Current Affairs

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) Bodoland Territorial Council (BTC) Category: POLITY Context:  Assam held elections for the Bodoland Territorial Council (BTC), which governs five districts in the Bodoland Territorial Region bordering Bhutan.  The BTC election saw a triangular contest among the United People’s Party Liberal (UPPL), Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), and Bodoland People’s Front (BPF). A total of 316 candidates are in the fray for 40 constituencies, with key leaders like Pramod Boro (UPPL) and Hagrama Mohilary (BPF) contesting. The results will be declared on September 26. Learning Corner: Bodoland Territorial Council (BTC): Formation: The BTC was formed in 2003 under the Sixth Schedule of the Indian Constitution after the signing of the Bodo Accord between the Government of India, Government of Assam, and Bodo Liberation Tigers. Jurisdiction: It governs the Bodoland Territorial Region (BTR), comprising four districts initially (Kokrajhar, Baksa, Chirang, Udalguri), later reorganized into five districts. The area is along Assam’s border with Bhutan. Structure: It has 40 elected members and 6 nominated by the Governor of Assam. The BTC enjoys legislative, executive, and administrative powers in 40 subjects, including land, forests, agriculture, education, and culture. Significance: Provides autonomy and self-governance for the Bodo people within Assam. Aims to protect and promote the social, cultural, linguistic, and ethnic identity of the Bodos while ensuring development in the region. Recent Developments: The 2020 Bodo Accord renamed BTC’s area as the Bodoland Territorial Region (BTR) and expanded its scope of development initiatives. Sixth Schedule of the Indian Constitution: Context & Purpose: The Sixth Schedule (Articles 244(2) and 275(1)) was incorporated to provide autonomous administration for certain tribal-dominated areas in the North-Eastern states. It seeks to protect the distinct culture, traditions, and administrative practices of tribal communities while ensuring their socio-economic development. Applicable States: Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, and Mizoram. Institutions Created: Autonomous District Councils (ADCs): Each district has its own council with 30 members (26 elected, 4 nominated by the Governor). Regional Councils: For smaller tribal groups within the districts. Powers & Functions: Legislative powers over subjects like land, forests (other than reserved forests), shifting cultivation, village administration, inheritance of property, marriage and divorce, social customs, etc. Executive powers to run departments like education, health, and local governance. Judicial powers through village and district courts for cases involving tribals. Financial powers include levy of taxes, fees, and receiving grants from the state government. Significance: Provides a unique model of self-governance within India’s federal structure. Balances tribal autonomy with the unity of the Indian Union. Source: THE HINDU Optical computing Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Context : Scientists are exploring light-based (optical) computing to overcome the speed and energy limitations of conventional electronics, especially for AI. Recent research found that nonlinear interactions of light in optical fibres can perform AI tasks faster and more efficiently. Optical computing uses photons instead of electrons, making it faster, more energy-efficient, and capable of handling massive data transfers. Researchers from Finland and France showed that intense light pulses in optical fibres can process AI tasks using physics rather than traditional algorithms. Their experiments trained AI models using optical signals, achieving high accuracy with lower energy use. While challenges remain, this breakthrough could revolutionize AI, offering unprecedented speed and efficiency for future computing. Learning Corner: Optical Fibres: Definition: Optical fibres are thin, flexible strands of glass or plastic that transmit data as pulses of light. Working Principle: They function on the principle of total internal reflection, where light signals bounce within the core of the fibre without escaping, allowing data to travel long distances with minimal loss. Structure: Core: The innermost part where light travels. Cladding: Surrounds the core and reflects light back into it. Buffer Coating: Provides protection and strength. Types: Single-mode fibres: Narrow core, transmit light directly, used for long-distance communication. Multi-mode fibres: Larger core, multiple light paths, used for short distances. Applications: High-speed internet and telecommunication networks. Medical imaging (endoscopy). Defense and aerospace communication. Emerging uses in optical computing and AI. Advantages: High bandwidth and faster data transfer. Low signal loss and immune to electromagnetic interference. Lightweight and durable. Source:  THE HINDU Quasi-moons Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Context: Astronomers have discovered a new asteroid, 2025 PN7, which follows an orbit similar to Earth’s and is classified as a quasi-moon. Quasi-moons and mini-moons are small celestial objects that temporarily accompany Earth in its orbit. The newly observed quasi-moon, 2025 PN7, spotted this summer, could be the smallest of its kind at under 52 feet. Such objects often originate from the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter or as debris from the Moon. Unlike permanent moons, they are temporary companions, staying for decades before drifting away. Earth has had similar followers before, with quasi-moons providing opportunities for research and possible future space missions. Learning Corner: Quasi-moons and Mini-moons: Mini-moons: Small natural objects that temporarily orbit Earth. Unlike the permanent Moon, they are short-term companions, often staying a few months to years. Many are captured asteroids or chunks of the Moon ejected after meteorite impacts. Example: 2006 RH120, a mini-moon that orbited Earth for about a year. Quasi-moons: Objects that orbit the Sun, but follow a path very similar to Earth’s orbit, appearing like companions. They are not true satellites but remain in Earth’s vicinity for decades in a stable gravitational “dance.” Example: 2025 PN7 (recently spotted), 469219 Kamo‘oalewa (discovered in 2016). They maintain a constant average distance from Earth, often staying in a resonant orbital pattern. Significance: Both are temporary companions of Earth. Useful for scientific studies, space missions, and potential resource exploration, as they are relatively close and easier to reach than main-belt asteroids. Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS New START treaty Category: INTERNATIONAL Context Russia has proposed a one-year extension to the New START nuclear arms control treaty with the US, set to expire in February 2026. President Vladimir Putin offered the US a one-year extension of the New START treaty, the last remaining nuclear arms pact between the two nations, which limits each side to 1,550 deployed strategic nuclear warheads. Russia said it is willing to continue

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) Supercomputers Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Context:  Can be directly asked in Prelims. Purpose & Use Normal laptops handle daily tasks like browsing or essays. Supercomputers solve massive, complex, calculation-heavy problems—e.g., weather forecasting, simulating nuclear reactions, modelling the early universe. How They Work Use parallel computing: thousands of processors work simultaneously. Each processor tackles a small part of a problem, combining results into one solution. Require special infrastructure: high-speed networks, bespoke cooling (pipes, refrigeration, or special liquids). Structure (Organised in Layers) Processors: CPU + GPU (for parallel operations, simulations, scientific computations). Nodes: Groups of processors bundled together. Network: High-speed connections linking nodes, with Internet connections for remote access. Software Specialised software divides large problems into tasks across many processors. Users write scripts describing required computing and expected outputs. Outputs (numbers, images, simulations) stored and used for analysis. India’s Supercomputing Journey Began in the late 1980s when Western countries refused to export high-end machines. Led to the creation of C-DAC (1988). Developed PARAM series (from 1991). Now part of the National Supercomputing Mission (NSM), which aims to build ~70 supercomputers across India. Used in IITs, IISERs, IISc, and key institutes for weather forecasting, drug discovery, space research, AI models, etc. Future Outlook Quantum computers could surpass supercomputers in handling certain problems. European Commission has invested in exascale supercomputers (10¹⁸ operations/sec). India continues building indigenous systems for scientific research and strategic needs. Learning Corner: India’s Supercomputing Journey Background (1980s) In the late 1980s, Western countries, especially the U.S., refused to export high-end supercomputers to India due to technology embargoes. This triggered India’s indigenous supercomputing programme. C-DAC Establishment (1988) The Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC) was set up in 1988 by the Government of India to build domestic supercomputing capabilities. PARAM Series India’s first supercomputer PARAM 8000 was launched in 1991. It marked India’s entry into the global supercomputing community. The PARAM series evolved with improved speed and capacity over the years. Expansion (2000s onwards) Supercomputers were installed across IITs, IISc, IISERs, and national laboratories. Used for weather forecasting, climate modelling, molecular biology, drug discovery, space research, AI, and defence applications. National Supercomputing Mission (NSM) Launched in 2015 as a joint initiative of the Department of Science and Technology (DST) and the Ministry of Electronics and IT (MeitY), implemented by C-DAC and IISc. Aims to build 70+ high-performance computing (HPC) facilities across India, with indigenous hardware and software development. Recent Progress Supercomputers like Pratyush and Mihir have been deployed for weather and climate research. India is moving towards petascale and exascale computing capabilities. Source: THE HINDU H-1B visa Category: INTERNATIONAL Context : President Donald Trump announced an increase in H-1B visa fees to $100,000. Decision by U.S. Government The White House later clarified: It is a one-time fee, not an annual charge. Applies only to fresh H-1B visa applicants (next upcoming lottery cycle). Does not apply to renewals or existing visa holders re-entering the U.S. Reason & Remarks U.S. Commerce Secretary Howard Lutnick initially created confusion by suggesting the fee might be annual. He justified the fee saying tech companies should stop training foreign workers and instead train American graduates. Impact on Indian H-1B Holders The announcement caused panic among Indian H-1B visa holders outside the U.S., leading to a surge in last-minute flight bookings before the fee clarification. Travel agents reported a rush to return before the proclamation took effect on September 20–21, 2025 midnight. Learning Corner: Types of U.S. Visas U.S. visas are broadly classified into two categories: Non-Immigrant Visas (temporary stay) Issued for travel, study, business, or work on a temporary basis. Some major types: B-1 / B-2 Visa – For business (B-1) and tourism/medical treatment (B-2). F-1 Visa – For students enrolled in U.S. academic institutions. J-1 Visa – For exchange visitors, scholars, researchers, and interns. H-1B Visa – For skilled workers in specialty occupations (IT, engineering, etc.). H-2B Visa – For temporary or seasonal non-agricultural workers. L-1 Visa – For intra-company transferees (executives, managers, specialized knowledge staff). O Visa – For individuals with extraordinary ability in sciences, arts, education, business, or athletics. P Visa – For athletes, artists, and entertainers. R-1 Visa – For religious workers. Immigrant Visas (permanent stay – leads to Green Card) For individuals intending to live permanently in the U.S. Family-sponsored visas – For spouses, children, parents, or siblings of U.S. citizens or permanent residents. Employment-based visas (EB-1 to EB-5) – For workers with extraordinary abilities, professionals, skilled/unskilled workers, and investors. Diversity Visa (DV) Lottery – Known as the “Green Card Lottery,” for nationals of countries with low immigration to the U.S. Special Immigrant Visas (SIV) – For specific categories like Afghan/Iraqi interpreters who assisted U.S. forces. Source:  THE HINDU Extreme Nuclear Transients Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Context: Astronomers have spotted the biggest bangs since the Big Bang. Discovery Astronomers from the University of Hawaii’s Institute for Astronomy (IfA) have identified a new category of cosmic events called Extreme Nuclear Transients (ENTs). ENTs are more powerful than gamma-ray bursts (GRBs), previously thought to be the most energetic events in the universe. What are ENTs? ENTs occur when stars stray too close to supermassive black holes in galactic centers. Extreme gravitational forces stretch and compress the star into a long stream (“spaghettification”), releasing massive electromagnetic energy. ENTs can be up to 10 times more energetic than the brightest previously known explosions. Rarity & Observation ENTs are far rarer than Tidal Disruption Events (TDEs), which are already uncommon. Their immense brightness makes them detectable across vast cosmic distances. Data from the Gaia spacecraft helped detect and study these phenomena. Significance ENTs are considered the biggest explosions since the Big Bang. They offer astronomers a new way to study black holes, galactic centers, and the evolution of the universe. ENTs differ from GRBs as they last much longer and are not just bursts but sustained emissions of energy. Future Prospects With new telescopes like the Vera C. Rubin Observatory and the Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope, astronomers expect to detect more ENTs. Studying

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) Preamble Category: POLITY Context:  The Supreme Court of India dismissed a plea against Muslim author Banu Mushtaq inaugurating the Mysuru Dasara festivities. The petitioner argued that only Hindus could perform the ritual, but the Court emphasized secularism, equality, and fraternity as constitutional principles. It noted that the State of Karnataka is secular and cannot favor any religion. Citing past precedents, the Court held that religious practices cannot hinder state functions or equality. It clarified that Mushtaq’s role was political, not religious, and reaffirmed that the State cannot exclude anyone on religious grounds. Learning Corner: Preamble of India: The Preamble is the introductory statement to the Constitution of India, adopted on 26th November 1949 and enforced from 26th January 1950. It declares India to be a Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic, Republic. It highlights four key objectives: Justice (social, economic, political), Liberty (of thought, expression, belief, faith, worship), Equality (of status and opportunity), and Fraternity (assuring dignity and unity of the nation). The 42nd Amendment Act, 1976 inserted the words “Socialist”, “Secular” and “Integrity”. The Supreme Court in the Kesavananda Bharati (1973) case held that the Preamble is part of the Constitution and reflects its basic structure. It acts as a guiding principle for interpretation of the Constitution, embodying the ideals of the freedom struggle and vision of the Constituent Assembly. Source: THE HINDU National Maritime Heritage Complex Category: CULTURE Context : Prime Minister Narendra Modi will review the progress of the National Maritime Heritage Complex (NMHC) at Lothal, Gujarat, on September 20, 2025. The ₹4,500 crore project will showcase India’s maritime history and serve as a hub for tourism, research, education, and skill development. Key Highlights: World’s tallest lighthouse museum (77 m), theme parks, floating restaurant, tent city, and a maritime university. Spread over 375 acres with 14 galleries depicting India’s maritime legacy from the Harappan era to modern times. Located at Lothal, an ancient Indus Valley port city, to revive its maritime significance. PM will also review ongoing construction and inaugurate multiple projects worth over ₹34,200 crore in Gujarat. Learning Corner: Major Harappan (Indus Valley) Sites & What They Are Known For Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan) – First site excavated; evidence of urban planning, granaries, and cemeteries. Mohenjo-daro (Sindh, Pakistan) – Great Bath, Great Granary, advanced drainage system. Lothal (Gujarat, India) – Dockyard, bead-making and semi-precious stone craft, evidence of maritime trade. Dholavira (Gujarat, India) – Unique water management system (reservoirs, step-wells), signboard with Indus script. Kalibangan (Rajasthan, India) – Evidence of fire altars, earliest ploughed agricultural fields. Banawali (Haryana, India) – Both pre-Harappan and Harappan phases, barley cultivation, fortifications. Rakhigarhi (Haryana, India) – Largest Harappan site in India, terracotta figurines, evidence of town planning. Chanhudaro (Sindh, Pakistan) – Bead-making, shell and bone work, toy carts, craft specialization. Surkotada (Gujarat, India) – Evidence of horse remains, defensive architecture. Kot Diji (Sindh, Pakistan) – Pre-Harappan fortified settlement, distinctive pottery. Source:  THE HINDU Drones Category: DEFENCE Context: The Indian Army is rapidly expanding drone induction, aiming for every soldier to be drone-trained by 2027. Inspired by recent conflicts and Operation Sindoor, drones are being integrated as core battlefield assets. Key Highlights: Drone training embedded in 19 major academies, including IMA and OTA. Every infantry battalion to have a drone platoon; artillery and other units to get counter-drone systems and loiter munitions. “Eagle in the Arm” concept envisions drones as standard tools alongside rifles. Over 1,000 drones and 600 simulators being procured; universal training by 2027. Roles include surveillance, precision strikes, logistics, and medical evacuation. Learning Corner: Different types of drones: Based on Usage Surveillance / Reconnaissance Drones – Used for intelligence gathering, border patrol, disaster management (e.g., quadcopters with cameras). Armed Drones (UCAVs) – Equipped with missiles/precision weapons for combat (e.g., MQ-9 Reaper, India’s Heron TP). Logistics Drones – Carry supplies, ammunition, or medical aid in conflict and disaster zones. Agricultural Drones – Crop monitoring, spraying pesticides/fertilizers, yield assessment. Commercial Drones – Used for photography, delivery services, mapping, and infrastructure monitoring. Based on Design/Structure Multi-Rotor Drones – Quadcopters, hexacopters; easy to fly, short range, mostly for photography and small payloads. Fixed-Wing Drones – Airplane-like design, longer endurance, larger coverage, used in surveillance and mapping. Hybrid VTOL (Vertical Take-Off and Landing) – Combine multi-rotor and fixed-wing, flexible for both short- and long-range missions. Based on Range & Altitude (Military Classification) Nano Drones – Very small, used by soldiers for short-range reconnaissance. Mini / Micro Drones – Tactical use, range up to a few kilometers. MALE (Medium Altitude Long Endurance) – For surveillance and armed roles, operate for 24+ hours at medium altitudes. HALE (High Altitude Long Endurance) – Strategic surveillance, very high endurance and range. Source: THE HINDU World Heritage Sites Category: INTERNATIONAL Context : In September 2025, seven new natural heritage sites from India were added to UNESCO’s Tentative List, taking the total to 69 properties (49 cultural, 17 natural, 3 mixed). Newly Added Sites: Deccan Traps at Panchgani and Mahabaleshwar, Maharashtra St. Mary’s Island Cluster, Karnataka Meghalayan Age Caves, Meghalaya Naga Hill Ophiolite, Nagaland Erra Matti Dibbalu (Red Sand Hills), Andhra Pradesh Tirumala Hills, Andhra Pradesh Varkala Cliffs, Kerala Significance: Highlights India’s commitment to preserving geological and ecological diversity. Represents a shift from focusing only on biodiversity to geological heritage and key Earth epochs. Sites include ancient volcanic regions, coastal formations, and significant caves with scientific and tourism value. Entry on the tentative list is the first step toward full UNESCO World Heritage status, promoting protection, sustainable development, and geotourism. Administration: The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) compiles and submits these nominations, reinforcing India’s role in global heritage preservation. Learning Corner: UNESCO World Heritage Sites (WHS)  Definition: Sites recognized by UNESCO for their cultural, natural, or mixed significance of outstanding universal value to humanity. Categories: Cultural Sites – Monuments, architectural works, or urban settlements (e.g., Taj Mahal, Jaipur City). Natural Sites – Natural landscapes, ecosystems, or geological formations (e.g., Sundarbans, Western Ghats). Mixed Sites – Sites with both cultural and natural importance (e.g., Khangchendzonga National Park). India’s WHS: As

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) Secularism Category: POLITY Context:  Chief Justice of India B.R. Gavai clarified in open court that he believes in true secularism, respects all religions, and often visits places of worship of different faiths. The controversy stemmed from remarks on a petition to reconstruct a Lord Vishnu idol in the Khajuraho monuments, which were misinterpreted on social media. He criticized how platforms distort and inflame events, drawing parallels to incidents in Nepal, while senior advocates also warned about the dangers of social media reactions to judicial statements. Learning Corner: Indian Secularism vs Western Secularism Indian Secularism The Indian model is based on the principle of Sarva Dharma Sambhava (equal respect for all religions). The State maintains a principled distance — it does not have an official religion but can intervene in religious practices to ensure equality, social reform, and protection of fundamental rights (e.g., banning untouchability, reforming temple entry). It emphasizes positive secularism, meaning the State actively engages with religions to uphold harmony and justice. Western Secularism Rooted in the historical context of Church–State conflicts in Europe. The State maintains strict separation of religion and politics — religion is seen as a private matter (e.g., U.S. First Amendment principle of “wall of separation”). It emphasizes negative secularism, where the State avoids interference in religious matters, ensuring neutrality and individual freedom. Source: THE HINDU Xenoparity Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Context : Scientists have discovered that the Mediterranean harvester ant, Messor ibericus, can give birth to two different species—its own and pure males of Messor structor Researchers found that all worker ants were genetic hybrids of both species, and about 10% of the queen’s eggs developed into pure M. structor males. This process, termed xenoparity, is the first known case of an animal naturally producing offspring of another species. It challenges conventional ideas of reproduction and species boundaries. Genetic studies show that M. ibericus and M. structor diverged over five million years ago, yet this adaptation helps their colonies survive by sustaining both species and ensuring a hybrid workforce. Learning Corner: Xenoparity Meaning: Xenoparity refers to the phenomenon where an organism gives birth to offspring of a different species. Discovery: First documented in the Mediterranean harvester ant Messor ibericus, which can produce not only its own offspring but also pure males of another species, Messor structor. Mechanism: Queens produce their own species’ queens using sperm from M. ibericus males. They produce hybrid workers and even pure M. structor males using sperm from M. structor males. Significance: First known natural case in animals challenging the biological rule that offspring belong to the same species as the parent. Redefines concepts of reproduction, heredity, and species boundaries. Evolutionary Context: Despite diverging over 5 million years ago, M. ibericus and M. structor maintain this rare reproductive adaptation, enhancing colony survival. Source:  THE INDIAN EXPRESS NE-SPARKS Category: POLITY Context: Union Minister of Development of North Eastern Region, Jyotiraditya M. Scindia, virtually interacted with students from the North East who visited ISRO headquarters under the NE-SPARKS programme. The initiative aims to nurture scientific curiosity among youth from all eight North Eastern states by exposing them to India’s space technology. Nearly 400 meritorious students in four batches have participated so far, with the Minister encouraging them to pursue careers in STEM and highlighting the government’s commitment to empowering the region’s youth. Learning Corner: NE-SPARKS Programme – Brief Note Full form: North East Students’ Programme for Awareness, Reach, and Knowledge on Space. Launched by: Ministry of Development of North Eastern Region (DoNER) in collaboration with ISRO. Objective: To nurture scientific curiosity and inspire youth from all eight North Eastern states by giving them exposure to India’s space research and technology. Features: Meritorious students from the region visit ISRO facilities. Hands-on exposure to cutting-edge space science, satellite technology, and research activities. Interaction with scientists to encourage STEM career choices. Progress: Nearly 400 students across four batches have already participated. Significance: Enhances scientific temperament, bridges regional gaps in science education, and empowers the North Eastern youth by connecting them directly with national scientific institutions. Source: PIB EVM Ballot Paper Category: POLITY Context : Revised EVM Ballot Paper Guidelines by Election Commission. Candidate photographs: Printed in colour, with the face covering three-fourths of the space. Names & NOTA: Displayed in uniform font type, bold size 30 for better readability. Serial numbers: Shown in the international form of Indian numerals. Ballot paper quality: Printed on 70 GSM high-quality pink paper with specified RGB values (for Assembly elections). Candidate limit per sheet: Maximum 15 candidates, with NOTA placed after the last candidate. Implementation: First applied in the upcoming Bihar Assembly elections. Part of reforms: Among 28 reforms introduced in the past six months to enhance clarity, accessibility, and modernization. Learning Corner: History of Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) in India  Introduction: The idea of using EVMs was proposed by the Election Commission of India (ECI) in the late 1970s to make the voting process faster, transparent, and less prone to malpractices. First Prototype: Developed by Electronics Corporation of India Limited (ECIL), Hyderabad in 1977. Later, Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL), Bengaluru also joined in manufacturing. First Use: EVMs were experimentally used in 50 polling stations of Parur constituency in Kerala in 1982 Assembly elections. However, the Supreme Court struck this down as there was no legal provision for EVM use in the Representation of the People Act, 1951. Legal Backing: The law was amended in 1989 to allow use of EVMs in elections. Gradual Adoption: Pilot use in 1998 (Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Delhi, etc.). Widespread use in 2001 Tamil Nadu Assembly elections. By the 2004 General Elections, EVMs were used in all Lok Sabha constituencies for the first time. Later Developments: VVPAT (Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail) introduced in 2013 (Nagaland by-election). From 2019 Lok Sabha elections, EVMs with VVPATs were used in all polling stations across India. Source: PIB PM MITRA Category: POLITY Context: PM Modi Lays Foundation of PM MITRA Park, Promotes Swadeshi. Swadeshi Push: Urged citizens to buy only Indian-made products and traders

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) can worsen dengue Category: HEALTH Context:  A study in Nepal (2019–2023) has revealed that waning immunity against Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) can worsen dengue infections. Key Points: Severe Dengue: Prior JEV exposure, especially with mid-range antibody levels, increases dengue severity. Antibody-Dependent Enhancement: JEV antibodies may enhance, rather than block, dengue infection. High Co-Exposure: About 61% of dengue patients showed past JEV infection. Climate Factor: Rising temperatures and longer monsoons are expanding mosquito-borne disease risks. Way Forward: Timely JEV boosters, better diagnostics, and integrated disease management are recommended. Learning Corner: Japanese Encephalitis Virus (JEV): Classification: Flavivirus, genus Flavivirus, family Flaviviridae. Transmission: Mosquito-borne, primarily by Culex species (especially Culex tritaeniorhynchus). Reservoirs: Pigs and wading birds act as amplifying hosts; humans are incidental dead-end hosts. Epidemiology in India: Endemic in several states, especially in Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Assam, West Bengal, and Tamil Nadu. Peaks during monsoon and post-monsoon due to mosquito breeding. Clinical features: Most infections are asymptomatic; severe cases present with fever, headache, vomiting, altered mental status, seizures, and may progress to encephalitis. Case fatality can reach 20–30%. Prevention: Vaccination (live attenuated SA 14-14-2 vaccine), vector control, and avoiding mosquito bites. Treatment: No specific antiviral therapy; supportive care is mainstay. Source: THE HINDU Malabar’s Rebellion Category: HISTORY Context : The book “Decolonial Historiography of Malabar’s Rebellion” by Ziya Us Salam offers a fresh view of the 1921–22 Malabar Revolt. It emphasizes Hindu-Muslim collaboration in resisting British colonial rule, challenging its portrayal as merely a peasant uprising or communal clash. The revolt is framed as a complex anti-colonial struggle tied to both the Khilafat movement and local socio-economic grievances. The author highlights how the British used divide-and-rule tactics to weaken this unity and notes that post-Independence narratives largely ignored this shared resistance. Learning Corner: Mappilla Rebellion (or Malabar Rebellion), 1921 Background: A series of uprisings by the Mappilla (Muslim) peasantry in the Malabar region of Kerala against British colonial authority and landlord (jenmi) exploitation. Causes: Economic exploitation – high rents and oppressive tenancy under Hindu landlords. Religious tension – communal polarization between Mappilla Muslims and Hindu landlords. Political influence – spread of Khilafat Movement and anti-colonial sentiment. Course: Began in 1921, marked by attacks on landlords, government officials, and police. The rebellion was initially anti-British but later took a communal turn, leading to widespread violence. Suppression: Brutally suppressed by the British army, involving mass killings, arrests, and destruction of villages. Significance: Highlighted agrarian distress and tenant issues in Malabar. Exposed the complex interplay of religion, economics, and politics in anti-colonial struggles. Led to the introduction of the Malabar Tenancy Act (1930) to protect tenants. Source:  THE HINDU US Federal Reserve cut interest rates Category: ECONOMICS Context: The US Federal Reserve cut interest rates by 0.25%, bringing the policy rate to 4.00–4.25%, its first reduction since December. The move aims to support jobs amid slowing growth and easing inflation. The Fed signaled two more cuts could follow this year, though some policymakers opposed the move. New projections show slightly higher unemployment alongside better growth estimates. Wall Street reacted mixed at first, before turning positive. Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS Radar Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Context : The Indian Army is upgrading its air defense with new radars to counter small, low-flying drones. Triggered by incidents like Operation Sindoor, the plan includes 48 Low-Level Light Weight Radars (Enhanced), 30 Drone Radars, and 20 Advanced Drone Detection and Engagement Radars. These mobile systems can detect low Radar Cross Section targets such as drones, filling gaps left by older long-range radars. They will be integrated into India’s multi-layered air defense network managed through the IAF’s Integrated Air Command and Control System (IACCS). Learning Corner: Radar (Radio Detection and Ranging) Definition: Radar is an electronic system that uses radio waves to detect, track, and determine the distance, speed, and direction of objects. Working Principle: A radar system transmits radio signals; when these hit an object, they are reflected back. The time delay and frequency shift of the echo help calculate the target’s range, location, and velocity. Components: Transmitter (generates radio waves) Antenna (sends and receives signals) Receiver (detects returning signals) Display/Processing Unit (interprets data) Applications: Military: Air defense, surveillance, missile guidance, drone detection. Civil: Air traffic control, weather monitoring, navigation of ships and aircraft, speed detection by traffic police. Types of Radar: Continuous Wave (CW) Radar – measures velocity. Pulse Radar – measures range and position. Doppler Radar – detects speed and movement. Phased Array Radar – tracks multiple targets simultaneously. Limitations: Performance can be affected by terrain, stealth technology (low Radar Cross Section objects), and electronic countermeasures (jamming). Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS National Policy on Geothermal Energy Category: ENVIRONMENT Context: National Policy on Geothermal Energy unveiled. Key Highlights First-ever national framework for geothermal exploration, development, and utilization. Grants renewables-like incentives: must-run status, open access charge waivers, and grid access. Identifies 10 geothermal provinces and 381 hot springs with ~10 GW potential (Himalayas, Cambay, Aravalli, Godavari, Mahanadi etc.). Covers high-enthalpy (electricity), low/medium enthalpy (heating, cooling, agriculture, aquaculture, GSHPs), hybrid systems, and reuse of abandoned oil/gas wells. Streamlined regulatory setup: single-window clearances, long-term leases, centralized geothermal data. Incentives & Financial Support 100% FDI permitted; concessional loans, risk-sharing for drilling, tax/GST relief, accelerated depreciation, viability gap funding. Participation in Indian Carbon Credit Trading Program encouraged. Pilot Projects & Collaborations Five pilot projects sanctioned, incl. 450 kW plant in Rajasthan using abandoned oil wells. Partnerships with Iceland, Norway, and the U.S. for technology transfer. Push for local innovation, PPPs, and oil-gas repurposing. Relevance to Net Zero 2070 Reliable 24×7 clean power, critical for diversified renewable mix. Supports decarbonization in buildings, agriculture, tourism, and rural development. Implementation Led by MNRE; states act as nodal agencies for clearances, project facilitation, and capacity building. Significance: Positions geothermal as a mainstream renewable, boosting energy security, jobs, and climate goals. Learning Corner: Geothermal Energy Definition: Renewable energy derived from the natural heat of the Earth’s interior, stored in rocks, magma, hot water, and steam. Sources: Heat is tapped from geothermal

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) 1948 Genocide Convention Category: INTERNATIONAL Context:  A UN commission has concluded that Israel is committing genocide in Gaza Accusing leaders including Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu of incitement. The panel, led by Navi Pillay, found Israeli forces guilty of four of the five genocidal acts under the 1948 Genocide Convention—killing, causing serious harm, creating destructive living conditions, and preventing births—citing explicit statements by officials as proof of intent. Israel rejected the findings as “distorted and false,” demanding the commission’s abolition. Meanwhile, the Israeli military launched a new ground offensive in Gaza City, advancing on the territory’s largest urban center. Learning Corner: 1948 Genocide Convention Full name: Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG). Adoption: Adopted by the UN General Assembly on 9 December 1948 (Resolution 260 A (III)); entered into force on 12 January 1951. Objective: First human rights treaty of the UN era, aimed at preventing and punishing genocide in times of peace or war. Definition of Genocide (Article II): Certain acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnic, racial, or religious group, including: Killing members of the group. Causing serious bodily or mental harm. Inflicting living conditions to bring about destruction. Preventing births within the group. Forcibly transferring children of the group. Obligations: States must prevent and punish genocide, whether committed by state actors or individuals. Punishment (Article IV): Applies to constitutionally responsible rulers, officials, and private individuals. Court jurisdiction: Cases may be tried in national courts or before an international tribunal (like the International Court of Justice, as seen in Bosnia v. Serbia, The Gambia v. Myanmar). Source: THE HINDU Typhon missile system Category: INTERNATIONAL Context : China has urged the U.S. and Japan to withdraw the U.S.-developed Typhon missile system Unveiled for the first time in Japan during the Resolute Dragon joint exercises at Iwakuni air station. Japan confirmed the system would not be fired but said its deployment strengthens deterrence amid a worsening security environment. Beijing expressed strong opposition, accusing the two countries of ignoring its concerns. The Typhon system, part of U.S. Army modernization, is a truck-based launcher using modified SM-6 and Tomahawk missiles. Learning Corner: Typhon Missile System Developer: United States Army, as part of its Mid-Range Capability (MRC) program under Army modernization. First Deployment: Publicly showcased in Japan in 2025 during the Resolute Dragon joint exercises. Platform: Truck-based, trailer-mounted ground launch system. Missile Types: Launches modified versions of: SM-6 (Standard Missile-6): Surface-to-air missile with extended range, capable of ballistic and cruise missile defense, as well as anti-ship roles. Tomahawk cruise missile: Long-range, precision strike, land-attack missile. Range Category: Falls into the mid-range missile class (roughly 500–1,800 km). Purpose: Designed to fill the gap between shorter-range systems (like HIMARS) and long-range hypersonic weapons, giving the U.S. Army the ability to strike ships and land targets. Strategic Significance: Enhances U.S. and allied deterrence capabilities in the Indo-Pacific, but seen by China as destabilizing to regional security. Source:  THE HINDU Sarnath Category: CULTURE Context: The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) will install a corrected plaque at Sarnath to acknowledge local contributions in preserving the site, shifting away from a narrative crediting only the British The new plaque will highlight the role of Babu Jagat Singh, whose 1798 excavation revealed the Dharmarajika Stupa’s significance, correcting earlier accounts that labeled him a “destroyer.” The move follows a request from his descendants and coincides with India’s nomination of Sarnath for the 2025-26 UNESCO World Heritage list. Sarnath, a major Buddhist site, contains monuments from the 3rd century BC to the 11th century CE, including the Ashokan pillar that forms part of India’s national emblem. Sarnath – A Major Buddhist Site Location: Near Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. Historical Importance: One of the four major Buddhist pilgrimage sites (along with Lumbini, Bodh Gaya, and Kushinagar). It is where Gautama Buddha delivered his first sermon (Dhammachakra Pravartana) after attaining enlightenment at Bodh Gaya, setting in motion the Wheel of Dharma. Key Monuments: Dhamek Stupa: Built in 5th century CE, marking the spot of Buddha’s first sermon. Dharmarajika Stupa: Originally commissioned by Emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE. Ashokan Pillar: Erected by Ashoka, its lion capital is now the National Emblem of India. Monasteries and ruins from 3rd century BCE to 11th century CE. Patronage: Flourished under the Mauryas (especially Ashoka), Guptas, and later rulers. Decline: Destroyed in the 12th century CE after invasions, later rediscovered during colonial excavations. Modern Relevance: A major site for Buddhist pilgrims worldwide; currently proposed for UNESCO World Heritage Site status (2025–26 nomination). Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS Unified Pension Scheme (UPS) Category: POLITY Context : Central government employees have until September 30 to opt for the new Unified Pension Scheme (UPS) The UPS, introduced as an optional switch for employees hired before January 1, 2004, assures a pension of 50% of the average basic pay of the last 12 months. It requires contributions of 10% of basic pay plus DA from employees and 14% from the government. However, interest is low because under the Old Pension Scheme (OPS), employees contribute nothing yet receive the same 50% pension on last drawn basic pay. Many employee groups argue the UPS and market-linked NPS are less beneficial and continue to demand a return to OPS. Learning Corner: Unified Pension Scheme (UPS) Launch: Introduced by the Government of India in 2025 as an optional scheme for central government employees. Eligibility: For employees hired before January 1, 2004, who are currently under the Old Pension Scheme (OPS). Nature: A one-time, optional switch—not mandatory. Key Features: Assured Pension: 50% of the average basic pay of the last 12 months of service. Contribution: Employee – 10% of basic pay + Dearness Allowance (DA); Government – 14%. Comparison with OPS: OPS: No employee contribution; pension = 50% of last drawn basic pay. UPS: Employee contributes 10%, but pension formula is nearly the same. Reception: Uptake has been very low because employees see OPS as more favorable (higher net benefit without deductions). Significance:

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) Asiatic Cheetah Category: ENVIRONMENT Context:  Madhya Pradesh is planning to establish a second population of cheetahs by introducing a female into Gandhi Sagar Sanctuary This follows the successful relocation of 29 cheetahs to Kuno National Park from southern Africa in 2022–23, with further imports from South Africa, Kenya, and Botswana under discussion. Female cheetahs mature by 25–30 months, give birth around 29 months, and have a 3-month gestation with litters of up to six cubs. Mothers expend nearly double energy during cub-rearing, frequently returning to dens in bushy patches. Gandhi Sagar presents challenges such as leopard presence and ensuring sufficient prey. Monitoring involves tracking pregnancy, prey provision, and camera traps to assess cub survival. Officials plan relocations after the monsoon for favorable conditions. Enhanced surveillance and veterinary checks aim to reduce mortality risks, as seen in earlier losses at Kuno. This initiative seeks to create multiple self-sustaining wild cheetah populations and diversify India’s conservation strategy. Learning Corner: Asiatic Cheetah: The Asiatic cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus venaticus), once widespread in India, became extinct in the country by 1952 due to excessive hunting, habitat loss, and decline of prey species. Historically, cheetahs were found across Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Deccan Plateau regions. The Asiatic cheetah now survives only in Iran, with less than 20 individuals remaining, making it one of the most endangered big cats in the world. India launched Project Cheetah in 2020, aiming to reintroduce cheetahs through translocation from Namibia and South Africa. In September 2022, eight cheetahs from Namibia were released into Kuno National Park (Madhya Pradesh), followed by twelve more from South Africa in 2023. The reintroduction marks the world’s first intercontinental wild carnivore translocation project. Current efforts focus on creating multiple viable populations, ensuring prey availability, tackling threats from leopards, and close monitoring of breeding success. Comparison between Indian (Asiatic) cheetah and African cheetah: Feature Indian (Asiatic) Cheetah African Cheetah Scientific name Acinonyx jubatus venaticus Acinonyx jubatus jubatus Current range Survives only in Iran (<20 individuals) Widespread in sub-Saharan Africa (Namibia, Botswana, South Africa, Tanzania) Historic presence in India Extinct in 1952; once found in Rajasthan, MP, Deccan Plateau, etc. Never native to India IUCN status Critically Endangered Vulnerable Population <20 (Iran) ~6,500–7,000 Size & Build Smaller, slimmer, paler coat, more belly fur Larger, more robust, darker golden coat, less belly fur Habitat preference Semi-arid grasslands, scrub forests, deserts Open savannas, grasslands, plains Genetic diversity Very low (due to bottleneck and tiny population) Relatively higher Conservation Extinct in India; being reintroduced through Project Cheetah Stronger protection, stable in some regions Symbolic importance Only large mammal to go extinct in independent India Key predator maintaining savanna ecosystem balance Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS Hindi Diwas 2025 Category: POLITY Context : On Hindi Diwas 2025, Union Home Minister Amit Shah greeted the nation, calling India a “language-centric country.” He described Hindi and all Indian languages as carriers of culture, history, knowledge, and traditions, and highlighted Hindi as a bridge of national unity across regions. Key Points of His Message Diversity and Unity: Indian languages have historically given voice to all sections and united people during the freedom struggle. Role of Hindi: Evolving from a language of expression into one of technology, science, and research. Cultural Recognition: Literary and spiritual works from all regions enrich the nation’s heritage. Vision for the Future: Under PM Modi’s leadership, Indian languages are experiencing a revival through initiatives like ‘Bharatiya Bhasha Anubhav’ for easy translation and promotion in law, education, administration, and technology. Digital Era: Emphasis on preparing Indian languages, especially Hindi, for e-governance, AI, and global competition. Shah’s core appeal was to respect all Indian languages and move towards a self-reliant and united India, with the message: “Let us move together, think together, and speak together.” Learning Corner: Official Languages Act, 1963: Background: Article 343 of the Constitution made Hindi in Devanagari script the official language of the Union. English was to continue for 15 years (till 1965) as an associate official language. Widespread protests (especially in southern states) against the exclusive adoption of Hindi led to the enactment of this Act. Key Provisions: Continued Use of English: English shall continue, along with Hindi, for official purposes of the Union and for communication between the Union and non-Hindi-speaking states, even after 1965. Parliamentary Proceedings: Members may address the House in Hindi or English. Authoritative Texts: Laws enacted in Hindi and English are considered equally authoritative. States’ Communication: Communication between the Union and states using Hindi as official language is in Hindi; with other states, it is in English. Rules and Orders: The Act empowers the President to issue rules for progressive use of Hindi and regulate official communication. Subsequent Amendment (1967): Made the use of English indefinite, ensuring it would not be discontinued without approval from states not using Hindi. Significance: Balanced national integration with linguistic diversity. Prevented the imposition of Hindi as the sole official language. Enabled smooth functioning of central administration and interstate communication. Source:  PIB Manki-Munda system Category: CULTURE Context: The Manki-Munda system is a centuries-old self-governance framework of the Ho adivasi community in Jharkhand’s Kolhan region. Structure and Function Each village is led by a hereditary Munda, who resolves disputes and maintains order. A Manki oversees a cluster of 8–15 villages, handling unresolved issues. The system is decentralized, hereditary, and non-revenue-based, traditionally functioning without external taxation or state intervention. British Influence In 1833, the British codified it under “Wilkinson’s Rules”, marking the first formal recognition of an adivasi self-governance system. This preserved some autonomy but enabled outsider entry and land changes. Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS Koala Chlamydia Vaccine Category: ENVIRONMENT Context : Australia has approved the world’s first vaccine to protect koalas from chlamydia, a disease causing infertility, blindness, pain, and death. Koala Chlamydia Vaccine Developed by the University of the Sunshine Coast after over a decade of research, it is a single-dose vaccine requiring no booster and shown to reduce mortality in wild koalas by at least 65%. Threat: Chlamydia infects up to 70%

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV) Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Context:  ISRO has formally agreed to transfer its Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV) technology to Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd (HAL), marking a major step in India’s space sector privatization. Key Agreement Details Facilitated by INSPACe, this is ISRO’s 100th technology transfer, signed in Bengaluru with NSIL and HAL. HAL will acquire SSLV know-how, with ISRO providing training and technical support. HAL can now independently manufacture SSLVs for Indian and global markets. Strategic Significance Strengthens India’s cost-competitive small satellite launch capabilities. Expands industry participation in space and helps India capture a larger share of the growing global small satellite market. Learning Corner: The Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV) is ISRO’s latest launch vehicle designed to cater to the growing demand for launching small satellites quickly and cost-effectively. Key Features Payload Capacity: Can carry about 500 kg to Low Earth Orbit (LEO) and 300 kg to Sun-Synchronous Polar Orbit (SSPO). Configuration: A three-stage solid propulsion rocket with a liquid propulsion-based Velocity Trimming Module (VTM) for precise orbital insertion. Cost-Effective: Designed for low-cost launches, with a quick turnaround time and minimum ground infrastructure requirements. Flexibility: Allows on-demand launch services and the ability to place multiple satellites in different orbits. Advantages Meets the needs of the booming small satellite market, both domestic and international. Reduces dependence on foreign launchers for small satellites. Strengthens India’s position in the global commercial launch market. First Flight The maiden flight of SSLV was conducted on 7 August 2022 from Sriharikota but faced anomalies. The first successful flight was achieved on 10 February 2023, placing EOS-07 and two customer satellites into orbit. Source: THE HINDU Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) Category: INTERNATIONAL Context : Peace in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) remains elusive despite recent U.S.-brokered and Qatar-mediated efforts, due to ongoing armed conflict, unresolved historical tensions, and competition over vast mineral resources. Key Developments In June 2025, the U.S. brokered a peace deal between Rwanda and the DRC to end hostilities and support for groups like M23. In July 2025, a Qatar-mediated ceasefire between the DRC and M23 collapsed as M23 resumed its offensive. U.S. Interests Securing access to the DRC’s $24 trillion mineral reserves (cobalt, coltan). Countering China’s growing influence in the region. Ceasefire Breakdown M23 continued attacks despite the truce. Both sides failed to honor pledges, including violence reduction and prisoner releases. Root Causes Legacy of the Rwandan genocide and Congo wars. Ethnic tensions and over 100 armed groups operating in the region. History of broken agreements and lack of trust among stakeholders. Learning Corner: The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) has faced chronic political turmoil, shaped by weak governance, corruption, contested elections, and recurring conflict fueled by ethnic divisions and control over vast mineral wealth. Key Factors Post-Colonial Instability: Since independence from Belgium in 1960, the DRC has endured coups, authoritarian rule, and civil wars. Conflict in the East: Ongoing violence in eastern DRC, involving groups like the M23, stems from unresolved grievances of the Rwandan genocide, ethnic rivalries, and struggles over mineral-rich territories. Governance Issues: Corruption, fragile institutions, and lack of effective state control in remote regions undermine political stability. Electoral Disputes: Elections are often marred by allegations of fraud, violence, and delayed transitions of power, eroding public trust. Foreign Involvement: Neighboring states and global powers are deeply involved, motivated by security concerns and competition for cobalt, coltan, and other resources. Source:  THE HINDU Stablecoins Category: ECONOMICS Context: Stablecoins, digital assets pegged to the US dollar, are expanding rapidly with a market capitalization above $280 billion, projected to reach $2 trillion within three years. Why They Matter Enable instant, low-cost, dollar-pegged settlements. 99% are dollar-backed, mainly by Tether and Circle. Boost global demand for US Treasury bonds as reserves are held in such assets. Global & Policy Implications Reinforce the US dollar’s global “exorbitant privilege.” Risks include financial instability, regulatory arbitrage, and shadow banking. Vulnerabilities may arise if reserves lose value or confidence falters. New regulations are under discussion, especially in the US and Europe. Learning Corner: Different types of cryptocurrencies: Payment Cryptocurrencies Designed as digital money for peer-to-peer transactions. Focus on being a medium of exchange and store of value. Examples: Bitcoin (BTC), Litecoin (LTC). Stablecoins Cryptocurrencies pegged to stable assets like the US dollar, gold, or government bonds. Aim to reduce price volatility and enable fast, low-cost settlements. Examples: Tether (USDT), USD Coin (USDC), DAI. Utility Tokens Provide access to specific products or services within a blockchain ecosystem. Often used to pay for transaction fees, storage, or smart contract execution. Examples: Ethereum (ETH), Binance Coin (BNB). Security Tokens Represent ownership of real-world assets (like shares, bonds, or property). Regulated under securities laws, providing dividends or profit-sharing rights. Example: Tokenized stocks or real estate platforms. Central Bank Digital Currencies (CBDCs) (state-backed) Issued and regulated by central banks, unlike decentralized cryptos. Aim to provide digital versions of national currencies. Example: Digital Yuan (e-CNY), Digital Rupee (pilot in India). Privacy Coins Focus on enhanced anonymity and untraceable transactions. Use advanced cryptography to hide sender, receiver, and amount. Examples: Monero (XMR), Zcash (ZEC). Governance Tokens Allow holders to vote on blockchain protocol changes, upgrades, or treasury decisions. Enable decentralized governance of networks. Examples: Uniswap (UNI), Maker (MKR). Source: THE HINDU India’s 2027 Census – Geotagging of Buildings Category: POLITY Context : For the first time, the 2027 Census will include geotagging of all buildings, marking their precise latitude–longitude using GIS technology A Census House will be geotagged during the House Listing Operations (April–September 2026). How it Works Enumerators will use smartphones to map each building in its House Listing Block through Digital Layout Mapping. All buildings—residential, vacant, or non-residential—will be classified and digitally mapped. Benefits Ensures accurate counts of houses and households. Improves field management and data integrity. Supports better resource planning and policy-making. Builds on geotagging experience from earlier housing schemes but will be India’s largest digital mapping exercise. Learning Corner: Geotagging Definition: Geotagging is the process of attaching the

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) Harappan script Category: HISTORY Context:  The Harappan script remains undeciphered despite decades of study. To address this, the Ministry of Culture is hosting an international conference in New Delhi from September 11–13, 2025, led by the Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA). Scholars remain divided on the language roots—some suggest Sanskrit, others Dravidian, and still others Adivasi languages like Santali and Gondi. A key challenge is the lack of bilingual texts, making comparison impossible. Many researchers believe the script encoded rules of taxation and commerce rather than direct phonetic spelling. While some claim up to 90% of symbols have been deciphered, no consensus exists. Recent studies highlight the commercial and ritual use of seals, particularly at sites like Lothal. The conference aims to pool multidisciplinary insights, but the Harappan script officially remains undeciphered. Learning Corner:  Harappan Language NCERT Perspective NCERT highlights that the Harappans used a script of pictographs engraved mainly on seals and pottery. Between 250–400 signs have been identified. These are not alphabetical but pictorial, possibly representing sounds, objects, or ideas. Most inscriptions are very short, averaging only a few signs. This brevity prevents clear understanding of the language. The script remains undeciphered, and we do not yet know what language the Harappans spoke. Scholarly Insights The Harappan language is unknown because the script has not been cracked and no bilingual text (like the Rosetta Stone for Egyptian) has been found. Hypotheses on its linguistic roots include: Proto-Dravidian (supported by many linguists and archaeologists). A language isolate, unrelated to known families, inferred from certain substratum influences in later Sanskrit. Some fringe theories suggest links to early Indo-Aryan or tribal languages, but none are proven. The inscriptions are usually written right to left, sometimes alternating direction (boustrophedon). Statistical studies suggest the signs follow structured patterns, implying it was likely a formal communication system. Challenges in Decipherment Short inscriptions make it difficult to analyze grammar or syntax. Unknown underlying language prevents phonetic assignments. No bilingual evidence exists to provide a breakthrough. Probable Function The script may not have been used for long narrative writing. Evidence suggests it was mainly for economic, administrative, and ritual purposes—for example, marking trade goods, recording rations, or identifying ownership. Harappan Civilization Chronology and Extent Flourished between 2600 BCE – 1900 BCE (Mature Harappan phase). Spread across present-day India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan; largest among Bronze Age civilizations, covering over 1.5 million sq. km. Major sites: Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Dholavira, Lothal, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi. Urban Planning Known for well-planned cities with grid patterns, straight streets, and advanced drainage systems. Use of standardized burnt bricks in construction. Division into Citadel (public buildings, granaries, baths) and Lower Town (residential areas). Great Bath at Mohenjodaro is a striking example of public architecture. Economy Agriculture: Wheat, barley, peas, sesame, and cotton (world’s earliest evidence). Irrigation was limited but floodplains were fertile. Trade: Internal and external—links with Mesopotamia, Oman, and Persia; export of beads, cotton textiles, and precious stones. Crafts: Bead-making, pottery, metallurgy (copper, bronze, gold, silver). Polity and Society No clear evidence of kingship or centralized monarchy; authority may have been with merchants, priests, or elite councils. Society appears relatively egalitarian—uniform town planning and weights suggest standardized control. Seals with animal motifs indicate religious, administrative, or trade significance. Religion and Beliefs Evidence of Mother Goddess worship and male deities resembling proto-Shiva (Pashupati seal). Sacred animals like the bull and unicorn symbol. Fire altars at Kalibangan; no temples found. Belief in afterlife suggested by burial practices. Script and Language Indus script: Pictographic with ~250–400 signs; still undeciphered. Inscriptions are short, mainly on seals and pottery. Language remains unknown. Decline By 1900 BCE, decline began due to a combination of factors: Climatic changes (drying of Saraswati river, floods). Overuse of resources and decline in trade. Possible invasions or internal social changes. By 1300 BCE, most cities were abandoned. Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) Category: INTERNATIONAL Context : Ethiopia has inaugurated the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) on the Blue Nile Ethiopia has inaugurated the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) on the Blue Nile, Africa’s largest hydroelectric project. Standing 170 meters tall and nearly 2 km wide, the dam can hold 74 billion cubic meters of water and generate 5,150 MW of power, boosting Ethiopia’s energy capacity and reducing blackouts. Egypt, which depends on the Nile for almost all its water, has strongly opposed the project, calling it an “existential threat” and protesting at the UN Security Council. It fears reduced water supply could harm its national security. Ethiopia maintains the dam will not harm downstream nations, as it is for electricity, not irrigation. The project is expected to benefit the region by enabling electricity exports and industrial growth. Despite mediation efforts by global powers and the African Union, the dispute remains unresolved, with GERD symbolizing both Ethiopia’s progress and a source of regional tension. Learning Corner: Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) GERD is Africa’s largest hydroelectric project, built by Ethiopia on the Blue Nile River, near the Sudanese border. Construction began in 2011, and the dam is a symbol of Ethiopia’s modernization and national pride. Key Features Height: 170 meters; Length: nearly 2 km. Reservoir Capacity: 74 billion cubic meters of water. Power Generation: 5,150 MW, making it the largest dam in Africa by electricity output. Purpose: Hydroelectric power generation (not irrigation). Significance for Ethiopia Nearly 45% of Ethiopians lack electricity; GERD aims to expand access, reduce blackouts, and promote industrialization. Expected to generate surplus electricity for export to neighboring countries like Sudan, Kenya, and Tanzania. Seen as a unifying national project amid Ethiopia’s internal political challenges. Regional Tensions Egypt’s Concerns: Relies on the Nile for 97% of its water; fears GERD will reduce water flow, posing an “existential threat.” Sudan’s Position: Mixed—concerns over water management but potential to benefit from regulated flow and cheap power. Diplomatic negotiations led by the US, World Bank, African Union, and others have failed to produce a binding agreement. Source:  THE HINDU AdFalciVax Category: INTERNATIONAL Context: The Union government has

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) Maternal Mortality Ratio Category: HEALTH Context:  Kerala’s maternal mortality ratio (MMR) has risen from 18 to 30 per lakh live births (2021–2023). Key Points Lowest in India: Kerala and Andhra Pradesh still share the top rank for lowest MMR among states. Calculation: MMR = maternal deaths per one lakh live births. Declining births: Live births fell to under 4 lakh in 2023, from an earlier 5–5.5 lakh. Maternal deaths: Remain steady at 120–140 annually, except for the COVID spike in 2021. Denominator effect: Fewer births but steady deaths push the ratio up. Policy view: The rise reflects demographic changes, not worsening maternal care. District-level health data is considered more accurate than SRS data. Learning Corner: Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) Definition: Number of infant deaths (under 1 year of age) per 1,000 live births in a given year. Significance: Key indicator of child health, maternal care, and public health services. Current Trend: Declining steadily due to better immunization, institutional deliveries, and neonatal care. Under-5 Mortality Rate (U5MR) Definition: Number of deaths of children under five years per 1,000 live births. Significance: Reflects overall socio-economic development, nutrition, sanitation, and access to healthcare. India’s Goal: Reduce U5MR in line with Sustainable Development Goal (SDG-3). Neonatal Mortality Rate (NMR) Definition: Number of deaths within the first 28 days of life per 1,000 live births. Significance: Sensitive indicator of maternal health, quality of delivery care, and newborn services. India’s Focus: Strengthening Special Newborn Care Units (SNCUs) and early neonatal interventions. Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR) Definition: Number of maternal deaths (during pregnancy, childbirth, or within 42 days of termination of pregnancy) per 100,000 live births. Significance: Reflects quality of maternal healthcare, safe motherhood programs, and women’s health services. Trend: India has shown significant decline, but regional disparities persist. Crude Death Rate (CDR) Definition: Number of deaths (from all causes) per 1,000 population in a given year. Significance: General indicator of mortality, influenced by demographic structure (ageing population). Source: THE HINDU Vice-President Election Category: POLITY Context : Vice-President Election 2025 India’s Vice-President is being elected today. NDA candidate C.P. Radhakrishnan is strongly favored over Opposition nominee Justice B. Sudershan Reddy due to NDA’s numerical strength and YSRCP’s support. The abstention of BJD and BRS has further reduced the effective majority needed. Numbers Game: NDA commands 425 of 781 eligible votes, while the Opposition has 324. The winning majority is 391, giving the NDA a clear edge. Candidates: C.P. Radhakrishnan (68): Veteran BJP leader, former governor, seen as a loyal party figure. Justice B. Sudershan Reddy (79): Former Supreme Court judge, known for civil rights judgments. Other Factors: Enhanced CRPF security for VP’s residence and mock poll training to ensure valid voting. Learning Corner: Vice-President election in India: Constitutional Basis Provided under Article 63–71 of the Constitution. The Vice-President is the ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha. Electoral College Composed of members of both Houses of Parliament (Lok Sabha + Rajya Sabha). Consist both Elected and nominated MPs (in the case of president, only elected members). This is different from the President’s election, where State Legislatures also participate. Election Process Conducted by the Election Commission of India. Held through proportional representation by means of a single transferable vote (STV), and voting is by secret ballot. A candidate must secure a quota of votes (more than 50% of valid votes cast). Eligibility Criteria (Article 66, 67) Citizen of India. At least 35 years of age. Qualified to be elected as a Rajya Sabha member. Cannot hold an office of profit. Term and Removal Term: 5 years, but eligible for re-election. Can resign to the President. Removal: By a resolution of Rajya Sabha, passed by an effective majority, and agreed to by Lok Sabha. Key Points In case of a vacancy in the President’s office, the Vice-President acts as President until a new one is elected. The office ensures continuity in governance and parliamentary functioning. Source:  THE INDIAN EXPRESS International Criminal Court (ICC) Category: INTERNATIONAL Context: Ugandan warlord Joseph Kony, leader of the Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA), is the focus of the ICC’s first-ever in absentia hearing on war crimes and crimes against humanity Background Rose to power in 1986, notorious for guerrilla warfare and use of child soldiers. LRA forced mass displacement, abducted children, and committed brutal crimes across Uganda, Sudan, and Congo. Despite global manhunts and a $5 million bounty, Kony remains at large. Global Response ICC hearing presents evidence against him in his absence—a milestone in international justice. Kony became a global symbol of impunity after a viral campaign highlighted his crimes. International efforts continue to bring him to justice. Learning Corner: International Criminal Court (ICC): Establishment & Legal Basis Established by the Rome Statute (1998), came into force in 2002. Headquarters: The Hague, Netherlands. First permanent treaty-based international criminal court. Jurisdiction Prosecutes individuals (not states) for: Genocide Crimes against humanity War crimes Crime of aggression (added in 2018). Jurisdiction applies when: Crimes committed on territory of a member state, or Crimes committed by a national of a member state, or When referred by the UN Security Council. Membership 124 member states (as of now). Major powers like the US, China, Russia, and India are not members. African nations form a large part of membership, though some have criticized the ICC for bias. Functioning Independent judicial body, not part of the UN system (but cooperates with it). Investigations can be initiated by: A State Party, The UN Security Council, or The Prosecutor (proprio motu) with court approval. Criticism & Challenges Accused of focusing disproportionately on Africa. Lack of enforcement power—relies on states to arrest suspects. Some states view it as infringing on sovereignty. Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS Engineering Export Promotion Council Category: ECONOMICS Context : The President of India, Droupadi Murmu, attended the Platinum Jubilee celebrations of EEPC (Engineering Export Promotion Council) India She praised India’s ancient leadership in trade and spirituality, urging citizens to work toward making India a global center of knowledge and commerce once again. Highlighting EEPC’s role as a bridge