwardness”; Second, it reiterated the 50% limit to vertical quotas that the court had laid down in earlier judgments (M R Balaji v State of Mysore, 1963, and Devadasan v Union of India, 1964). The 50% limit would apply unless in “exceptional circumstances”, the court said. The only exception to 50% limit  has been the 10% quota for the Economically Weaker Section (EWS) introduced in 2019. In November 2022, a five-judge Bench of the Supreme Court upheld the EWS quota in a 3-2 verdict that said the 50% ceiling applied only to SC/ ST and OBC quotas, and not to a separate quota that operated outside the ‘backwardness’ framework which was “an entirely different class”. Critics of the 50% ceiling argue that it is an arbitrary line drawn by the court. On the other hand, an argument is made that breaching 50% would be antithetical to the principle of equality since reservations are an exception to the rule. However, there is also a view that reservations are a feature of the fundamental right to equality, and part of the basic structure of the Constitution. Reservation in other states The 76th constitutional amendment in 1994 inserted the Tamil Nadu reservation law breaching the 50% limit into the Ninth Schedule of the Constitution. The Ninth Schedule provides the law with a “safe harbour” from judicial review under Article 31A of the Constitution. Laws placed in the Ninth Schedule cannot be challenged for reasons of violating any fundamental right protected under the Constitution. In May 2021, SC struck down a Maharashtra law that provided reservation to the Maratha community as unconstitutional, holding that the quota limit could not exceed 50%. Source: Indian Express NATIONAL MONETISATION PIPELINE (NMP) Syllabus Prelims & Mains – ECONOMY Context: National Monetisation Pipeline monetised Rs 3.85 lakh crore of assets in 3 years. Background: Pursuant to the announcement made in the Union Budget 2021-22, the National Monetisation Pipeline (NMP) – listing potential core assets of Central Government Ministries/PSEs for monetization during the period 2021-22 to 2024-25 – was prepared by NITI Aayog in collaboration with the concerned Infrastructure Ministries. About Asset Monetisation Asset monetisation is the process of creating new sources of revenue for the government and its entities by unlocking the economic value of unutilised or underutilised public assets. A public asset can be any property owned by a public body, roads, airports, railways, stations, pipelines, mobile towers, transmission lines, etc., or even land that remains unutilised. As a concept, asset monetisation implies offering public infrastructure to the institutional investors or private sector through structured mechanisms. Monetisation is different from ‘privatisation’, in fact, it signifies ‘structured partnerships’ with the private sector under certain contractual frameworks. Asset monetisation has two important motives: Firstly, it unlocks value from the public investment in infrastructure, and secondly, it utilises productivity in the private sector. National Monetisation Pipeline Union Minister for Finance and Corporate Affairs on 23 August 2021 launched the asset monetisation pipeline of Central ministries and public sector entities as ‘National Monetisation Pipeline’. It is considered as one of the key factors in fulfilling the government’s goal of providing universal access to high-quality and affordable infrastructure to its citizens. Under the ambitious NMP, the government has identified 13 sectors – including airports, railways, roads, shipping, gas pipeline among others. It estimates aggregate monetisation potential of Rs 6.0 lakh crores through core assets of the Central Government, over a four-year period, from FY 2022 to FY 2025. NMP is one among the three pronged strategy developed by the government to strengthen country’s infrastructure, the other two being creating institutional structures, and enhancing share of capital expenditure in central and state budgets. Source: PIB NEGLECTED TROPICAL DISEASE (NTD) Syllabus Prelims & Mains – SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Context: In a landmark achievement, Chad has become the first country in 2024 and the 51st globally to eliminate a neglected tropical disease (NTD) — the gambiense form of human African trypanosomiasis (HAT). Background: Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT), also known as sleeping sickness, is a parasitic disease transmitted by the bite of the Glossina, commonly known as the tsetse fly. This disease mostly affects poor populations living in remote rural areas of Africa. HAT takes 2 forms, depending on the subspecies of the infecting parasite: Trypanosoma brucei gambiense (92% of reported cases) and Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense (8%). About Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTDs) Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTDs) are a diverse group of mostly communicable diseases that prevail in tropical and subtropical conditions. These diseases disproportionately affect impoverished communities, impacting more than one billion people globally. Prevalence

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   SRINAGAR GETS TAG OF WORLD CRAFT CITY Syllabus Prelims – CURRENT EVENT Context: Srinagar has become the fourth Indian city to be recognised as a ‘World Craft City’ by the World Craft Council (WCC), three years after it was designated as part of the UNESCO Creative City Network (UCCN) for crafts and folk arts. Background:- Jaipur, Malappuram and Mysore are the other Indian cities that have previously been recognised as World Craft Cities. Key takeaways The World Craft City (WCC) initiative, launched in 2014 by the World Crafts Council AISBL (WCC-International), recognizes the vital role played by local authorities, craftspeople, and communities in cultural, economic, and social development worldwide. The WCC-World Craft City Programme establishes a dynamic network of craft cities across the globe, aligning with the principles of the creative economy. This initiative responds to the increasing acknowledgment of the valuable contributions made by local entities to the multifaceted dimensions of development. Key objectives of the WCC-World Craft City Programme: Global Recognition Showcase the reputation and assets of creative cities/regions specializing in specific craft disciplines, raw materials, articles, or a variety of crafts on a global platform. Government Advocacy Encourage governmental support and future commitments for the development of crafts in designated cities/regions. Local Innovation Strengthen local potential for innovation and foster the development of creative tourism. Knowledge Exchange Promote the exchange of know-how, experiences, and best practices in various craft fields at the national, regional, and international levels. Collaborative Opportunities Create new opportunities for cooperation and partnerships between designated craft cities. Source: World Crafts Council ENEMY AGENTS ORDINANCE Syllabus Prelims & Mains – Polity Context: Jammu and Kashmir Director General of Police (DGP) R R Swain said recently that those found assisting militants in J&K should be tried by investigating agencies under the Enemy Agents Ordinance, 2005. Background: The law is more stringent than the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA) and has the punishment of either a life term or a death sentence. About J&K Enemy Agents Ordinance The J&K Enemy Agents Ordinance was first issued in 1917 by the then Dogra Maharaja of J&K. It is referred to as an ‘ordinance’ since laws made during the Dogra rule were called ordinances. According to the ordinance, “whosoever is an enemy agent or, with an intent to aid the enemy, conspires with any other person to any act which is designed or likely to give assistance to the enemy or to impede the military or air operations of Indian forces or to endanger life or is guilty of incendiarism shall be punishable with death or rigorous imprisonment for life or with rigorous imprisonment for a term which may extend to 10 years and shall also be liable to fine”. After Partition in 1947, the ordinance was incorporated as a law in the erstwhile state and was also amended. In 2019, when Article 370 of the Constitution was repealed, J&K’s legal framework also underwent several changes. TheJammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act was passed, which listed out state laws that were to continue while several others were repealed and replaced with Indian laws. While the security laws such as Enemy Agents Ordinance and Public Safety Act remained; the Ranbir Penal Code was replaced with the Indian Penal Code. Other laws including The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006 or Forest Act, and The Scheduled Caste and the Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989 were extended to J&K as well. The trial under the Enemy Agents Ordinance is conducted by a special judge who is appointed by the “government in consultation with the High Court”. Under the ordinance, the accused cannot engage a lawyer to defend herself unless permitted by the court. There is no provision for appeal against the verdict, and the decision of the special judge can only be reviewed “by a person chosen by the Government from the judges of the High Court and the decision of that person shall be final”. The ordinance also bars any disclosure or publication of the case tried under it. Source: Indian Express 4-DAY LONG AMBUBACHI MELA AT KAMAKHYA TEMPLE ENDS Syllabus Prelims – CURRENT EVENT Context: As today is June 26th, the annual Ambubachi Mela at Kamakhya Temple, atop Nilachal hills in Assam’s Guwahati, which commenced on Saturday, will conclude with the temple doors opening for darshan after a ritualistic bath and daily puja, following a four-day cessation of worship. Background: During the period of Ambubachi from the seventh to the tenth day of the Hindu month of “Asadha”, the doors of the shrine are closed to all as it is believed that Goddess Kamakhya goes through the annual cycle of menstruation. On the twelfth day, the doors are opened ceremonially and a big fair held at the temple premises on that day. Key Takeaways The Ambubachi Mela is an annual mela (gathering) held at Kamakhya Temple in Guwahati, Assam. This yearly mela is celebrated during the monsoon season that happens to fall during the Assamese month Ahaar, around the middle of June when the sun transits to the zodiac of Mithuna, when the Brahmaputra River is in spate. During this time Brahmaputra River near the temple turns Red for three days. Ambubachi Mela is the celebration of the yearly menstruation course of goddess Kamakhya. It is believed that the presiding goddess of the temple, Devi Kamakhya, the Mother Shakti, goes through her annual cycle of menstruation during this time stretch. “Ambubachi” means spoken with water and it also implies that the rains expected during this month make the earth fertile and ready for procreation. Daily worship is suspended during this period. All agricultural work like digging, ploughing, sowing, and transplanting of crops are forbidden. Widows, Brahmacharis and Brahmins avoid cooked food during these days. On the fourth day, Ambubachi being over, household items, utensils and clothes are washed, cleaned and purified by sprinkling sacred waters, worship of Goddess Kamakhya begins after cleansing and other rituals are performed. Entry to the Shrine is considered to be auspicious after this. The concept of Ambubachi thus has in its origin, formative influences and

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   AMID SETBACKS, FIRST SIGNS OF PROGRESS IN LITHIUM MINING IN CHHATTISGARH Syllabus Prelims & Mains – SCIENCE, CURRENT EVENT Context: Exploration of lithium in Chhattisgarh’s Korba district has moved a step further with one block advancing to the second round of auctions and promising deposits now being found in the initial exploration of another block, according to latest information available with the Union Mines Ministry. Background:- The reassuring signs from Korba come after a series of roadblocks in the endeavour to develop India’s first lithium mine including the cancellation of auction of a lithium block in Jammu and Kashmir’s Reasi district due to insufficient investor interest, shelving of exploration plans in Manipur’s Kamjong district due to “local resistance”, and “not encouraging” results from exploration in Ladakh and Assam. Key takeaways In Korba, just south of the lithium block currently under auction, a private exploration company funded by the National Mineral Exploration Trust (NMET) has found hard rock lithium deposits ranging from 168 to 295 parts per million (ppm). Further exploration could pin down the reserves estimate to a large number. Since November, the mines ministry has put 38 blocks of critical minerals up for auction, including two lithium blocks — one in J&K’s Reasi district and another in Chhattisgarh’s Korba district. Of the two lithium blocks, only the Korba block garnered enough investor interest for the auction process to continue, while the Reasi block had to be annulled and was reoffered in a fresh tranche of auction in March. Preliminary surveys in Korba found lithium concentrations in bedrock samples ranging from 10 to 2,000 ppm, whereas exploration in Reasi showed lithium deposits exceeding 200 ppm. According to mining sector experts, the potentially lower concentration of lithium in the J&K block, coupled with the need for expensive mineral extraction infrastructure, could explain the weak investor interest. Lithium concentration alone does not determine extraction viability. Lithium found in hard rock granites and pegmatites, like in India, is significantly harder to extract. Additional Information: Lithium is a soft, silvery-white alkali metal, which is a vital ingredient of rechargeable lithium-ion batteries that power electric vehicles, laptops, and mobile phones. With lithium demand having grown significantly over the past few years and set to rise further going forward, there is a global rush for mining the critical mineral. India currently imports all the lithium it needs. Khanij Bidesh India Limited (KABIL), a joint venture of three public sector companies under the Mines Ministry, secured rights to explore, develop, and extract lithium across five blocks in Argentina’s Catamarca province earlier this year. Source: Indian Express ESTONIA Syllabus Prelims & Mains – GEOGRAPHY Context: Estonia, one of the world’s most advanced digital countries, is looking to partner with India to collaborate on strengthening the two countries’ cybersecurity infrastructure. Background: Estonia, courtesy its vicinity to Russia, faces a barrage of cyberattacks from the country, more so because of the former’s stance on the war between Russia and Ukraine. About ESTONIA Estonia, officially theRepublic of Estonia, is a country by the Baltic Sea in Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by theGulf of Finland across from Finland, to the west by the sea across from Sweden, to the south by Latvia, and to the east by Lake Peipus and The territory of Estonia consists of themainland, the larger islands of Saaremaa and Hiiumaa, and over 2,300 other islands and islets on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea. Tallinn, thecapital city, and Tartu are the two largest urban areas of the country. Estonia wasrepeatedly contested, invaded, and occupied; by the Soviet Union in 1940, then by Nazi Germany in 1941, and was ultimately reoccupied in 1944 by, and annexed into, the USSR as an administrative subunit (Estonian SSR). Following the 1988–1990 bloodless Estonian “Singing Revolution” against the Soviet rule, the nation’s full independence was restored on20 August 1991. Estonia is adeveloped country, with a high-income advanced economy, ranking 31st (out of 191) in the Human Development Index. Thesovereign state of Estonia is a democratic unitary parliamentary republic, administratively subdivided into 15 maakond (counties). With a population of just around 1.4 million, it is one of the least populous members of theEuropean Union, the Eurozone, the OECD, the Schengen Area, and Estonia has consistently ranked highly in international rankings forquality of life, education, press freedom, digitalisation of public services and the prevalence of technology companies. Need for strengthening the two countries’ cybersecurity infrastructure: Estonia faced one of the largest cyberattacks on its digital infrastructure in 2007 by means of a distributed denial of service (DDoD) attack. Since the war between Russia and Ukraine, the country has experienced similar threats from Russian actors. India have previously said that New Delhi faces much of a similar challenge from Beijing, where a group of independent, and state-backed actors have increased attacks on critical infrastructure in New Delhi. The ties between Estonia and India are increasingly growing. An Indian contingent was, for the first time, observers in anNATO-run cyber security exercise in Estonia last month. The exercise was the largest of its kind in Europe. Source: PIB INDIA-BANGLADESH BILATERAL RELATIONS Syllabus Mains – GS 2 Context: Delhi hosted Bangladeshi Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina over the weekend for the first state visit by a foreign leader during PM Modi’s third term. Background: Hasina was in Delhi barely two weeks earlier for the swearing-in of Modi and that the two PMs have met 10 times over the past year underlines the intensity of the engagement. Key Takeaways The two countries have promised to focus on the unfinished agenda of connectivity that includes the easing of visa procedures, freer movement of goods, cross-border energy and electricity flows, and the building of digital bridges. Bangladesh has emerged as one of India’s most important trade partners. Delhi and Dhaka now propose to commence the long overdue negotiations on a Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA). Free trade across India’s longest frontier to the second-largest economy in the Subcontinent is an urgent regional imperative amidst the breakdown of the global trading order. As one of the world’s fast-growing economies, Bangladesh is a natural partner for India in rearranging of the South Asian regional economic order. Hasina and Modi have also outlined the ambition to modernise the bilateral defence relationship that has fallen behind