Archives (PRELIMS  Focus) Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Category: Polity and Governance Context: The Madras High Court has held that involving the parents of victim, is essential for deciding on applications filed by individuals accused of offences under the Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act. About Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO): Enactment: The POCSO Act came into effect on 14th November 2012 which was enacted in consequence to India’s ratification of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child in 1992. Objective: The aim of this special law is to address offences of sexual exploitation and sexual abuse of children, which were either not specifically defined or in adequately penalised. Definition of a child: The Act defines a child as any person below the age of 18 years. The Act provides punishment as per the gravity of offence. Major features of the Act: The Act recognizes that both girls and boys can be victims of sexual abuse and that such abuse is a crime regardless of the gender of the victim. There is sufficient general awareness now to report cases of sexual exploitation of children not only by individuals but also by institutions as non-reporting has been made a specific offence under the POCSO Act. The storage of child pornography material has been made a new offence. Further, the offence of ‘sexual assault’ has been defined in explicit terms (with increased minimum punishment) unlike an abstract definition of ‘outraging modesty of a woman’ in the Indian Penal Code. Further amendments: The Act was further reviewed and amended in 2019 to Introduce more stringent punishment including the death penalty for Committing sexual crimes on children, with a view to deter the perpetrators & prevent such crimes against children. The Government of India has also notified the POCSO Rules, 2020. About POCSO Rules, 2020: Rule-9 of the POCSO Rules allows the Special Court to order interim compensation for the child’s needs related to relief or rehabilitation after the FIR’s registration. The Child Welfare Committee (CWC) may recommend immediate payment for essential needs like food, clothes, and transportation, using funds from the District Legal Services Authority (DLSA), the District Child Protection Unit (DCPU), or funds maintained under the Juvenile Justice Act 2015. The POCSO Rules empower the CWC to provide a support person to assist the child throughout the investigation and trial process. Source: The Hindu Microplastics Category: Environment and Ecology Context: According to a study, microplastics pollution threatens Goa’s estuarine fisheries as well as human consumers. About Microplastics: Definition: They are defined as plastics less than five millimetres in diameter. It can be harmful to our ocean and aquatic life. Formation: Under the influence of solar UV radiation, wind, currents, and other natural factors, plastic fragments into small particles, termed microplastics (particles smaller than 5 mm) or nanoplastics (particles smaller than 100 nm). Classification of microplastics: Primary Microplastics: They are tiny particles designed for commercial use and microfibers shed from clothing and other textiles. E.g., microbeads found in personal care products, plastic pellets, and plastic fibres. Secondary Microplastics: They are formed from the breakdown of larger plastics, such as water bottles. Exposure to environmental factors, primarily solar radiation and ocean waves, is the cause of this breakdown. Applications of Microplastics: Medical and Pharmaceutical Uses: Used in targeted drug delivery due to the capacity to absorb and release chemicals effectively. Industrial Applications: Used in air-blasting technology for cleaning machinery and in the production of synthetic textiles. Cosmetics and Personal Care Products: Used as exfoliating agents in facial scrubs, toothpaste, and other personal care products. Steps taken to address microplastics: United Nations Environment Assembly (UNEA) Resolutions: The UNEA resolution mandated the development of an international legally binding instrument on plastic pollution, including in the marine environment. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Plastics Treaty: The UNEP is working on an international legally binding instrument to address plastic pollution, including microplastics. Source: The Hindu PM Surya Ghar: Muft Bijli Yojana Category: Defence and Security Context: A new hub of the National Security Guard (NSG), the elite counter-terror and counter-hijack force, will be established at Ayodhya in Uttar Pradesh. About National Security Guard (NSG): Establishment: The NSG is a counter-terrorism unit that formally came into existence in 1986 by an act of Parliament- ‘National Security Guard Act, 1986’. Incidents that led to its formation: The idea behind raising such force came in the aftermath of Operation Blue Star in 1984, Akshardham Temple attack and the assassination of former PM Indira Gandhi. Objective: It aims for ‘combating terrorist activities with a view to protect states against internal disturbances.’ Specialisations: The NSG is trained to conduct counter-terrorist task including counter hijacking tasks on land, sea, and air; Bomb disposal (search, detection, and neutralization of IEDs), Post Blast Investigation (PBI), and Hostage Rescue missions. Distinctive uniform: The NSG personnel are often referred to in the media as Black Cat Commandos because of the black outfit and black cat insignia worn on their uniform. Motto: The motto of ‘Sarvatra, Sarvottam, Suraksha’ has always been upheld by it with a focus on its basic philosophy of swift and speedy strike and immediate withdrawal from the theatre of action. Ministry: It operates under the Ministry of Home Affairs and is a task-oriented force that has two complementary elements in the form of: Special Action Group (SAG) comprising of the Army personnel- is the main offensive or the strike wing of the NSG, and Special Ranger Groups (SRG) comprising of personnel drawn from the Central Armed Police Forces/State Police Forces. They generally handle VIP securities. Source: The Hindu World Health Organization (WHO) Category: International Relations Context: The World Health Organization (WHO) has issued a medical product alert on three liquid medicines identified in India as contaminated and reported to it on October 8. About World Health Organization (WHO): Specialised agency of UN: The World Health Organization (WHO) is the UN’s specialized agency for health, coordinating international public health efforts and working to ensure the highest possible

Archives (PRELIMS  Focus) Nobel Prize in Economics 2025 Category: Economics Context: The Nobel prize in Economics was declared for year 2025 by Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.   About Nobel Prize in Economics 2025: Awardees: Joel Mokyr, Philippe Aghion and Peter Howitt won the 2025 Nobel economics prize. Mr. Mokyr was awarded half the prize with the other half being shared between Aghion and Howitt. Awarded for: They were awarded the Nobel economics prize for “having explained innovation-driven economic growth.” Significance: The laureates have taught us that sustained growth cannot be taken for granted. Economic stagnation, not growth, has been the norm for most of human history. Their work shows that we must be aware of, and counteract, threats to continued growth. About the winners: Mr. Mokyr is a professor at Northwestern University, in Evanston in the United States, while Mr. Aghion is professor at the College de France and INSEAD, in Paris, and at the London School of Economics and Political Science, in Britain. Mr. Howitt is a professor at Brown University, in Providence in the United States. About Nobel Economics Prize: Feature: The prestigious award, formally known as the Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel, is the final prize, given out every year and is worth 11 million Swedish Kronor ($1.2 million). First Nobel Economics Prize: The economics prize was established much later (compared to other Nobel prizes), being given out first in 1969 when it was won by Norway’s Ragnar Frisch and Jan Tinbergen from the Netherlands for work in dynamic economic modelling. Famous Recipients: While few economists are household names, relatively well-known winners include former U.S. Federal Reserve chairman Ben Bernanke, and Paul Krugman and Milton Friedman. Last year’s economics award: It went to U.S.-based academics Simon Johnson, James Robinson and Daron Acemoglu for research that explored the relationship between colonisation and the establishment of public institutions to explain why some countries have been mired in poverty for decades. Source: The Hindu Uniform Civil Code (UCC) Category: Polity and Governance Context: The Uttarakhand government approved a crucial amendment in the Uniform Civil Code (UCC) bringing relief to citizens of Nepali and Bhutanese origin who are living in the State and do not have an Aadhaar card as identity proof to register their marriage. About Uniform Civil Code (UCC): Definition: The Uniform Civil Code refers to a single set of laws governing personal matters such as marriage, divorce, adoption, inheritance, and succession for all citizens of India. Constitutional provisions: Part of DPSP: The concept of UCC is mentioned in Article 44 of the Indian Constitution as a Directive Principle of State Policy, which states that the state shall endeavour to secure a uniform civil code for citizens throughout the territory of India. Entry 5 of the Concurrent List in the Seventh Schedule: It specifically addresses various aspects including marriage, divorce, adoption, and succession, among others, allowing for legislation concerning personal laws. Important judgements: 1985 – Shah Bano Case: The Court upheld a Muslim woman’s right to maintenance, linking UCC to national integration.  1995 – Sarla Mudgal Case: Strongly favoured UCC, especially for the majority Hindu population, questioning the delay in its implementation. 2017 – Shayara Bano Case: Addressed triple talaq, reigniting the UCC debate but separating it from the issue of human rights. Arguments in favour: A UCC would ensure equal rights and treatment for all citizens, regardless of their religious background. This aligns with Article 14 of the Indian Constitution, which guarantees equality before the law. Many personal laws have been criticized for being discriminatory towards women. A UCC could address issues like triple talaq, unequal inheritance rights, and child marriage. India’s current system of multiple personal laws based on religion creates a complex legal landscape. A UCC would simplify this system, making it easier for courts to administer justice and for citizens to understand their rights. Arguments against: India’s pluralistic society is characterized by a rich blend of cultural and religious practices, many of which are protected under personal laws. Critics argue that a UCC could erode this diversity, leading to cultural homogenization. Opponents of UCC argue that it could infringe on the right to religious freedom guaranteed by Article 25 of the Constitution. They contend that personal laws are an integral part of religious practice for many communities. There are concerns that a UCC could disproportionately affect minority communities, potentially leading to a sense of marginalization. Source: The Hindu PM Surya Ghar: Muft Bijli Yojana Category: Government Schemes Context: Despite a near four-fold increase in applications between March 2024 and July 2025, only 13.1% of the targeted 1 crore solar rooftop installations, under the PM Surya Ghar: Muft Bijli Yojana, has been achieved. About PM Surya Ghar: Muft Bijli Yojana: Feature: It is a central scheme to promote the adoption of solar rooftop systems by providing substantial financial subsidies and ensuring ease of installation. Objective: It aims to provide free electricity to one crore households in India, who opt to install roof top solar electricity units. The households will be able to get 300 units of electricity free every month. Implementation Agencies: The scheme will be executed at two levels. National Level: Managed by the National Programme Implementation Agency (NPIA). State Level: Managed by State Implementation Agencies (SIAs), which are the Distribution Utilities (DISCOMs) or Power/Energy Departments of the respective states or UTs. Supervision: As SIAs, DISCOMs are responsible for facilitating various measures to promote rooftop solar adoption, including ensuring the availability of net metres, and conducting timely inspections and commissioning of installations. Capping of subsidy: The scheme provides subsidies to reduce the cost of installing solar rooftop systems. The subsidy is capped at a maximum of 3kW capacity. Eligibility: Grid-connected rooftop solar systems on residential properties, including roofs, terraces, balconies, and elevated structures are eligible for Central Financial Assistance (CFA). Source: The Hindu Snow Leopards Category: Environment and Ecology Context: Snow leopard that inhabits the rugged ranges of 12 Asian countries, including India, has the lowest genetic diversity

Archives (PRELIMS  Focus) National Commission for Scheduled Castes (NCSC) Category: Polity and Governance Context: The National Commission for Scheduled Castes has prescribed conditions under which complaints to the panel can be rejected — in some cases, without a hearing. About National Commission for Scheduled Castes (NCSC): Nature: The NCSC is a Constitutional Body established with a view to provide safeguards against the exploitation of Scheduled Castes and to promote and protect their social, educational, economic and cultural interests. Composition: The NCSC comprises a Chairperson, a Vice-Chairperson, and three additional Members. Appointment: These positions are filled through the President’s appointment, indicated by a warrant under his hand and seal. Conditions of service: Their conditions of service and tenure of office are also determined by the President. Evolution: Initially, the constitution provided for the appointment of a Special Officer under Article 338. The special officer was designated as the Commissioner for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. By 65th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1990, it amended Article 338 of the Constitution and replaced the one-member system with a multi-member National Commission for Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes(ST). Through 89th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2003, Article 338 was amended, and the erstwhile National Commission for SC and ST was replaced by two separate Commissions from the year 2004. Powers: The Commission, while investigating any matter or inquiring into any complaint, has all the powers of a civil court trying a suit and in particular in respect of the following matters: summoning and enforcing the attendance of any person and examining him on oath; receiving evidence on affidavits; and requisitioning any public record from any court or office. Changes post 2018: Till 2018, the commission was also required to discharge similar functions with regard to the other backward classes (OBCs). It was relieved from this responsibility by the 102nd Amendment Act, 2018. Source: The Hindu Thalassemia Category: Science and Technology Context: Thalassemia patients flagged shortage of leukocyte filter sets and iron chelation drugs in Kerala. About Thalassemia: Nature: Thalassemia is an inherited blood disorder that reduces the body’s ability to produce normal hemoglobin, leading to fewer healthy red blood cells and anemia. Cause: Thalassaemia is caused by inheriting a gene mutation (change in the normal DNA) from one or both parents. Symptoms: Symptoms range from growth issues, delayed puberty, and bone abnormalities in mild cases to poor appetite, jaundice, dark urine, and facial bone irregularities in severe cases. Types of Thalassemia: Alpha Thalassemia: It is caused by defective alpha-globin genes inherited from both parents. Beta Thalassemia: It is caused by defects in beta-globin genes. Treatments: Blood transfusions – regular blood transfusions treat and prevent anaemia; in severe cases these are needed around once a month. Chelation therapy – treatment with medicine to remove the excess iron from the body that builds up as a result of having regular blood transfusions. The only possible cure for thalassaemia is a stem cell or bone marrow transplant, but this is not done very often because of the risks involved. Source: The Hindu Wildlife Trust of India (WTI) Category: Environment and Ecology Context: A report on 25 years of support for wildlife warriors by the Wildlife Trust of India (WTI) has highlighted the role of India’s forest protectors. About Wildlife Trust of India (WTI): Nature: The Wildlife Trust of India (WTI) is a non-profit conservation organisation dedicated to safeguarding India’s natural heritage. It is a registered charity in India (under Section 12A of the Income Tax Act, 1961). Establishment: It was established in 1998 in response to the numerous crises confronting India’s wildlife and wild habitats. Objective: Its mission is to conserve nature, especially endangered species and threatened habitats, in partnership with communities and governments. Ministry: It works closely with the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change under the Government of India, as well as with the respective state government forest and wildlife departments. Headquarters: It is headquartered in New Delhi. About Van Rakshak Project (VRP): The WTI launched the Van Rakshak Project (VRP) in 2000 with the International Fund for Animal Welfare’s (IFAW) support. It aimed at building a well-equipped, and motivated force of frontline forest staff across India. The project has supported more than 21,000 personnel nationwide through a diverse range of capacity-strengthening initiatives. A key component of the VRP is the Supplementary Accident Assurance Scheme, which offers immediate financial assistance to frontline forest staff in the event of injury or death in the line of duty. Source: The Hindu Iron Age Culture Category: History and Culture Context: The first season of excavations carried out by the Tamil Nadu State Department of Archaeology (TNSDA) at Thirumalapuram in Tenkasi district has brought to light the presence of Iron Age culture close to the Western Ghats in Tamil Nadu. More about the findings: According to ‘Archaeological Excavations in Tamil Nadu: A Preliminary Report’, the burial site at Thirumalapuram  covers nearly 35 acres and lies about 10 km northwest of the present-day village, between two seasonal streams that rise from the Western Ghats near the Kulasegarapereri tank. The excavations also yielded a rich collection of ceramics found in graves and among grave goods. These included white-painted black-and-red ware, red ware, red-slipped ware, black-polished ware, and coarse red ware. The black-and-red ware, black ware, and black-slipped ware types had white-painted designs, a unique feature first reported from T. Kallupatti and later from Adichanallur, Sivagalai, Thulukkarpatti, and Korkai. According to the report, symbols on the urns were among the most striking discoveries at Thirumalapuram. One red-slipped pot featured dotted designs showing a human figure, a mountain, a deer, and a tortoise. A total of 78 antiquities made of bone, gold, bronze, and iron were also found. They include a tweezer, sword, spearhead, gold ring, axe, dagger, chisel, bonehead, and arrowhead. About Iron Age: Nature: The Iron Age is a prehistoric period that followed the Bronze Age, characterized by the widespread use of iron for tools, weapons, and other implements. Various cultures associated with it: Black-and-Red Ware (BRW): It is characterized by distinctive pottery with black interiors and red exteriors due

Archives (PRELIMS  Focus) Nobel Peace Prize 2025 Category: Miscellaneous Context: Venezuela’s Opposition leader María Machado won the Nobel Peace Prize for ‘promoting democracy.’     About Nobel Peace Prize 2025: Awardee: Venezuelan Opposition leader María Corina Machado won the Nobel Peace Prize 2025. Reason for the award: The Nobel Peace Prize 2025 has been awarded to María Corina Machado “for her tireless work promoting democratic rights for the people of Venezuela and for her struggle to achieve a just and peaceful transition from dictatorship to democracy.” Significance: She won the Nobel Peace Prize for her struggle to achieve a democratic transition in the South American nation, winning recognition as a woman “who keeps the flame of democracy burning amid a growing darkness.” About Nobel Peace Prize: Nature: It is one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the will of Swedish industrialist, inventor, and armaments manufacturer Alfred Nobel, along with the prizes in Chemistry, Physics, Physiology or Medicine, and Literature. Background: In 1895, Alfred Nobel’s will specified a prize for those promoting fraternity between nations, reducing standing armies, or supporting peace congresses. Establishment of the award: The Nobel Peace Prize was established in 1901 by Alfred Nobel, and it recognizes individuals or organisations promoting peace, disarmament, and global harmony. Inspiration: Alfred Nobel was inspired by Bertha von Suttner, a peace activist, to include the peace category. Awarding Body: The prize is administered by the Norwegian Nobel Committee, elected by Norway’s Parliament (Stortinget). First recipient: The first Nobel Peace Prize was awarded in 1901 and was shared by two recipients: Swiss humanitarian Jean Henry Dunant and French pacifist Frédéric Passy. Source: The Hindu Census 2027 Category: Polity and Governance Context: A four-day training to conduct the pre-test exercise for the first phase of the Population Census 2027 has started, the Registrar General and Census Commissioner (RG & CCI) said. About Census: Feature: The Indian Census is the largest source of demographic and socio-economic data on the country’s population. First census: India’s first synchronised census occurred in 1881 under W.C. Plowden, the then Census Commissioner of India.  Decennial in nature: It has consistently provided detailed statistical information every 10 years, starting in 1872, when the first non-synchronous census was conducted across different regions of India. Legal framework: The Census Act of 1948 was enacted to create a legal framework for census operations and to define the roles of census officers. While the Act provides the legal framework, it does not mandate a specific frequency, making the decennial pattern a convention, not a constitutional requirement. Ministry: In May 1949, the Government of India established a permanent Census organization under the Ministry of Home Affairs to systematize the collection of population and demographic data.  Implementing authority: The Office of the Registrar General was later tasked with implementing the Registration of Births and Deaths Act, 1969, further expanding its role in maintaining vital statistics. About Census 2027: The central government has officially notified the conduct of the next decennial census in 2027, exercising its authority under Section 3 of the Census Act, 1948. The Census will have a reference date of 1st March, 2027, for most parts of the country. Source: The Hindu Sawalkote Hydroelectric Project Category: Geography Context: An apex committee of the Environment Ministry has accorded a fresh environmental clearance to the Sawalkote hydroelectric project.     About Sawalkote Hydroelectric Project: Location: It is a 1,856 MW run-of-the-river (uses the natural flow of a river with little or no water storage) hydroelectric project located on the Chenab River (a western river under Indus Water Treaty) in Ramban, J&K. Gravity dam: The project was initiated in 1984 and has faced multiple delays over the years. Declared as a project of national importance, it involves the construction of a concrete gravity dam with a reservoir. Electricity production: Once operational, Sawalkote is expected to generate over 7,000 million units of electricity annually, making it one of the largest hydroelectric projects in India. Significance: With the Indus Water Treaty (IWT) in abeyance, the project is considered crucial for harnessing Chenab River’s hydropower potential and enhancing India’s control over western rivers of IWT. About Chenab River: Origin: It is formed by the confluence of two streams, Chandra and Bhaga, in the Lahaul and Spiti Districts of Himachal Pradesh. It is a tributary of the Indus River. In its upper reaches, it is also known as the Chandrabhaga. Course: It flows through Jammu and Kashmir union territory, Himachal Pradesh and after receiving the Jhelum River near Trimmu, the Chenab empties into the Sutlej River. Major Tributaries: Left Bank:  Niru, Tawi, Neeru, and Liddrari Right Bank: Ans, Bhut Nalla, Bichleri, Kalnai Marusudar and Miyar Nalla. Major projects on Chenab river: The Chenab River hosts the 390-MW Dulhasti project at Kishtwar, the 890-MW Baglihar project at Ramban, and the 690-MW Salal project at Reasi. These projects significantly contribute to the region’s energy supply. Source: The Hindu Rare Earth Elements Category: Economy Context: US President said that China had sent letters to countries detailing export controls on “each and every element of production having to do with Rare Earths, and virtually anything else they can think of, even if it’s not manufactured in China.” About Rare Earth Elements: Nature: Rare Earth Elements (REEs) are important components in over 200 products, spanning applications in consumer electronics, electric vehicles, defence systems, and many more. Types of Rare Earth Elements: Based on the atomic weight, Rare Earth Elements are divided into two groups – light REEs, those with atomic numbers from 57 to 63 (La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm and Eu) and heavy REEs, those with atomic numbers from 64 to 71 (Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb and Lu). Characteristics: REEs are characterised by high density, high melting point, high conductivity and high thermal conductance. Rare Earth Elements share a trivalent charge (+3) and similar ionic radii, hence similar properties. Sources: The principal sources of REE are bastnaesite (a fluorocarbonate which occurs in carbonatites and related igneous rocks), xenotime (yttrium phosphate) commonly found in mineral

Archives (PRELIMS  Focus) Nobel Prize in Literature 2025 Category: Miscellaneous Context: László Krasznahorkai wins Nobel Prize in literature. About Nobel Prize in Literature 2025: Awardee: Hungarian writer László Krasznahorkai won the Nobel Prize in Literature 2025. Reason for award: His philosophical, bleakly funny novels often unfold in single sentences, and his “compelling and visionary oeuvre, in the midst of apocalyptic terror, reaffirms the power of art.” Significance: The Nobel judges praised his “artistic gaze which is entirely free of illusion, and which sees through the fragility of the social order combined with his unwavering belief in the power of art. The judges applauded his “extraordinary sentences, sentences of incredible length that go to incredible lengths, their tone switching from solemn to madcap to quizzicSal to desolate as they go their wayward way.” About the Writer: László Krasznahorkai is a great epic writer in the Central European tradition that extends through [Franz] Kafka to Thomas Bernhard, and is characterised by absurdism and grotesque excess.” Several works, including his debut, Satantango, and The Melancholy of Resistance were turned into films. He also won the National Book Award for Translated Literature in the U.S. in 2019 for Baron Wenckheim’s Homecoming. Source: The Hindu Surrogacy Category: Polity and Governance Context: Supreme Court said that retrospective age limits under surrogacy law violate reproductive autonomy. About Surrogacy in India: Definition: Surrogacy is an arrangement where a woman (known as the surrogate mother), agrees to carry and deliver a baby for another individual or couple, known as the intended parents. Permissibility: Under the Surrogacy (Regulation) Act 2021, Surrogacy is permissible only for altruistic purposes or for couples with proven infertility or disease. Prohibition of Commercial surrogacy: Commercial surrogacy, including for sale or exploitation purposes, is strictly prohibited. Eligibility for Couples: Couples must be married for at least 5 years. The wife must be aged between 25-50 years, and the husband between 26-55 years. The couple must not have any living child, whether biological, adopted, or through surrogacy, except in cases of children with disabilities or life-threatening disorders. Criteria for Surrogate mother: The surrogate mother must be a close relative of the couple. She must be a married woman with at least one child of her own. Her age must be between 25-35 years, and she must have only been a surrogate once in her life. Parental Status upon Birth: Upon birth, the child is legally recognized as the biological child of the intended couple. Rule for abortion: Abortion of the foetus requires consent from both the surrogate mother and the relevant authorities, following the provisions of the Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act. Types and Forms of Surrogacy: Different types of Surrogacy: Traditional Surrogacy: Traditional surrogacy involves using the intended father’s sperm to fertilise the surrogate’s egg. The surrogate carries the pregnancy to term, and the resulting baby is biologically related to the surrogate mother and the intended father. Gestational Surrogacy: In gestational surrogacy, the baby is not biologically related to the surrogate. An embryo, created using the intended father’s sperm (or donor sperm) and the biological mother’s egg (or donor egg), is implanted into the surrogate’s uterus for her to carry to term. Various forms of Surrogacy: Altruistic Surrogacy: It refers to a surrogacy arrangement where the surrogate does not receive financial compensation beyond reimbursement for medical expenses and other related costs. The primary motivation for the surrogate in altruistic surrogacy is typically to help another individual or couple achieve their dream of having a child. Commercial Surrogacy: It involves a contractual agreement where the surrogate mother receives financial compensation beyond just reimbursement for medical expenses and other costs associated with the pregnancy. This compensation may vary depending on factors such as location, legal regulations, and the specific terms of the surrogacy agreement. Source: The Hindu Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) Category: Science and Technology Context: Antimicrobial resistance has become, a communication crisis; instead of talking only about the future collapse of healthcare systems, the focus must be on the present impact on individual bodies. About Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR): Definition: Antimicrobial resistance is the resistance acquired by any microorganism (bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, etc.) against antimicrobial drugs (such as antibiotics, antifungals, antivirals, antimalarials, and anthelmintics) that are used to treat infections. Natural process: It is a natural phenomenon as bacteria evolve, making drugs used to treat infections less effective. Formation of superbugs: Microorganisms that develop antimicrobial resistance are sometimes referred to as “superbugs”. Global threat: The World Health Organization (WHO) has identified AMR as one of the top ten threats to global health. Reasons for the Spread of AMR: High burden of communicable diseases, such as tuberculosis, diarrhoea, respiratory infections, etc. that require antimicrobial treatment. Hygiene lapses in hospitals and clinics facilitate the spread of resistant bacteria. Overprescribing by doctors under pressure from patients (often self-medication), incomplete antibiotic courses, and broad-spectrum antibiotics used unnecessarily create selective pressure for resistant bacteria. Unregulated over-the-counter availability and affordability of antibiotics fuel self-medication and inappropriate use. Low public understanding of AMR and proper antibiotic use encourages misuse. Measures Taken by India to Address AMR: National Programme on AMR containment was launched in 2012 to strengthen AMR Surveillance Network by establishing labs in State Medical College. National Action Plan on AMR was launched in April 2017 with the aim of involving various stakeholder ministries/departments. Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) has taken initiatives to develop new drugs /medicines through international collaborations in order to strengthen medical research in AMR.         Source: The Hindu UN Peacekeeping Force Category: International Relations Context: The United Nations will begin slashing its peacekeeping force, as a result of the latest U.S. funding cuts to the world body. About UN Peacekeeping Force: Nature: UN Peacekeeping refers to the activities carried out by the United Nations (UN) to help maintain or restore international peace and security in conflict-affected areas. UN Peacekeepers are also known as ‘Blue Helmets.’ Origin: It began in 1948 with the establishment of the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO) in the Middle East to monitor ceasefires.

Archives (PRELIMS  Focus) Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2025 Category: Science and Technology Context: An Australian, a Japanese and a Jordanian-American scientists were announced winners of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for discovering and creating a class of materials, called metal-organic frameworks (MOF).         About Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2025: Awardees: The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2025 has been awarded to Scientists Susumu Kitagawa, Richard Robson, and Omar Yaghi for the development of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs). Significance: Their pioneering work on MOFs porous materials with vast surface areas has revolutionized applications in gas storage, catalysis, and environmental sustainability. The discovery represents a transformative advancement in chemical sciences, with potential benefits for medicine, clean energy, and climate solutions. Applications: Following the laureates’ groundbreaking discoveries, chemists have since built tens of thousands of different MOFs. Some of these may contribute to solving some of humankind’s greatest challenges, with applications that include separating PFAS (a family of chemicals that are believed to be toxic) from water, breaking down traces of pharmaceuticals in the environment, capturing carbon dioxide or harvesting water from desert air About the experiment: It all started in 1989, when Richard Robson tested utilising the inherent properties of atoms in a new way. He combined positively charged copper ions with a four-armed molecule; this had a chemical group that was attracted to copper ions at the end of each arm. When they were combined, they bonded to form a well-ordered, spacious crystal. It was like a diamond filled with innumerable cavities. Robson immediately recognised the potential of his molecular construction, but it was unstable and collapsed easily. However, Susumu Kitagawa and Omar Yaghi provided this building method with a firm foundation; between 1992 and 2003 they made, separately, a series of revolutionary discoveries. Kitagawa showed that gases can flow in and out of the constructions and predicted that MOFs could be made flexible. Yaghi created a very stable MOF and showed that it can be modified using rational design, giving it new and desirable properties. Source: The Hindu Rabindranath Tagore Category: History and Culture Context: The Odisha government has announced plans to restore ‘Pather Puri’, the residence of Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore in Puri, and transform it into a museum. About Rabindranath Tagore: Background: He was the youngest of 13 children born to Debendranath Tagore, a leading figure in the Brahmo Samaj, and Sarada Devi. Tagore received early education at home, with his family emphasizing literary and cultural learning. Schooling and higher education: He attended several schools, including a stint at the University College London, though he did not complete formal schooling. Multi-faceted personality: Rabindranath Tagore was a Bengali poet, novelist, and painter, who was highly influential in introducing Indian culture to the west. He was an exceptional literary figure and a renowned polymath who singlehandedly reshaped the region’s literature and music. Sobriquets: He was also referred to as ‘Gurudev’, ‘Kabiguru’, and ‘Biswakabi’. Association with Mahatma Gandhi: He was a good friend of Mahatma Gandhi and is said to have given him the title of Mahatma. Votary of national integration: He had always stressed that unity in diversity is the only possible way for India’s national integration. World Parliament for Religions: He had spoken at the World Parliament for Religions in the years 1929 and 1937. Contribution to education system: Besides all his literary achievements he was also a philosopher and educationist who in 1921 established the Vishwa-Bharati University, a university that challenged conventional education. Contributions as a poet: He is said to have composed over 2000 songs and his songs and music are called ‘Rabindra Sangeet’ with its own distinct lyrical and fluid style. He is responsible for modernising Bengali prose and poetry. His notable works include Gitanjali, Ghare-Baire, Gora, Manasi, Balaka, Sonar Tori, He is also remembered for his song ‘Ekla Chalo Re’. He published his first poems aged 16 under the pen-name ‘Bhanusimha’. He not only gave the national anthems for two countries, India and Bangladesh, but also inspired a Ceylonese student of his, to pen and compose the national anthem of Sri Lanka. Awards: In 1913 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature for his work on Gitanjali. He was the first non-European to receive the Nobel Prize. In 1915 he was awarded knighthood by the British King George V. In 1919, following the Jallianwalla Bagh massacre, he renounced his Knighthood. Source: The Hindu PM-KUSUM Scheme Category: Government Schemes Context: The Union government is looking to showcase the PM-KUSUM (Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha evam Utthan Mahabhiyan) programme to several African countries and island nations, Union Minister for Renewable Energy (MNRE) said. About PM-KUSUM Scheme: Launch: The PM-KUSUM was launched by the MNRE in 2019, in order to endow installation of off-grid solar pumps in rural areas and reduce dependence on grid, in grid-connected areas. Objective: It aims to enable farmers to set up solar power generation capacity on their arid lands and to sell it to the grid. It also seeks to increase the income of farmers by allowing them to sell surplus solar power to the grid. Components of the scheme: 10,000 MW of decentralized ground-mounted grid-connected renewable power plants. Installation of 20 lakh solar-powered agriculture pumps. Converting 15 lakh agriculture pumps, already connected to the grid, into solar. Significance: It incentivises the farmers to sell surplus solar energy to the states, which in turn will augment their income. If farmers are able to sell surplus power, they will be incentivised to save power and, in turn, it will mean the reasonable and efficient use of groundwater. The scheme is expected to create job opportunities in the installation, maintenance, and operation of solar power projects. Challenges: The cost of setting up solar power projects can be high, and some farmers may not have access to the necessary financing. Due to power subsidies, the recurring cost of electricity is so low that farmers keep on pumping water and the water table is going down. Integrating decentralized solar power projects into the grid may pose technical challenges and stability issues,

Archives (PRELIMS  Focus) Nobel Prize in Medicine 2025 Category: Science and Technology Context: The Nobel Prize for Physics this year will be awarded to three scientists to tease greater insight into the workings of the quantum world.          About Nobel Prize in Physics 2025: Awardees: The Nobel Prize 2025 in Physics has been awarded to John Clarke from the University of California, Berkeley, Michel H. Devoret of Yale University and the University of California, Santa Barbara, and John M. Martinis of the University of California, Santa Barbara. Awarded for: They have been recognized for their pioneering work on the macroscopic quantum phenomena in electrical circuits, specifically the demonstration of quantum tunneling and energy quantization on a macroscopic scale. Significance: This groundbreaking research has significantly advanced our understanding of quantum mechanics in engineered systems and opened new avenues for quantum technology applications. About the experiment: Much like early insight into quantum mechanics paved the way for transistors and silicon chips in the 1950s, the three scientists devised an electrical circuit with two superconductors, components that can conduct a current without any electrical resistance. They separated these with a thin layer of material — called a Josephson junction — that did not conduct any current at all. In this experiment, they showed that they could control and investigate a phenomenon in which all the charged particles in the superconductor behave in unison, as if they are a single ‘particle’ that fills the entire circuit. Following this, they were able to demonstrate that such a particle could be made to behave simulating the flow of electricity even without voltage, a prerequisite for the flow of current. Source: The Hindu Supermoon Category: Geography Context: A supermoon was visible on the night of October 7 and will appear twice more in November and December.     About Supermoon: Feature: A supermoon occurs when a full moon or new moon coincides with the moon’s closest approach to the earth in its elliptical orbit, a point known as the perigee. Reason: Because the moon’s orbit is not a perfect circle, its distance from the earth varies throughout the month by around 50,000 km. When the moon is near its perigee and also directly opposite the sun, the full moon appears about 14% larger and 30% brighter than when it is at its farthest point. This is the supermoon. Nomenclature: The term “Supermoon” was coined by astrologer Richard Nolle in 1979, defining it as a special event when a full moon is within 90 percent of its closest point to Earth. Frequency: In a typical year, there may be two to four full supermoons and two to four new supermoons in a row. Impact: Supermoons influence the tides, creating perigean spring tides. These tides are slightly higher and lower than usual because the moon’s stronger gravitational pull acts in concert with that of the sun. While the changes are typically modest, they can exacerbate coastal flooding when combined with storm surges. Significance: Culturally, supermoons have long captured human imagination, inspiring folklore and spiritual observances across civilisations. They also offer opportunities for astronomers and photographers to observe lunar surface details and study tidal effects more clearly. Source: The Hindu Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC) Category: Economy Context: RBI is waiting for other countries to launch digital currency and is in no hurry to roll out Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC) nationwide for retail, said Deputy Governor.        About Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC): Nature: A CBDC is a legal tender issued by a central bank in digital form. Authorised by Central Bank: Unlike private cryptocurrencies, CBDCs are backed by the central bank, ensuring stability and trust. Objective: The main objective is to mitigate the risks and trim costs in handling physical currency, costs of phasing out soiled notes, transportation, insurance and logistics. Use of wallets: The digital fiat currency or CBDC can be transacted using wallets backed by blockchain. Difference with virtual currencies: Though the concept of CBDCs was directly inspired by Bitcoin, it is different from decentralised virtual currencies and crypto assets, which are not issued by the state and lack the ‘legal tender’ status. First country to launch: Bahamas was the first economy to launch its nationwide CBDC namely Sand Dollar in 2020. Major advantages: CBDCs leverage digital security measures, potentially reducing the risk of counterfeiting and theft compared to physical cash. Digital transactions can be settled instantly and efficiently, facilitating faster and more cost-effective payments. Programmable features could be introduced to enable targeted disbursement of government benefits or encourage specific financial behaviours, promoting financial inclusion. Challenges associated: Robust security measures are crucial to protect the e-rupee system from cyberattacks. Balancing user privacy with the need for anti-money laundering and countering financing of terrorism measures is a critical aspect. The RBI made CBDC non-remunerative and non-interest-bearing to mitigate potential risks of bank disintermediation. Source: The Hindu Periyar Tiger Reserve Category: Environment and Ecology Context: A 32-year-old forest watcher in the Periyar Tiger Reserve was found dead in the Ponnambalamedu forest area in Pathanamthitta district of Kerala. About Periyar Tiger Reserve: Nomenclature: It is named after the Periyar River, which originates within the reserve. Location: It is situated in the Idukki and Pathanamthitta districts of Kerala. It is set high at Cardamom Hills and Pandalam Hills of the Western Ghats, adjacent to the border with Tamil Nadu. Formation: It was established as a wildlife sanctuary in 1950 and later declared a Tiger Reserve in 1978. Terrain: The terrain is hilly and undulating with a maximum altitude of 2016 m. The highest peak is Kottamala (2016 m). Vegetation: It comprises tropical evergreen forests, semi- evergreen forests, moist deciduous forests, transitional fringe evergreen forests, grasslands, and eucalyptus plantations. Drainage: Major rivers flowing through the reserve are the Periyar and Mullayar. Dams: Mullaperiyar Dam is located within the PTR.  Flora and fauna: Important flora includes teak, mangoes, rosewood, jamun, jacarandas, terminalias, tamarind, royal ponciana, bamboo, etc. Fauna includes Elephants, Wild Pigs, Sambar, Gaur, Mouse Deer, Dole or Barking Deer, Indian Wild Dog, and Tiger.

Archives (PRELIMS  Focus) Nobel Prize in Medicine 2025 Category: Miscellaneous Context: The annual Nobel Week kicked off with three scientists, sharing the Nobel Prize in Medicine for unravelling tantalising aspects of the human immune system. About Nobel Prize in Medicine 2025: Awardees: The 2025 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine has been awarded to Mary E. Bruncko, Fred Ramsdell, and Shimon Sakaguchi. Awarded for: They were awarded for discovering the mechanism and key constituents of the so-called ‘peripheral immune tolerance’, a fundamental mechanism that prevents our immune system from attacking the body’s own tissues. Identification of T-cells: Their collaborative research identified Regulatory T cells (Tregs), specialized immune cells that act as “guardians” to prevent the immune system from mistakenly attacking the body’s own cells. The discovery of the Foxp3 gene revealed its crucial role in the development of Treg cells and in controlling immune tolerance. Significance: Their discovery has helped blaze new paths into treating cancer as well as auto-immune disease, a condition by which the immune system ends up harming healthy cells they are meant to protect. This may also lead to more successful transplantations. Several of these treatments are now undergoing clinical trials. Contribution of Shimon Sakaguchi: He made the first key discovery in 1995. At the time, many researchers were convinced that immune tolerance only developed due to potentially harmful immune cells being eliminated through a process called central tolerance. Mr. Sakaguchi showed that the immune system is more complex and discovered a previously unknown class of immune cells, which protects the body from autoimmune diseases. Contributions of Mary Brunkow and Fred Ramsdell: They made the other key discovery in 2001, when they presented the explanation for why a specific mouse strain was particularly vulnerable to autoimmune diseases. They had discovered that mice have a mutation in a gene that they named Foxp3. They also showed that mutations in the human equivalent of this gene triggered a serious autoimmune disease, IPEX. Two years after this, Mr. Sakaguchi was able to link these discoveries. He proved that the Foxp3 gene governs the development of the cells he identified in 1995. These cells, now known as ‘regulatory T cells’, monitor other immune cells and ensure that our immune system tolerates our own tissues. Source: The Hindu Lingayats Category: History and Culture Context: Karnataka Minister countered the demand for a separate religious status for Lingayats, and said that “no force can separate Veerashaivas and Lingayats” in the State. About Lingayats: Nature: Lingayats are followers of 12th-century social reformer Basavanna and his vachana (verses) philosophy, which emphasized equality, social justice, and devotion, rejecting Brahmanical authority, temple worship, and caste distinctions. Shaivite: They are a Shaivite sect in Hinduism that emerged in Karnataka during the reign of the Kalachuri dynasty. Basavanna, a minister in the court of Kalachuri King Bijjala (1157-67 CE), was the key proponent of Lingayatism. Worship of Ishtalinga: They promoted work as worship and offered spiritual enlightenment for all, including householders and artisans. Lingayats worship ishtalinga, a formless God, and reject rituals, focusing on honest labour and social redistribution. Rejected Brahmanical Authority: They prioritized direct worship of Shiva and rejected the Vedic authority, the caste system, and Brahmin ceremonies. Fostered social reforms: They encouraged post-puberty marriage, re-marriage of widows, and the promotion of inter-caste relationships. Anubhava Mantapa: Basavanna established the Anubhava Mantapa, a “Hall of Experience,” where people from all social backgrounds could gather, discuss religious and social issues, and share their experiences. Questioned theory of re-births: They bury their dead instead of cremating them (as they believe that devotees will be united with Shiva and will not return to this world). Gave importance to compassion: They stressed the importance of being a compassionate and socially productive human being in this world and in this life. Kayaka as means of worship: They considered all forms of labour and means of livelihood (kayaka) a form of worship. They provided the honest earnings from labour (kayaka), which are primarily used for social redistribution, called ‘dasoha’. Distribution: Lingayats are found primarily in Karnataka, where Lingayats comprise a major population. They are also found in significant numbers in Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh. Difference with Veershaivas: Veerashaivism, a sect deeply rooted in the Vedas and Agamas, centres solely around the worship of Lord Shiva as mentioned in Hindu mythology. Its followers are devoted to five religious centres known as Pancha Peethas, which are established similarly to the four peethas set up by Adi Shankara. Source: The Hindu Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act (CLNDA), 2010 Category: Polity and Governance Context: Finance Minister said that government intends to amend Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act as deliberations within the government continue on bringing in new legislation to allow the private sector to operate nuclear plants in India. About Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act (CLNDA), 2010: Nature: It is India’s nuclear liability law ensuring compensation for victims and defining responsibility for nuclear accidents. In sync with CSC: It aligns with the Convention on Supplementary Compensation (CSC, 1997), adopted post-Chernobyl to set global minimum compensation standards. India ratified CSC in 2016. Follows global conventions: It follows the nuclear liability principles of the Vienna Convention 1963, Paris Convention 1960, and Brussels Supplementary Convention 1963. Puts a cap on operator liability: The Act imposes strict, no-fault liability on operators, caps operator liability at Rs 1,500 crore. Provision for intervention of government: If damage claims exceed Rs 1,500 crore, the CLNDA expects the government to intervene. The government’s liability is capped at the rupee equivalent of 300 million Special Drawing Rights (SDRs), roughly Rs 2,100 to Rs 2,300 crore.  Nuclear Damage Claims Commission: The Act also establishes a Nuclear Damage Claims Commission to ensure fair compensation and resolve conflicts.  Supplier Liability: India’s CLNDA is unique as it introduces supplier liability under Section 17(b), enabling operators to seek recourse against suppliers; unlike global frameworks like the CSC, which place liability solely on the operator.  Broadens supplier responsibility: Unlike CSC, which allows recourse only for contractual breaches or intentional acts,

Archives (PRELIMS  Focus) Bodoland Territorial Council (BTC) Category: Polity and Governance Context: Bodoland People’s Front (BPF) president Hagrama Mohilary was sworn in as the Chief Executive Member of the Bodoland Territorial Council (BTC). About Bodoland Territorial Council (BTC): Location: It is an autonomous region in the state of Assam in India. Composition: It is made up of four districts (Kokrajhar, Chirang, Baksa and Udalguri) on the north bank of the Brahmaputra river, surrounded by the foothills of Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh. Jurisdiction: The area under the jurisdiction of BTC, formed under the 2003 Accord, was called the Bodo Territorial Autonomous District (BTAD). Sixth Schedule: BTC is an area governed under the 6th schedule. However, BTC is an exception to the constitutional provision under the 6th schedule. Members: It can constitute up to 46 members out of which 40 are elected. Of these 40 seats, 35 are reserved for the Scheduled Tribes and non-tribal communities, five are unreserved and the rest six are nominated by the governor from underrepresented communities of the BTAD. Separate State: The first organised demand for a Bodo state came in 1967-68 under the banner of the political party called Plains Tribals Council of Assam. Assam Accord: In 1985, when the Assam Movement culminated in the Assam Accord, many Bodos saw it as essentially focusing on the interests of the Assamese-speaking community. Evolution of Bodoland Territorial Council (BTC): The first Bodo Accord was signed with the ABSU in 1993, leading to the creation of a Bodoland Autonomous Council with limited political powers. The second Bodo Accord was agreed to create a self-governing body for the Bodo Areas in the State of Assam. In pursuance of this, the Bodoland Territorial Council (BTC) was created in 2003 with some more financial and other powers. The third Bodo Accord was signed in 2020. It promised more legislative, executive and administrative autonomy under the Sixth Schedule to Bodoland Territorial Council (BTC) and expansion of the BTC territory in lieu of statehood. Source: The Hindu Hilsa Fish Category: Environment and Ecology Context: Bangladesh’s defence force said it has deployed warships and patrol aircraft to protect Hilsa fish from illegal fishing during its spawning season. About Hilsa Fish: State fish: It is the state fish of West Bengal and the national fish of Bangladesh. Clupeidae family: It is a species of fish belonging to the Clupeidae family, which includes herring fish. Uniqueness: It is also called Ilish and holds an exceptional position in the culinary customs and social practices of Bengal. It is a fish that is highly prized because of its delicate flavour, distinct taste, and silky texture. Location: It is found in rivers and estuaries in Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, Myanmar, and the Persian Gulf area. They travel to rivers like the Ganges River and Godavari River in India. Lifespan: Hilsa fish live in both saltwater and freshwater. They spend most of their lives in the ocean. However, when it’s time to lay their eggs, they swim up into rivers. This journey is called a migration.  Appearance: Hilsa fish have a silvery body. They are quite flat and have a pointed head.  Weight: Hilsa can grow up to about 50 cm, weighing more than 3 kg. They are known for their many small bones. Conservation Status: It is classified as ‘Least Concern’ under the IUCN Red List. Source: The Hindu Kaziranga National Park Category: Environment and Ecology Context: A female calf born to one of the oldest elephants in the Kaziranga National Park and Tiger Reserve has been named Mayabini to honour Zubeen Garg. About Kaziranga National Park: Nature: It is the single largest undisturbed and representative area in the Brahmaputra Valley floodplain. Location: It is situated in the north-eastern part of India in the state of Assam. Terrain: It is of sheer forest, tall elephant grass, rugged reeds, marshes, and shallow pools. Rivers: The River Diffalu, a tributary of the Brahmaputra, flows through the National Park while another tributary, Moradifalu, flows along its southern boundary. Flora: It is primarily famous for its dense and tall elephant grasses intermixed with small swamplands. It also includes an abundant cover of water lilies, water hyacinths and lotus. Fauna: Many endangered and threatened species like Rhino, Tiger, Eastern swamp deer, Elephant, Buffalo, Hoolock gibbon, Capped langur, and Gangetic River dolphin are commonly found in the habitat. Uniqueness: It is inhabited by the world’s largest population of one-horned rhinoceroses, as well as many mammals. National Park: It was declared as a National Park in 1974. Tiger Reserve: It has been declared a tiger reserve since 2007. It has a total tiger reserve area of 1,030 sq km with a core area of 430 sq. km. UNESCO World Heritage Site: In 1985, the park was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.          Source: The Hindu International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Category: International Relations Context: Iran’s top diplomat said that cooperation with the IAEA, the UN nuclear watchdog was no longer relevant following the reimposition of international sanctions on it. About International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA): Nature: IAEA is an intergovernmental organisation that seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy and to inhibit its use for any military purpose, including nuclear weapons. Establishment: It was established in 1957 as the world’s “Atoms for Peace” organisation within the UN, and governed by its own founding treaty, viz. the Statute of the IAEA. Main functions: The IAEA works to ensure that nuclear technology is used solely for peaceful purposes. It applies comprehensive nuclear safeguards, including: Monitoring, On-site inspections, Information analysis, and Other techniques to verify peaceful use. Relations with UN: It reports to both the UNGA and the UNSC and is headquartered at the UN Office at Vienna, Austria Distinction: In 2005, it was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for its work for a safe and peaceful world. Membership: The IAEA has 180 member states, India being one of the founding members of it. Institutional structure: The General Conference, composed of all member states, meets annually to approve budgets and

Archives (PRELIMS  Focus) Stablecoins Category: Economy Context: Hinting at a possible shift in India’s cryptocurrency policy, Union Finance Minister said countries would have to “prepare to engage” with stablecoins whether they welcome the change or not. About Stablecoins: Nature: Stablecoins are a type of cryptocurrency that attempt to maintain stable prices as they are pegged to an underlying asset, such as a basket of currencies or precious metals like gold. Terminology: Although the term “stablecoin” is commonly used, there is no guarantee that the asset will maintain a stable value in relation to the value of the reference asset when traded on secondary markets or that the reserve of assets, if there is one, will be adequate to satisfy all redemptions. Difference with cryptocurrencies: Stablecoins are designed for everyday use, offering price stability unlike volatile cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin. They enable easy value transfer, support financial services, and maintain stability through collateral reserves or algorithmic supply control.  Popular stablecoins like Tether and USD Coin are backed by the US dollar. Types of Stablecoins: There are primarily three types of stablecoins: fiat-collateralized, crypto-collateralized, and non-collateralized (algorithmic). Fiat-collateralized stablecoins are pegged to a specific asset, such as a fiat currency.  The entity behind the stablecoin maintains a reserve of the asset or assets backing the stablecoin, supporting the value of the digital currency.  On the other hand, non-collateralized (algorithmic) stablecoins use software algorithms to automatically adjust the supply of the stablecoin based on demand, aiming to maintain a stable price. Status of stablecoins in India: India does not currently recognise stablecoins, treating all cryptocurrencies as Virtual Digital Assets (VDAs) under Section 2(47A) of the Income Tax Act, 1961. In 2023, VDAs were brought under the Prevention of Money Laundering Act, 2002, to curb misuse and enhance oversight. Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC) or ‘Digital Rupee’ is India’s official alternative to stablecoins, which allows programmable payments (e.g., Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) schemes), tracking usage by expiry, location, or purpose. Source: The Hindu Banni Festival Category: History & Culture Context: Two people were killed and more than a hundred were injured at the annual Banni festival at Devaragattu in Kurnool district of Andhra Pradesh. About Banni Festival: Nature: It is a tradition in Andhra Pradesh where villagers fight with sticks to claim a deity’s idol on Vijayadashami. The objective of this event is to snatch the idols from the God’s team, leading to a fierce battle known as the Banni Fight. Occasion: It is celebrated on the night of Dussehra celebration (Vijaya Dasami) every year. Location: It is held on the premises of Mala Malleswara Swamy Temple (situated at the border of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka). Linkage with Vijayanagara Empire: This festival was celebrated by people under the Vijayanagara Empire. Significance: It is celebrated on the account of the victory of Lord Mala Malleswara Swamy and Goddess Parvati over demonish Mani and Mallasura, who troubled the people at Devaragattu region. Rituals: The ritual takes place at midnight when the procession of idols of the ruling deities Malamma (Parvati) and Malleshwara Swamy (Shiva) are brought down the hill temple at Neraneki. Devotees carry long sticks or lathis with them for hitting each other with these sticks on the head. The basic idea of this fight is to capture the procession idol. Source: The Hindu Presumptive Taxation Category: Economy Context: The government think tank Niti Aayog suggested the introduction of a presumptive taxation scheme for foreign companies to provide certainty and simplicity. About Presumptive Taxation: Nature: It is a simplified tax scheme where income is calculated based on a presumed rate of profit rather than actual income. Need: Despite India’s inherent appeal and remarkable FDI growth, structural impediments such as ambiguous PE (permanent establishment), regulations introduce tax uncertainty and dampen investments. Objectives: To provide relief to taxpayers from the tedious work of maintaining regular books of account under certain circumstances. To provide tax certainty and reduce compliance burdens. To align with India’s goal of becoming a global manufacturing hub under initiatives like Make in India. Importance: The optional presumptive taxation scheme would help resolve disputes concerning PE (permanent establishment), simplifying compliance and protecting revenue. By adopting a presumptive taxation scheme, India can transform its tax regime from a ‘minefield’ into a ‘well-lit path.’ Impact on businesses: A company opting for this scheme can declare income at a prescribed rate; in lieu of that, it is relieved from maintaining books of accounts for audit by tax authorities. Source: The Hindu NATO Category: International Relations Context: A quarter of a century after it joined NATO, Poland will finally join the alliance‘s fuel pipeline network, amid rising tension on its eastern frontier. About NATO: Nature: The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is an intergovernmental military alliance. Formation: It was established on April 4, 1949, with the signing of the North Atlantic Treaty in Washington, D.C. by 12 founding member countries from Europe and North America. Objective: It was established with the primary goal of providing collective defence against potential aggression, particularly from the Soviet Union during the Cold War era. Over the years, NATO has evolved to address a range of security challenges beyond its original mandate. Uniqueness: NATO’s primary mission is collective defence, as outlined in Article 5 of the North Atlantic Treaty. This article stipulates that an attack on one member country will be considered an attack on all, and the members will respond collectively. Founding members: The original 12 founding members of NATO were Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Expansion: NATO has expanded since its founding, with new member countries joining in multiple rounds. The alliance currently consists of 32 member countries. Political Leadership: The North Atlantic Council (NAC) serves as NATO’s principal political decision-making body, composed of ambassadors from all member countries. Funding: In 2006, NATO Defense Ministers agreed to a commitment that 2% of their countries’ GDP would be allocated towards defence spending. However, the majority of NATO members do not meet this