Current Affairs

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) Space Technology in Agriculture Category: AGRICULTURE Context:  Space technology is revolutionizing agriculture by enabling precision farming, improving yield estimation, optimizing resource use, and strengthening food security Key Applications: Precision Agriculture: Satellite imagery and remote sensing help monitor crop health, soil moisture, and nutrients in real-time, enabling targeted irrigation and fertilizer use for better yields and reduced waste. Weather and Climate Monitoring: Space-based data improves weather forecasting and helps farmers plan agricultural activities and adapt to climate change. Resource Management: Satellites assist in managing water resources, monitoring drought, mapping soil, and preventing land degradation and deforestation. Yield Estimation & Insurance: Programs like FASAL and KISAN use remote sensing for accurate yield forecasts, aiding insurance schemes and disaster planning. Pest & Disease Detection: Hyperspectral and multispectral data can detect early signs of pest infestation or disease, reducing crop loss and excessive chemical use. Livestock and Land Monitoring: Satellite integration supports sustainable grazing, animal tracking, and land-use planning. Research & Crop Improvement: Space-based plant experiments enhance knowledge of plant biology and aid in developing resilient, high-yield crop varieties. Digital Decision Support: Platforms like Krishi-DSS combine geospatial data and AI to guide farmers and policy decisions in real-time. Food Security & Sustainability: Space technology helps track global agricultural trends, anticipate shortages, and promote sustainable farming. India’s Initiatives: India has led the way with programs such as FASAL, CHAMAN, NADAMS, and the Mahalanobis National Crop Forecast Centre to operationalize space-based agricultural services. Learning Corner: FASAL (Forecasting Agricultural output using Space, Agro-meteorology and Land-based observations) Launched by: Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers’ Welfare Implemented by: Mahalanobis National Crop Forecast Centre (MNCFC) Objective: Pre-harvest crop production forecasting for major crops using remote sensing, weather data, and field observations. Significance: Helps in accurate planning of food grain procurement, supply chain management, and agricultural policy decisions. CHAMAN (Coordinated Horticulture Assessment and Management using Geo-informatics) Launched by: Department of Agriculture & Farmers’ Welfare Implemented by: MNCFC in collaboration with ISRO and state horticulture departments Objective: Mapping and assessing horticulture crops using satellite data and GIS tools. Significance: Supports area estimation, crop condition monitoring, and planning for fruits and vegetables, aiding better management of horticulture sector. NADAMS (National Agricultural Drought Assessment and Monitoring System) Developed by: ISRO and Department of Agriculture Objective: Real-time monitoring and assessment of drought using satellite-based indicators like vegetation index, rainfall, and soil moisture. Significance: Assists in drought declaration, contingency planning, and timely allocation of relief resources. Technology in Agriculture (Agri-Tech) Technology has revolutionized agriculture by enhancing productivity, sustainability, and profitability. It plays a crucial role across the entire agricultural value chain — from pre-sowing to post-harvest. Remote Sensing & GIS Used for crop monitoring, land use mapping, and precision farming. Programmes like FASAL and CHAMAN utilize satellite imagery for real-time assessments. Precision Farming Involves site-specific crop management using GPS, sensors, and data analytics. Helps in optimized use of inputs like fertilizers, pesticides, and water. Internet of Things (IoT) & Smart Sensors IoT devices monitor soil moisture, temperature, humidity, and crop health. Enables real-time decision-making and automated irrigation systems. Artificial Intelligence (AI) & Machine Learning AI models predict weather, pest outbreaks, yield estimation, and market trends. Used in agri-advisory apps like Kisan Suvidha and AgriStack initiatives. Drones & Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) Employed for aerial spraying, crop surveillance, and damage assessment. Reduces human labor and enhances efficiency in large farms. Biotechnology & Genetic Engineering Development of high-yielding, pest-resistant, and climate-resilient crop varieties. Technologies like CRISPR gene editing and GM crops play a key role. Mobile Apps & Digital Platforms Apps like eNAM, PM-KISAN, AgriMarket help in market linkage, subsidies, and price discovery. Farmers receive weather alerts, crop advisory, and digital payments. Robotics & Automation Robots used for harvesting, weeding, and packaging in high-value crops. Reduces labor dependency and ensures uniform operations. Source: PIB BHASKAR Category: ECONOMICS Context: The BHASKAR (Bharat Startup Knowledge Access Registry) platform is a comprehensive digital ecosystem designed to strengthen collaboration and innovation across India’s startup landscape. Key Features: Centralized Networking: Connects startups, investors, mentors, service providers, and policymakers on a single platform, enabling seamless collaboration across sectors and regions. Personalized BHASKAR ID: Users receive a unique ID linked to verified, complete profiles—enhancing credibility, searchability, and secure interaction. Multi-Stakeholder Access: Open to diverse roles including entrepreneurs, investors, mentors, and support organizations, ensuring inclusivity. Enhanced Discoverability: Advanced search tools help users find partners, funding opportunities, programs, and schemes quickly and efficiently. Resource Hub: Offers centralized access to startup-related resources, events, and knowledge-sharing tools, eliminating system fragmentation. Digital & On-Ground Engagement: Facilitates both online collaboration and physical events to build relationships and market presence. Large-Scale Reach: With around 200,000 startups registered as of August 2025, BHASKAR is among the largest startup registries in the country. Conclusion: BHASKAR acts as a secure, inclusive, and scalable digital backbone for India’s startup ecosystem, accelerating innovation, connectivity, and growth. Learning Corner: Initiatives to Develop Startup Ecosystem in India India has emerged as the third-largest startup ecosystem in the world. To encourage innovation, job creation, and entrepreneurship, the government and associated bodies have launched several initiatives: Startup India Initiative (2016) Launched by: Government of India Objective: Promote entrepreneurship, simplify regulatory processes, and provide funding support. Key features: Tax exemption for 3 years Self-certification for compliance Fund of Funds for Startups (FFS) with ₹10,000 crore corpus Startup India Hub for single-window support Atal Innovation Mission (AIM) Launched by: NITI Aayog Components: Atal Tinkering Labs (ATL): Foster creativity among school students Atal Incubation Centres (AIC): Support early-stage startups with infrastructure and mentoring ARISE: Promote innovation in MSMEs and public systems Support for International Patent Protection in Electronics & IT (SIP-EIT) Provides financial support to startups and MSMEs for filing international patents. Startup India Seed Fund Scheme (2021) Objective: Provide seed funding (grants and convertible debentures) up to ₹20 lakh to early-stage startups for proof of concept and product development. Fund of Funds for Startups (FFS) Managed by SIDBI, the fund invests in SEBI-registered Venture Capital funds which in turn invest in startups. State-level Startup Policies States like Karnataka, Gujarat,

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) Tenth Schedule Category: POLITY Context:  The Supreme Court has strongly criticized the Telangana Assembly Speaker for delaying the decision on disqualification petitions. A Bench led by Chief Justice B.R. Gavai stated that anti-defection cases must be resolved within three months to uphold the dignity of the Speaker’s office and prevent political defection from going unpunished. The Court noted that such proceedings often die a “natural death” due to intentional delays by Speakers, making a mockery of the Tenth Schedule (anti-defection law). It criticized the Telangana Speaker for issuing notices only after the matter was brought to the Supreme Court in January 2025, despite a seven-month delay. Chief Justice Gavai emphasized that no constitutional immunity protects the Speaker from judicial review when acting under the Tenth Schedule, and questioned whether the Speaker acted in an expeditious manner as expected by Parliament. Learning Corner: 52nd Amendment Act and Anti-Defection Law: 52nd Amendment Act, 1985: Added the Tenth Schedule to the Indian Constitution. Aimed at curbing political defections by legislators. Enacted during Rajiv Gandhi’s tenure as Prime Minister. Came into effect on 1 March 1985. Anti-Defection Law (Tenth Schedule): Provides for disqualification of legislators (MPs/MLAs) on grounds of: Voluntarily giving up membership of their party. Voting/abstaining against party directives (whip) without permission. Exceptions: Merger provision: If 2/3rd members of a party merge with another, disqualification does not apply. Decision Authority: The Speaker/Chairman of the House decides disqualification petitions. Source: THE HINDU Linguistic reorganization of states Category: POLITY Context: Tamil Nadu Governor R.N. Ravi criticized the linguistic reorganization of states, claiming it created “second-class citizens” by dividing people based on language. Key Highlights: Historical Background: Before 1956, India’s states were categorized as Part A, B, C, and D, based on colonial legacy and integration history. Linguistic and administrative demands led to calls for restructuring post-Independence. Reorganization of 1956: The States Reorganisation Commission (SRC) was formed in 1953 following widespread protests (notably Potti Sriramulu’s fast for Andhra). The SRC report (1955) emphasized language but also recommended balanced reorganization for national unity. The States Reorganisation Act, 1956 reorganized India into 14 states and 6 union territories. Learning Corner: Background: India Post-Independence (1950) After the Constitution came into effect in 1950, Indian territory was categorized into: Part A States: Former British provinces (e.g., Bombay, Madras) Part B States: Former princely states (e.g., Hyderabad, Mysore) Part C States: Chief Commissioner’s provinces (e.g., Delhi, Himachal Pradesh) Part D State: Andaman & Nicobar Islands This structure was temporary and inefficient, prompting demands for reorganization, especially on linguistic lines. Major Movements and the First Linguistic State (1953) Demand for linguistic states gained momentum, especially among Telugu, Marathi, Tamil, and Kannada speakers. The death of Potti Sriramulu after a hunger strike led to the formation of Andhra State (1953) from the Telugu-speaking areas of Madras. Key Committees on Reorganization Committee Year Members Key Recommendations Dhar Commission 1948 S.K. Dhar (Chairman) Opposed reorganization solely on linguistic lines; favored administrative convenience. JVP Committee 1949 Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel, Pattabhi Sitaramayya Rejected linguistic states initially; favored national unity over linguistic aspirations. States Reorganisation Commission (SRC) 1953 Fazl Ali (Chairman), K.M. Panikkar, H.N. Kunzru Recommended reorganization primarily on linguistic lines, with a focus on administrative viability and national integration. States Reorganisation Act, 1956 Based on SRC recommendations: Abolished the A/B/C/D classification. Created 14 states and 6 Union Territories. Realigned boundaries largely on linguistic basis. Subsequent State Formations and Changes Year Reorganization 1960 Bombay split into Maharashtra (Marathi) and Gujarat (Gujarati). 1966 Punjab reorganized to form Haryana (Hindi), with Chandigarh as UT. 1971-72 Manipur, Tripura, and Meghalaya became full-fledged states. 1987 Goa, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram became states. 2000 Creation of Chhattisgarh (from MP), Uttarakhand (from UP), Jharkhand (from Bihar). 2014 Telangana formed as India’s 29th state, bifurcated from Andhra Pradesh. Source:  THE INDIAN EXPRESS Grant in aid to National Cooperative Development Corporation (NCDC) Category: GEOGRAPHY Context : The Union Cabinet, has approved a Central Sector Scheme titled “Grant in aid to National Cooperative Development Corporation (NCDC)”. Key Highlights: Objective: To help NCDC raise up to ₹20,000 crore from the open market to finance cooperatives. Usage: Funds will support loans for new cooperative projects, expansion of existing units, and working capital needs. Beneficiaries: Around 2.9 crore members from 13,288 cooperative societies across sectors like dairy, fisheries, sugar, textile, food processing, storage, and women-led cooperatives. Model: NCDC, with a 99.8% loan recovery rate and zero NPAs, will use the grant to enhance institutional financing for the cooperative sector. Learning Corner: National Cooperative Development Corporation (NCDC) Established: 1963, by an Act of Parliament: National Cooperative Development Corporation Act, 1962. Objective: To plan, promote, and finance programs for the production, processing, marketing, storage, export, and import of agricultural produce, foodstuffs, industrial goods, and livestock based on cooperative principles. Key Functions: Provides financial assistance to cooperatives for: Agro-processing and marketing projects Storage and cold chain facilities Dairy, poultry, fishery, and livestock development Rural sanitation, healthcare, and infrastructure projects Promotes integrated cooperative development projects in rural areas. Facilitates capacity building and skill development of cooperative members. Organizational Structure: Headquartered in New Delhi with 18 regional and state directorates. Operates under the administrative control of the Ministry of Cooperation, Government of India. Key Initiatives: Sahakar Mitra: Internship programme for young professionals in the cooperative sector. Yuva Sahakar Scheme: Promotes startup ventures in cooperatives for youth. NCDC Ayushman Sahakar: Provides financial assistance for healthcare infrastructure in the cooperative sector. Source:  PIB Project 17A Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Context The Indian Navy received INS Himgiri, an advanced stealth frigate and the third ship under Project 17A, on 31 July 2025 at GRSE, Kolkata Key Highlights: Project 17A Overview: Seven Nilgiri-class frigates are being built—four by MDL (Mumbai) and three by GRSE (Kolkata). Project cost is approximately ₹45,000 crore. Himgiri is GRSE’s first in the series and the third overall. Design & Capabilities: Length: 149 meters; Displacement: 6,670 tons. Developed by the Warship Design Bureau with 75% indigenous content. Features stealth design to minimize radar, acoustic, infrared, and magnetic signatures. Successor to the earlier

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) Depreciation of Rupees Category: ECONOMICS Context:  The rupee recorded its biggest single-day fall in nearly 3 months, depreciating by 61 paise to close at ₹87.42 per USD. Cause: Trump Tariff Announcement: US President Donald Trump warned of 20–25% tariffs on Indian goods. Month-end dollar demand. Aggressive FPI selling. Market Reaction: Rupee fell sharply after touching an intraday low of ₹87.66. The rupee has depreciated by 161 paise in the last 11 sessions. Contributing Factors: Fears of economic impact from new US tariffs. Heavy outflows by FPIs (₹16,370 crore in a week). Dollar demand from importers (especially oil firms). Stronger dollar globally. Learning Corner: Currency Appreciation & Depreciation: Appreciation: When the value of the Indian Rupee rises relative to foreign currencies (e.g., ₹75/USD becomes ₹70/USD). Depreciation: When the Rupee falls in value (e.g., ₹75/USD becomes ₹80/USD). Link with Inflation: Depreciation → Costlier Imports → Imported Inflation India depends heavily on oil, electronics, and capital goods imports. A weaker rupee makes these imports more expensive, leading to higher domestic prices. It fuels cost-push inflation (e.g., higher transport and input costs). Appreciation → Cheaper Imports → Helps Tame Inflation A stronger rupee reduces the import bill, especially for crude oil. It can ease inflationary pressure, particularly in sectors dependent on imported inputs. Broader Impact on Indian Economy: Aspect Depreciation of Rupee Appreciation of Rupee Exports Boosts competitiveness (positive) Hurts competitiveness (negative) Imports Becomes costlier (negative) Becomes cheaper (positive) Inflation Increases (especially WPI, CPI) May reduce inflation Current Account Deficit (CAD) May worsen May improve (if exports stay stable) Foreign Investment Can deter if seen as unstable Can attract stable flows RBI Intervention via the Forex Market: Objective: To stabilize the exchange rate of the rupee. When the Rupee Depreciates Sharply: RBI sells US Dollars from its foreign exchange reserves. This increases the supply of dollars and demand for rupees, supporting the rupee. Helps curb imported inflation (e.g., oil becomes less costly in rupee terms). When the Rupee Appreciates Excessively: RBI buys US Dollars, injecting rupees into the market. Prevents exports from becoming uncompetitive. Avoids disinflation or deflation risk due to excess appreciation. Tool Used: Spot and forward transactions, swaps, open market operations in forex. RBI Intervention via Monetary Policy: Objective: To control domestic inflation and manage capital flows. When Inflation Rises (Often Due to Depreciation): RBI may increase the repo rate (tight monetary policy). Higher interest rates attract foreign capital inflows, strengthening the rupee. Also reduces domestic demand, controlling demand-pull inflation. When Growth Slows and Inflation is Low: RBI may cut interest rates to boost credit and investment. This may lead to mild rupee depreciation, which can support exports. Tool Used: Repo rate, CRR, SLR, Open Market Operations (OMOs)   RBI Tool Purpose Impact on Rupee Impact on Inflation Selling USD Curb rupee fall Strengthens rupee Controls imported inflation Buying USD Curb excess rise Weakens rupee Boosts exports Raising Repo Rate Tame inflation Attracts FPI, strengthens rupee Controls inflation Cutting Repo Rate Boost growth May weaken rupee Mild inflation rise possible Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS Mangroves Category: ENVIRONMENT Context: Restoring Mangroves Can Turn the Tide on India’s Coastal Security Why Mangroves Matter: Natural Barriers: Protect coastal areas from cyclones, tidal surges, and erosion. Climate Mitigation: Act as carbon sinks; trap carbon dioxide and store blue carbon. Biodiversity Hotspots: Provide habitat for fish, crabs, molluscs, and migratory birds. Cultural/Economic Value: Vital to local communities for fishing, farming, and traditional practices. Major Threats to Mangroves: Urban expansion, pollution, shrimp farming, altered hydrology, and climate change. Over 50% of mangroves globally are at risk of collapse by 2050 (IUCN report). Learning Corner: Mangroves Mangroves are salt-tolerant trees and shrubs found in coastal intertidal zones of tropical and subtropical regions. They grow in brackish water, where freshwater mixes with seawater, especially in estuaries, lagoons, and deltas. India has about 4,975 sq km of mangrove cover (as per ISFR 2021), mainly in Sundarbans, Gujarat, and Andhra Pradesh. Unique Features of Mangroves Salt Tolerance (Halophytic Nature) Survive in saline conditions through salt-excreting leaves and special root adaptations. Special Root Systems Have stilt roots, pneumatophores (breathing roots), and prop roots for oxygen absorption and anchorage in soft, waterlogged soils. Tidal Adaptability Thrive in highly dynamic tidal zones, tolerating both flooding and exposure to air. High Carbon Sequestration Store large amounts of “blue carbon” in both biomass and deep, anoxic soils  crucial for climate change mitigation. Nursery Grounds Serve as breeding and nursery habitats for fish, crabs, shrimps, and molluscs — vital for coastal livelihoods. Natural Coastal Barriers Protect shorelines from cyclones, tsunamis, storm surges, and coastal erosion. Species Diversity India hosts over 40 mangrove species, with Avicennia, Rhizophora, and Sonneratia being common genera. Ecological and Economic Significance Provide ecosystem services, such as biodiversity support, carbon storage, fisheries productivity, and livelihoods. Act as bioshields, especially in disaster-prone coastal areas like the Sundarbans and Odisha coast. Mangrove Cover in India by State/UT (Descending Order): Rank State/UT Mangrove Area (sq km) % of India’s Total Mangrove Cover Key Mangrove Regions 1 West Bengal 2,114 42.3% Sundarbans (World’s largest mangrove delta) 2 Gujarat 1,141 23.6% Gulf of Kutch, Gulf of Khambhat 3 Andaman & Nicobar Islands 617 12.3% North, Middle & South Andaman coastlines 4 Andhra Pradesh 404 8.1% Godavari and Krishna estuaries 5 Maharashtra 304 6.4% Thane Creek, Raigad, Ratnagiri 6 Odisha 251 5.0% Bhitarkanika delta 7 Tamil Nadu 45 1.0% Pichavaram, Muthupet 8 Goa 26 0.5% Mandovi and Zuari river estuaries 9 Kerala 9 0.2% Kannur, Kozhikode estuaries 10 Karnataka 3 0.1% Uttara Kannada coast Total Mangrove Area in India: 4,975 sq km (approx. 0.15% of total geographical area) Source:  THE HINDU Kamchatka Quake Category: GEOGRAPHY Context : A massive 8.8 magnitude earthquake struck Russia’s Kamchatka Peninsula, one of the strongest in recent times. What Happened? It occurred on the Circum-Pacific Seismic Belt (Ring of Fire), which accounts for 80% of the world’s strongest quakes. Triggered a tsunami with waves up to 3–4 metres in parts of Kamchatka and up to 2 feet in Hawaii. No casualties were reported

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) Gini Index Category: ECONOMICS Context:  The Gini Index ranked India among the world’s more equal societies It fails to capture ground-level realities of urban-rural, gender, wealth, and digital inequalities. Its methodology overlooks informal sector employment, access disparities, and social norms that perpetuate inequality. Forms of Inequality in India: Wealth Inequality: A small fraction holds most of the nation’s wealth. The top 10% own a disproportionate share of income. Informal jobs and non-taxable income make wealth inequality hard to quantify. Gender Inequality: Women make up only 35.9% of the workforce. Only 12.7% of leadership roles are held by women. Startups founded by women are just 7.5% of the total. Patriarchal norms result in fewer resources for girl children and less inheritance. Digital Inequality: Only 53.9% of schools have Internet, and 52.7% have functional computers. Only 25% of rural women vs 49% of rural men have internet access. School closures during pollution seasons show how unequal internet access affects education. Learning Corner: Gini Coefficient The Gini Coefficient (or Gini Index) is a statistical measure of income or wealth inequality within a population. Definition: It ranges from 0 to 1 (or 0% to 100%): 0 represents perfect equality (everyone has the same income). 1 represents perfect inequality (one person has all the income, others have none). How It’s Measured: Based on the Lorenz Curve, which plots the cumulative share of income against the cumulative share of the population. The Gini Coefficient is the ratio of the area between the line of equality and the Lorenz curve to the total area under the line of equality. Applications: Used globally by economists, policymakers, and institutions like the World Bank and UNDP to assess income distribution. Helps compare inequality across countries or over time. Limitations: Does not capture non-income inequalities (e.g., gender, digital access). Insensitive to the location of inequality (whether at the top or bottom of the income scale). Similar Gini scores may mask very different economic structures. Source: THE HINDU Atmanirbhar Oil Seeds Abhiyan Category: POLITY Context: Launched in 2024-25, this mission aims to make India self-reliant in oilseed and edible oil production by 2030-31 Key Objectives: Achieve self-sufficiency in key oilseeds like mustard, soybean, groundnut, sunflower, sesame, and others. Enhance research in high-yield, climate-resilient varieties. Promote modern farming practices and digital technologies. Provide financial incentives and input subsidies. Strengthen post-harvest management, market linkages, and processing infrastructure. Expand crop insurance coverage. Boost secondary oil extraction from sources like rice bran, cottonseed, and tree-borne oilseeds. Implementation & Targets: Duration: 2024-25 to 2030-31 Budget: ₹10,103 crore Target: Raise oilseed production from 39 to 69.7 million tonnes Goal: Meet 72% of projected domestic edible oil demand Support Measures: Launch of SATHI portal for seed supply coordination. Increased MSP and schemes like PM-AASHA to ensure fair pricing. Higher import duties to protect domestic producers. Emphasis on environmental sustainability and rural employment. Learning Corner: Oilseeds Production in India: India is one of the largest producers of oilseeds globally but remains a net importer of edible oils, meeting over 50% of its domestic demand through imports. Major oilseeds grown include: Groundnut, Soybean, Mustard/Rapeseed, Sunflower, Sesame, Linseed, Niger, Safflower, and Castor. Cultivated mainly in rain-fed areas; productivity is often lower due to climate variability, low input use, and limited irrigation. Key Government Schemes: National Mission on Edible Oils – Oilseeds (NMEO–Oilseeds) (2024–25 to 2030–31) Aims to make India self-reliant in edible oils. Targets to increase oilseeds production to 69.7 million tonnes by 2030–31. Key components: High-yielding seeds, climate-resilient varieties Financial incentives, input subsidies Crop insurance, SATHI portal for seed coordination Post-harvest management and value addition Focus on both primary and secondary sources (e.g., rice bran, cottonseed) National Food Security Mission (NFSM – Oilseeds & Oil Palm) Promotes productivity and area expansion for oilseed crops. Provides financial support for inputs, training, and cluster demonstrations. Price Support Scheme (PSS) Under PM-AASHA, ensures Minimum Support Price (MSP) procurement for oilseeds by government agencies. Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY) A flexible scheme to fund state-led initiatives, including support for oilseeds based on local needs. Source:  PIB Ladakh’s hot springs Category: GEOGRAPHY Context : Ladakh’s hot springs and the origin of life Why They Matter: Unique Carbonate Chemistry: Unlike global focus on silica, Ladakh’s hot springs (notably in Puga Valley) show rapid calcium carbonate (travertine) formation, which preserves organic molecules like amino acids and fatty acids—key to prebiotic chemistry. Natural Laboratory: These springs offer a real-world setting resembling early Earth, ideal for studying how life might have formed. Extremophile Insights: Harsh conditions (UV radiation, temperature extremes) mirror early Earth and Mars. Microbes here produce protective substances, offering clues to how life adapts and survives in extreme environments. Astrobiological Significance: Mars Analog: Similarities to Martian hydrothermal systems make Ladakh valuable for space science. Biomarker Clues: Helps identify where and how to search for biosignatures on Mars, guiding missions by ISRO and NASA. Key Takeaways: Carbonates are crucial for preserving life’s building blocks. Supports new directions in astrobiology, synthetic biology, and Mars exploration. Strengthens India’s contribution to the search for life beyond Earth. Learning Corner: Hot Springs: Definition: A hot spring is a natural discharge of geothermally heated groundwater at the Earth’s surface. Formed when groundwater seeps deep into the Earth, gets heated by magma or hot rocks, and rises back to the surface. Temperatures can vary — from lukewarm to boiling. Found in tectonically active regions, especially volcanic zones. Notable Indian examples: Manikaran (Himachal Pradesh) Tapovan (Uttarakhand) Bakreshwar (West Bengal) Geysers: A geyser is a special type of hot spring that erupts periodically, shooting steam and hot water into the air. Occur when pressure builds in underground chambers filled with boiling water and steam. Require: Intense geothermal heat Abundant groundwater A unique plumbing system with narrow conduits Much rarer than hot springs. Famous geysers: Old Faithful in Yellowstone National Park (USA) El Tatio in Chile No significant true geysers in India. Geological Importance: Indicators of geothermal energy potential Support unique microbial ecosystems Sites of tourism and religious importance Source:  PIB Pralay missile Category: SCIENCE

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) Golden jackals Category: ENVIRONMENT Context:  Golden jackals in Kerala have shown remarkable adaptability to human-dominated landscapes, thriving beyond traditional forests in areas like agricultural lands, village edges, and peri-urban zones They exploit food sources from human activities, such as waste and livestock carrion, demonstrating a flexible diet and strong scavenging ability. This ecological plasticity allows them to survive habitat fragmentation and loss. However, their growing presence near human settlements raises concerns about potential conflicts and disease transmission, highlighting the need for effective management of human-wildlife interactions. Learning Corner: Golden Jackal (Canis aureus) IUCN Status: Least Concern (LC) Distribution: Native to South Asia, Middle East, North and East Africa, and Southeastern Europe. In India, they are found across the subcontinent — from forests and grasslands to rural, agricultural, and urban fringes. Habitats: Golden jackals occupy a diverse range of habitats, including: Dry deciduous forests Scrublands Grasslands and savannas Mangroves and wetlands Agricultural fields Peri-urban and rural areas Key Features: Size: Medium-sized canid (8–10 kg on average) Color: Golden to reddish-brown fur Diet: Omnivorous and opportunistic — includes rodents, birds, fruits, insects, carrion, and human food waste Behavior: Can be solitary, in pairs, or small family groups; mostly nocturnal Ecological Role: Important scavenger, helps control rodent populations and clean up carrion Conservation Concerns: Human-wildlife conflict (livestock predation, urban presence) Disease transmission (rabies, canine distemper) Habitat loss and fragmentation Source: THE HINDU Private Test Facility for Heavy Water Upgrade Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Context: India has inaugurated its first private test facility for upgrading depleted heavy water (D₂O), a critical component for nuclear reactors. Located in Palghar, Maharashtra Key highlights: The facility will test equipment needed to upgrade depleted D₂O to 99.9% purity, required for Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs). Earlier, components were manufactured and tested in-house by BARC; this move aims to cut time by at least two years. TEMA India will also manufacture parts for the distillation process and ensure correct results before deployment. The facility has already dispatched components for Unit 8 of the Rajasthan Atomic Power Project (RAPP-8). The project supports India’s aim of achieving 100 GW nuclear capacity by 2047. India currently operates 24 nuclear reactors with a combined capacity of 8,780 MW, with more under construction. Learning Corner: Heavy Water (D₂O)  Definition: Heavy water is a form of water in which the hydrogen atoms are replaced with deuterium (²H or D), a stable isotope of hydrogen that has one neutron in addition to the proton. Key Features: Chemical Formula: D₂O Appearance: Looks like ordinary water but is about 10% denser Non-radioactive Uses: Primarily used as a moderator and coolant in Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) Slows down neutrons to sustain the nuclear fission chain reaction Also used in scientific research and isotope production Importance in Nuclear Power: Maintains neutron economy by reducing neutron absorption Enables the use of natural uranium as fuel without enrichment Purity Requirement: Must be 99.9% pure to function effectively in reactors Gets contaminated over time and needs re-upgrading through distillation or other methods India’s Context: India uses heavy water extensively in PHWRs BARC oversees heavy water production and upgrading Now, private firms like TEMA India are also contributing to testing and upgrading processes Safety: Non-toxic in small quantities, but not suitable for drinking in large amounts Not radioactive but handled with care in nuclear facilities Source:  THE INDIAN EXPRESS Monsoon Category: GEOGRAPHY Context : Monsoon at Mid-Season – India Records 8% Above-Normal Rainfall As of July 28, 2025, India’s southwest monsoon has performed well, with 8% above-normal rainfall (440.1 mm) from June 1 to July 28. Most regions recorded normal or above-normal rainfall, except east and northeast India, which saw a deficit of 23%. Regional Rainfall (June 1–July 28): Central India: 574.4 mm (+24%) Northwest India: 447.8 mm (+6.9%) South Peninsula: 351.8 mm (+1.6%) East & Northeast: 316.9 mm (−23%) Key Points: Punjab, Bihar, Sikkim, Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh, and Meghalaya have seen persistent rain deficiency. July is the most crucial monsoon month and has shown 5.4% above-normal rainfall so far. Back-to-back low-pressure systems and depressions over Bay of Bengal sustained rainfall across most parts of India. Learning Corner: Monsoon  Definition: Monsoon refers to the seasonal reversal of winds accompanied by changes in precipitation. In South Asia, it primarily denotes the Southwest Monsoon, which brings the majority of India’s annual rainfall. Types of Monsoon in India: Southwest Monsoon (June–September): Brings ~75% of India’s annual rainfall Caused by differential heating of land and ocean Divided into two branches: Arabian Sea Branch and Bay of Bengal Branch Northeast Monsoon (October–December): Affects mainly southeastern India (Tamil Nadu, parts of Andhra Pradesh) Importance of Monsoon: Agriculture: Supports kharif crops like rice, maize, and pulses Water Resources: Replenishes rivers, lakes, and groundwater Economy: Impacts rural demand, food security, and hydropower Factors Influencing Monsoon: El Niño and La Niña events Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) Western disturbances Low-pressure systems and depressions in Bay of Bengal Challenges: Uneven distribution causes floods or droughts Delayed onset or withdrawal affects sowing cycles Climate change is increasing unpredictability in monsoon behavior Source :  THE INDIAN EXPRESS National Education Policy (NEP) Category: POLITY Context Five Years of NEP What Has Worked School Curriculum Revamp: The 10+2 system is being replaced by the 5+3+3+4 structure. NCERT has published new books for classes 1–8, emphasizing experiential learning. Early Childhood Education: Pre-primary learning is being strengthened with materials like NCERT’s Jaadui Pitara. Foundational Learning Focus: National Initiative for Proficiency in Reading with Understanding and Numeracy (NIPUN Bharat) launched to ensure reading and math skills by class 3. Academic Credit System: National Credit Framework allows flexible credit transfer and course entry/exit. CUET (Common University Entrance Test): Implemented in 2022 as a common entrance test for undergraduate admissions. Indian Campuses Abroad: IITs and IIMs have set up campuses in Africa and the Gulf; foreign universities are coming to India. What’s In Progress Board Exam Changes: From 2026, CBSE to allow class 10 students to choose subjects and take board exams twice a year. Holistic Report Cards: PARAKH under

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) Ceasefire agreement Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and M23 rebels Category: INTERNATIONAL Context:  A ceasefire agreement in Doha, Qatar, between the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and the Rwanda-backed M23 rebels Both sides committed to a “permanent ceasefire” and pledged to engage in dialogue, including the voluntary return of refugees and displaced persons. This deal follows years of intense conflict, especially after a renewed M23 offensive seized key cities like Goma and Bukavu in early 2025. Despite the breakthrough, the ceasefire is considered fragile due to several factors: Lack of International Support: Analysts warn that without strong international backing, the peace process could falter, as previous mediation attempts failed until Qatar’s surprise intervention. Ground Realities: Violence and mistrust persist, with the M23 threatening to resume fighting unless certain conditions are met, and some rebels have stated they will not retreat from their positions. Control and Administration: The M23 and its allies control vast territories in North and South Kivu provinces, raising concerns about security and the government’s ability to protect civilians. Deep-rooted Grievances: The conflict stems from overlapping ethnic, political, and economic issues, with external actors accused of supporting armed groups for their own interests. Key questions on disarmament and reintegration remain unresolved. Humanitarian Crisis: The long-running conflict has caused widespread displacement, leaving thousands in dire conditions. Learning Corner: Rebel Group Country/Region M23 (March 23 Movement) Democratic Republic of Congo TPLF (Tigray People’s Liberation Front) Ethiopia Taliban Afghanistan Houthis (Ansar Allah) Yemen PKK/YPG/Kurdish Groups Turkey, Syria, Iraq, Iran FARC (Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia) Colombia ISIS (Islamic State) Iraq, Syria, Global Source: THE HINDU Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) Category: GEOGRAPHY Context: India’s preparation against Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) events A recent GLOF event in Nepal caused significant damage and led to the destruction of the Seti River’s bridge, emphasizing the rising risk of GLOF events in the Himalayas. India, particularly in the Himalayan region, is working to mitigate these risks through measures like improving early warning systems, monitoring glacial lakes, and strengthening infrastructure to resist such disasters. The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) is focused on enhancing mitigation efforts using scientific tools, including satellite technology and remote sensing data to predict GLOF events. Moreover, transboundary cooperation between India and Nepal is emphasized, given the shared watersheds and increasing risks from glacial lakes. Both countries have faced catastrophic GLOF events, and regional collaboration is critical for developing solutions to manage such risks effectively. India’s efforts include research on glacial lakes and climate patterns, community involvement in preparedness programs, and using advanced technologies like SAR interferometry for better risk assessment. However, the effectiveness of these strategies will depend on the continuous monitoring and collaboration between neighboring nations. Learning Corner: Natural Disasters in the Himalayan Region Type Description Examples Earthquakes Due to tectonic collision between Indian and Eurasian plates; region is seismically active 2015 Nepal Earthquake, 2005 Kashmir Earthquake Landslides Triggered by intense rainfall, deforestation, or seismic activity; frequent in steep terrains Kedarnath disaster (2013), frequent in Uttarakhand & Sikkim Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs) Sudden release of water from glacial lakes due to moraine breach or heat Chamoli disaster (2021), Lhonak Lake threat in Sikkim Flash Floods Caused by cloudbursts or sudden glacial melt Leh flash floods (2010), Himachal flash floods (2023) Avalanches Sudden snow slides, especially in higher altitude regions during winters 2022 Gulmarg Avalanche, 2023 Siachen Avalanche Cloudbursts Intense, localized rainfall (>100 mm/hr) causing devastating floods and landslides Kedarnath (2013), Kinnaur (2021), Amarnath (2022) Source:  THE HINDU Brownian motion Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Context : Scientists at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) have developed a groundbreaking microscope technique that enables real-time observation of molecular motion down to tens of angstroms Instead of imaging individual molecules directly, this new method detects them indirectly by analyzing how they interact with light and leveraging Brownian motion—the random jittering caused by molecular collisions. Key components of the method include: Use of a streak camera to track nanoscale dynamics with picosecond-level speed. Observation of an ensemble of molecules (hundreds of billions at once), with enough precision to infer individual molecular motion. A non-intrusive, label-free, and fast imaging process, making it suitable for applications in biomedical research, disease diagnostics, and nanomaterial fabrication. The technique involves directing a laser through a sample, then capturing the scattered light using a system that includes a digital micromirror device (DMD) and the streak camera. The interaction patterns and fluctuations in light provide information about molecular size and movement. This is now the world’s fastest single-molecule imaging technique, offering new possibilities in visualizing molecular behavior at unprecedented speeds and precision, without the need for fluorescent labels or direct visual observation. Learning Corner: Brownian Motion Brownian motion refers to the random, irregular movement of microscopic particles suspended in a fluid (liquid or gas), resulting from collisions with the fast-moving molecules of the fluid. Key Features: Discovered by: Robert Brown (1827), who observed pollen grains in water moving randomly under a microscope. Explained by: Albert Einstein (1905), who mathematically modeled it and linked it to molecular theory. Confirmed by: Jean Perrin, whose experimental work validated Einstein’s equations and helped establish the existence of atoms. Scientific Significance: Evidence of molecular motion: Brownian motion provided strong proof for the kinetic theory of matter, supporting the atomic nature of substances. Statistical mechanics: It is a cornerstone concept in the development of modern statistical and quantum physics. Mathematical modeling: Brownian motion forms the basis of stochastic processes, including Wiener processes in probability theory. Applications: Colloidal stability analysis Stock market modeling (in financial mathematics) Diffusion studies in chemistry and biology Source :  THE HINDU Chola dynasty Category: HISTORY Context Prime Minister Narendra Modi, during the Aadi Thiruvathirai festival at Gangaikonda Cholapuram, described the Chola dynasty as an “ancient roadmap” for realizing the vision of a developed India (Viksit Bharat). Military and Naval Strength: Highlighted the Cholas’ powerful navy and called for strengthening India’s maritime and defense capabilities. Cultural Unity: Praised the Cholas for fostering cultural integration, linking it to current initiatives like

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) E3 Group Category: INTERNATIONAL Context:  Iran held nuclear talks in Istanbul with diplomats from Britain, France, and Germany (E3 countries) to resolve the deadlock over its nuclear programme. The meeting ended with an agreement to continue discussions. The focus was on whether to reimpose UN sanctions on Iran using the “snapback” mechanism, especially if progress isn’t made by August. The E3 had warned of sanctions if Iran fails to meet its nuclear obligations. While Iran remains skeptical of Western intentions, European leaders are concerned about Iran’s lack of transparency. Both sides agreed to meet again, but tensions remain over trust and commitment. Learning Corner: E3 Group: The E3 refers to a group of three major European countries: France, Germany, and the United Kingdom. They often coordinate on foreign policy, especially on global security and non-proliferation issues. Origin: The E3 format emerged during negotiations with Iran over its nuclear program in the early 2000s, even before the broader P5+1 (which includes the US, China, and Russia). Role: They act together to uphold the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA), also known as the Iran nuclear deal. Focus: Nuclear non-proliferation, diplomacy, sanctions enforcement, and maintaining international agreements. Current Relevance: The E3 continues to engage Iran diplomatically to prevent nuclear escalation and uphold UN resolutions. Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS Delimitation Category: POLITY Context: The Supreme Court of India has rejected a plea seeking the start of the delimitation process for constituencies in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana A bench of Justices Surya Kant and N.K. Sinha ruled that the delimitation carried out in Jammu & Kashmir under a special provision cannot be used as a precedent for Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, as J&K is a Union Territory governed by a distinct constitutional framework. The Court emphasized: Article 170 (which governs State Assemblies) does not apply to Union Territories like J&K. Section 26 of the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014 already provides for delimitation, but only after the first census post-2026. The existing notifications are not arbitrary and do not violate Article 14 (Right to Equality). Learning Corner: Delimitation in India  Delimitation refers to the act of redrawing the boundaries of electoral constituencies to ensure fair representation based on population changes. Constitutional Basis: Article 82: Empowers the Parliament to enact a Delimitation Act after every census. Article 170: Deals with the composition of State Legislative Assemblies and requires delimitation of constituencies based on population. Delimitation Commission Act: Based on this Act, the Delimitation Commission is constituted to carry out the delimitation process. Article 329(a): Bars courts from questioning the validity of delimitation once finalized by the Commission. Key Points: The last delimitation was based on the 2001 Census; future delimitation is frozen until after the 2026 Census, to ensure population control is not disincentivized. Jammu & Kashmir underwent delimitation under a distinct constitutional framework post its reorganization as a Union Territory in 2019. The Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014 (Section 26) provides for delimitation only after the first census post-2026. Purpose: Ensure equal representation. Maintain the principle of “one person, one vote”. Adjust constituencies as per population shifts. Delimitation is thus a constitutional tool to uphold democratic fairness while balancing administrative and political considerations. Source:  THE INDIAN EXPRESS Exercise Talisman Sabre (TS25) Category: INTERNATIONAL Context : Air Marshal Ashutosh Dixit, Chief of Integrated Defence Staff (CISC), is visiting Australia from July 26 to 28, 2025, to witness the 11th edition of Exercise Talisman Sabre (TS25). TS25 involves 19 countries and features complex joint training across air, land, sea, space, and cyber domains, including live-fire and amphibious operations. For the first time, six Indian officers are participating as Staff Planners, marking a shift from previous observer roles in 2021 and 2023. Their involvement includes planning and coordination in joint operations. The visit reflects India’s growing role in regional defense cooperation and its commitment to strengthening military interoperability and partnerships in the Indo-Pacific. Learning Corner: Military Exercises by India India conducts a wide range of bilateral, multilateral, and domestic military exercises aimed at strengthening military preparedness, enhancing interoperability, and fostering diplomatic ties. Types of Military Exercises: Bilateral Exercises: Garuda – With France (Air Force) MALABAR – Initially bilateral (India-US), now quadrilateral with Japan and Australia (Navy) Yudh Abhyas – With United States (Army) Shakti – With France (Army) Varuna – With France (Navy) Sampriti – With Bangladesh (Army) Hand-in-Hand – With China (Army) Multilateral Exercises: RIMPAC – Rim of the Pacific (World’s largest naval exercise led by the USA) TSENTR / Vostok – With SCO countries and Russia Cobra Gold – Hosted by Thailand, includes India and several Asia-Pacific nations Exercise Talisman Sabre (TS25) – Multinational drill hosted by Australia and the US, with India’s increasing role Tri-Service Exercises: INDRA – With Russia (All three services) Tiger Triumph – With USA (India’s first tri-service exercise with any country) Domestic Exercises: Dakshin Shakti, Gagan Shakti, Vayu Shakti, etc., are large-scale joint or single-service readiness drills conducted within India. Source :  PIB Thai and Cambodian border disputes Category: INTERNATIONAL Context: Clashes between Thai and Cambodian forces near their disputed border have resulted in at least 11 deaths The fighting has centered around contested areas near the ancient temples of Prasat Ta Muen Thom and Preah Vihear. The use of heavy artillery and fighter jets marks a major escalation. Both nations blame each other for starting the conflict and have recalled ambassadors and closed border crossings. Over 138,000 Thai civilians and thousands of Cambodians have been displaced. International appeals for a ceasefire and diplomatic resolution have intensified amid fears of a broader regional conflict. Learning Corner: Preah Vihear Temple: An 11th-century Hindu temple dedicated to Lord Shiva, located on the Dangrek Mountains along the Thailand-Cambodia border. Built in the Khmer architectural style, it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site (since 2008). Known for its unique linear axial layout, symbolizing a spiritual ascent toward Mount Meru. Subject of a longstanding territorial dispute between Thailand and Cambodia. In 1962, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) awarded the temple to

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) National Sports Governance Bill, 2025 Category: POLITY Context:  The National Sports Governance Bill introduced in the Lok Sabha Formation of a National Sports Board: A SEBI-like statutory body to oversee all sports federations, including BCCI. Ensures centralized regulation, transparency, and accountability in sports governance. Creation of a National Sports Tribunal: A civil court-like body to adjudicate sports-related disputes (e.g., selection, federation elections). Tribunal decisions appealable only to the Supreme Court. Need for the Bill: Current sports governance is ad hoc and fragmented. Aims to replace judicial overreach and frequent court interventions with specialized regulatory and adjudicatory mechanisms. Key Issues Addressed: Autonomy of the Tribunal: Presumed to be independent and free of conflicts, unlike past tribunals. Transparency in the National Sports Board: Will require strong public accountability and clear procedures. Age & Tenure Cap: Caps administrators’ age at 75 and removes fixed terms to make room for experienced international representation. BCCI under purview: Brings BCCI under government oversight for the first time, aligning it with national standards. Athletes’ Right to Redressal: Tribunal will replace courts as the primary forum for dispute resolution, aligning with global norms like the FIFA model. Learning Corner: Khelo India Programme Launched: 2018 Aim: Revitalize sports culture at the grassroots level and identify young talent. Key Features: Annual Khelo India Youth Games and University Games. Financial assistance of ₹5 lakh per annum for 8 years to selected athletes. Creation of sports infrastructure (e.g., centers of excellence, academies). Target Olympic Podium Scheme (TOPS) Launched: 2014 (revamped under Khelo India) Objective: To support India’s elite athletes for Olympic and Paralympic Games. Features: Funding for coaching, training, equipment, foreign exposure. Support staff including physiotherapists, nutritionists, and mental trainers. National Sports Development Fund (NSDF) Established: 1998 Purpose: Mobilize private/public funds to support top-tier athletes and infrastructure. Usage: Customized training. Equipment and facilities development. Fit India Movement Launched: 2019 Objective: Encourage a healthy and active lifestyle across all age groups. Initiated by: Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports (MoYAS) Focus Areas: Fitness pledges, fitness audits of institutions, campaigns in schools and workplaces. Sports Authority of India (SAI) Schemes Key Schemes: National Centres of Excellence (NCOEs) – elite athlete grooming. SAI Training Centres (STCs) – grassroots level training for young talent. Extension Centres of STCs – training in schools/colleges with sports tradition. Pandit Deendayal Upadhyay National Welfare Fund for Sportspersons Aim: Provide financial aid to sportspersons in indigent circumstances or those injured during their career. Support includes: Medical treatment, pension, and sustenance allowance. Mission Olympic Cell (MOC) Function: Operational arm under TOPS for monitoring and clearing athlete proposals on a fast-track basis. National Physical Fitness Campaign Target: School children (5–18 years). Purpose: Monitor and enhance physical fitness levels through standardized tests. Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS Coral Reef Decline Category: ENVIRONMENT Context: Lakshadweep Coral Reef Decline Key Findings 50% decline in live coral cover over the past 24 years—from 37% in 1998 to below 20% today. Study tracked reefs at Agatti, Kadmat, and Kavaratti. Repeated marine heatwaves (1998, 2010, 2016) and climate change are major causes. Causes of Decline Marine heatwaves raise ocean temperatures, leading to coral bleaching. Reduced recovery time between bleaching events limits reef regeneration. Warming seas continuously stress coral ecosystems. Ecological & Social Impact Risk of functional extinction: reefs may no longer support biodiversity or protect islands. Even resilient coral species now show bleaching signs. Local communities face threats to livelihoods and coastal safety. Urgency & Outlook Time is critical—reefs need long recovery periods to regenerate. Local measures can help, but global climate action is essential for long-term survival. Learning Corner: Coral Reefs Coral reefs are marine ecosystems made up of calcium carbonate structures secreted by corals (marine invertebrates). They are found in shallow, warm, and sunlit waters typically between 30°N and 30°S latitude. Known as “rainforests of the sea,” they support around 25% of marine biodiversity despite covering less than 1% of the ocean floor. Major Types of Coral Reefs: Fringing Reefs – Directly attached to a shoreline (e.g., Gulf of Mannar, India). Barrier Reefs – Separated from land by a lagoon (e.g., Great Barrier Reef, Australia). Atolls – Circular reefs enclosing a lagoon, often over sunken volcanoes (e.g., Lakshadweep). Coral Bleaching: Concept Coral bleaching occurs when corals expel symbiotic algae (zooxanthellae) due to stress, primarily from increased sea surface temperatures. The algae provide food and color to corals; without them, corals appear white (bleached) and are more vulnerable to death Causes of Coral Bleaching: Climate Change: Elevated sea temperatures (above 1–2°C from average) are the primary driver. Associated with El Niño events and global warming. Ocean Acidification: Absorption of CO₂ by oceans reduces availability of calcium carbonate, hindering coral skeleton formation. Pollution: Agricultural runoff (nitrates/phosphates), plastics, and oil spills damage coral health. Sedimentation: Reduces light penetration, affecting photosynthesis in symbiotic algae. Overfishing & Unsustainable Tourism: Disrupt reef ecosystem balance and cause physical damage. Impacts of Bleaching: Ecosystem collapse: Loss of marine species reliant on coral ecosystems. Fisheries affected, threatening food security and livelihoods. Reduced coastal protection from storm surges and erosion. Decline in marine tourism revenue. Global and National Efforts: International: Coral Triangle Initiative. UN SDG 14 (Life Below Water). IPCC reports warning against warming above 1.5°C. India: Coral reef monitoring under ICMAM (Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management). Coral restoration projects in Gulf of Mannar, Lakshadweep, and Andaman & Nicobar. Laws: Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Notification, Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 (Schedule I protection for coral reefs). Source:  THE HINDU Vitamin D Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Context : Vitamin D Deficiency and Neurodevelopmental Disorders. Key Findings: Increased risk: Low vitamin D levels have been consistently linked to a higher risk of autism spectrum disorder (ASD), ADHD, cognitive impairments, and, in some cases, schizophrenia. Communication and cognition: Vitamin D plays a role in brain signaling and serotonin metabolism, which are crucial for language development and social behavior. Deficiency may delay communication skills and contribute to ASD-like features. Sex-specific effects: A major cohort study found boys with vitamin D deficiency had over twice the risk of global neurodevelopmental

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) International Court of Justice (ICJ) Category: INTERNATIONAL Context:  International Court of Justice (ICJ) in The Hague ruled that countries are obligated under international law to take action against climate change In a historic decision, the, particularly by reducing greenhouse gas emissions and adapting to climate impacts. Failure to do so could be deemed an “internationally wrongful act,” making such countries liable for compensation, especially to vulnerable nations like small island states. This advisory opinion, sought by the UN General Assembly, clarifies legal obligations under treaties like the UNFCCC, Paris Agreement (2015), UNCLOS, and others focused on environmental protection. Though non-binding, it is seen as a major milestone for climate justice and could influence future legal actions globally. Learning Corner: International Court of Justice (ICJ)  Overview: The International Court of Justice (ICJ) is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations (UN). Established in 1945 by the UN Charter and began functioning in 1946. Headquartered at the Peace Palace, The Hague, Netherlands. Mandate & Jurisdiction: The ICJ performs two main functions: Contentious Jurisdiction: Settles legal disputes between states submitted voluntarily by them. Judgments are binding, without appeal, and enforceable under Article 94 of the UN Charter. Advisory Jurisdiction: Provides non-binding legal opinions on questions of international law referred by: UN General Assembly, UN Security Council, Other UN agencies authorized to seek opinions. Composition: 15 judges, elected for 9-year terms. Elected by both the UN General Assembly and the UN Security Council. Judges must represent the main forms of civilization and principal legal systems of the world. No two judges may be from the same country. Judges act in their individual capacity and not as representatives of their governments. Key Features: Only states (not individuals, companies, or NGOs) can be parties in contentious cases. Cases can involve disputes over: Border demarcation, Maritime rights, Human rights violations, Use of force, Treaty interpretation, Environmental responsibility, etc. Its rulings help develop international law, though enforcement depends on the Security Council. Important Articles: Article 92 – ICJ is the principal judicial organ of the UN. Article 94 – UN member states must comply with ICJ judgments. Article 96 – UNGA and UNSC may request advisory opinions. Landmark Cases: Nicaragua v. United States (1986) – U.S. was found guilty of violating international law by supporting Contra rebels in Nicaragua. Advisory Opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons (1996). Chagos Archipelago case (2019) – Ruled UK should end its administration of the Chagos Islands. Climate Advisory Opinion (2025) – Ruled that failure to act on climate change can constitute an internationally wrongful act, making states liable for damages. Comparison with Other International Courts: Court Jurisdiction Binding Judgments Parties ICJ Legal disputes between states Yes (for parties) States only ICC (International Criminal Court) Crimes like genocide, war crimes Yes Individuals PCA (Permanent Court of Arbitration) Wider disputes (incl. investment) Yes (via arbitration) States, individuals, organizations Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS Paikas Category: HISTORY Context: Omission of Paikas from NCERT class 8 About Paikas: Paikas were a warrior class who served the Gajapati kings of Odisha. They held land (nish-kar jagirs) in exchange for military service. British Annexation & Discontent: In 1803, British officer Colonel Harcourt annexed Odisha with little resistance. The British dethroned King Mukunda Deva II and ignored promises to grant four parganas. The new British rule caused: Loss of land and political status for Paikas, New revenue demands, Dispossession of tribal and peasant communities, Salt taxes and coastal trade restrictions. The 1817 Paika Rebellion: Led by Bakshi Jagabandhu, over 400 Kondh tribals and Paikas revolted. Rebels attacked British establishments and looted treasury offices. Though suppressed, resistance continued until 1825. Learning Corner: Important Tribal Revolts in British India Tribal uprisings were a major component of early resistance against colonial rule. These revolts were primarily sparked by the British disruption of tribal autonomy, exploitation by landlords and moneylenders, encroachment on forest rights, and interference in socio-religious customs. Santhal Rebellion (1855–56) One of the most significant tribal uprisings, it was led by Sidhu and Kanhu Murmu in the Rajmahal Hills of present-day Jharkhand. The rebellion was against oppressive zamindars, moneylenders, and British revenue officials. It was brutally suppressed but forced the British to enact the Santhal Parganas Tenancy Act later. Munda Ulgulan (1899–1900) Led by Birsa Munda, this movement in the Chotanagpur region aimed at restoring the Khuntkatti system of joint landholding. It combined tribal identity, religious reform, and anti-colonial resistance. Birsa Munda is revered as a messianic figure and martyr. Kol Uprising (1831–32) The Kols of Chotanagpur revolted against British interference in their political system and exploitation by outsiders. Leaders like Budhu Bhagat spearheaded this uprising, which was triggered by land alienation and administrative overreach. Bhil Rebellions (1818–1831) The Bhils of western India (mainly Rajasthan and MP) revolted multiple times during the early 19th century. These were primarily localized responses to famine, British land policies, and displacement. Govind Guru was a later Bhil leader who organized the Mangadh uprising in 1913. Khond Rebellion (1846–1855) The Khonds of Odisha rose in protest against British suppression of their religious customs (notably human sacrifice) and forest encroachments. The rebellion, led by Chakra Bisoi, also had millenarian elements. Rampa Rebellion (1879 & 1922–24) The Koya tribals in Andhra Pradesh resisted British forest laws that curtailed their traditional rights. The 1922 phase was led by Alluri Sitarama Raju, who used guerrilla tactics and invoked nationalist and tribal sentiments. He was captured and executed in 1924. Chuar Uprisings (1767–1799) The Chuars, mainly the Bhumij tribals of Bengal (Midnapore and Bankura), resisted land revenue hikes and British oppression. Leaders like Durjan Singh and Jagannath Singh led the early uprisings, which were among the first tribal resistances to colonial policies. Common Themes Across Tribal Revolts Local leadership with deep tribal legitimacy. Reaction to loss of land, forests, and autonomy. Often accompanied by religious reform or revivalism. Largely militant and spontaneous, lacking coordination with pan-Indian movements. Though suppressed, they laid the foundation for future mass movements and tribal rights activism.