Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) THE BRIDGE TO MOSCOW Syllabus: Mains – GS 2 Context: India-Russia relationship is set to be the most consequential bilateral engagement of the year 2025. Background: – The India-Russia relationship serves not just the two countries in question, but the world. Key takeaways The strength of ties between New Delhi and Moscow matters to both countries. It touches core mutual areas: Trade in energy, technological co-development, and strategic interests.  Russia remains India’s most accommodating partner when it comes to high-tech supplies. While the West — France and the US in particular — are relaxing rules for trade with India in dual-use tech, there is still a long way to go before Delhi’s undersea and long-range requirements are satisfied by the West. This is where Moscow steps in. Apart from being mutually beneficial to India and Russia, the relationship is a vital global public good : First, it serves as a bridge between the rest of the world and a Russian polity that has been alienated by, and has set out to further alienate, the West. India’s commitment to multilateralism and the global order anchors Russia, to a system that it otherwise seeks to disrupt. Second, the India-Russia relationship prevents the Russian bear from totally entering the dragon’s den. A Russia locked into servitude to Beijing’s interests would be profoundly inimical for the world order, the West in particular. India’s outstretched hand grants Russia the ability to manoeuvre and allows it to avoid capitulating completely to China. Third, trade between India and Russia in fossil fuels is designed to be compliant with sanctions meant to limit Russian profits. This too provides broader benefits to the world. It brings valuable price stability and predictability to energy markets, which is vital for the West and for Europe in particular. Fourth, the relationship allows for new possibilities in the crucial Arctic region. Without India’s increasing strategic presence in the Arctic, in partnership not just with Russia but also with European and Nordic friends, a new Russia-China axis would have shaped the region’s future. This would have spelt disaster for the ecology and security of global supply chains. Finally, India’s presence in groupings like BRICS and the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation ensures that these are not weaponised against the West. As External Affairs Minister S Jaishankar has put it, India is non-Western, it is not anti-Western. This moderate and reasonable attitude shapes the actions and positions of such groupings. The entry of New Delhi’s candidates — and Western friends — such as the UAE, Egypt and Vietnam into BRICS as either members or partners has further moderated that grouping. The ability to partner with nations that are deeply divided by geopolitics has been a feature of Indian diplomacy since Independence. The India-Russia relationship serves not just the two countries in question, but the world. Source: Indian Express   STARLINK SATELLITE INTERNET Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: Elon Musk has denied claims that his space company SpaceX’s satellite internet technology Starlink is being used by militants in Manipur. Background: – This came after the Indian Army and police seized weapons and what looked like a Starlink-branded satellite router and antenna. Starlink is still pending regulatory approval in India, though it will be starting in neighbouring Bangladesh and Bhutan in 2025 What is Starlink and how does it work? Starlink uses an extensive low Earth orbit satellite constellation to deliver broadband internet that has high speeds and low latency.  It is a popular choice for users worldwide in remote areas, sea vessels, disaster-struck regions, or places where oppressive regimes have throttled access to more mainstream internet services. There are thousands of satellites in the Starlink system, and they orbit Earth at around 550 km. Though they cover the entire globe, per SpaceX, the company is not authorised to provide its services to users in some regions. What is the controversy surrounding Starlink? Indian army on December 16 shared photos of guns, ammunition, and country-made mortars seized from Manipur in X. X users spotted a small satellite device and router, with the latter bearing the SpaceX logo sparkling speculation that Musk’s technology was being used by terrorists. Elon Muk responded that Starlink satellite beams are turned off over India. This is not the first time SpaceX has become embroiled in controversy in India. Last month, smugglers originating from Myanmar were caught by the Andaman and Nicobar islands police with over 6,000 kg of meth and a Starlink device that was allegedly used for navigation and communication, despite service being prohibited in Indian waters. Furthermore, in August this year, Starlink equipment was seen being sold on the B2B platform IndiaMART. Can Starlink satellite internet be controlled ? International borders are not solid and it is not easy to refine satellite internet coverage to such a precise degree that service is activated or halted exactly in line with a nation’s border. An additional complication is that many international borders are contested or unclear More information is needed from SpaceX to understand how the company ensures that Starlink satellite internet does not reach the countries yet to allow Starlink, while enabling service for neighbouring countries or waters that do allow Starlink service. What does Indian law say? India strictly regulates and restricts the use of satellite-based communication devices. Everyday gadget users within the country would have noticed that even key satellite-based emergency features on premium phones that are easily available for users overseas are not enabled for use in India. Under section 6 of the Indian Wireless Act and Section 20 of the Indian Telegraph Act, the use of thuraya/iridium satellite phones is illegal in the country. Indian embassies worldwide warn both Indian and foreign travellers that they cannot carry satellite phones into the country and may face confiscation and legal action if they do so without permission. These restrictions are in place largely to combat militancy and terrorism. In 2022, Indian officials reported that evidence of iridium satellite phone usage was discovered in the Kashmir

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) NEXUS REPORT Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – ENVIRONMENT Context: Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES), a global group of scientific experts, has released an Assessment Report on the Interlinkages among Biodiversity, Water, Food and Health – known as the Nexus Report.  Background: – This is a first-of-a-kind report looking at the interconnections between the multiple crises. The group examined five major challenges — climate change, biodiversity loss, food insecurity, water scarcity, and health risks — and found that they were strongly interconnected. What is IPBES? IPBES is to biodiversity and natural ecosystems what Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is to climate change. It periodically examines all the existing scientific knowledge on biodiversity and nature to make an assessment of their current state.  Just like IPCC, IPBES too does not produce new science. It only evaluates the existing knowledge to make consolidated assessments. IPBES, set up in 2012, informs several multilateral environmental processes, including the UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the Convention on Combating Desertification (CCD), the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species, and the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. IPBES produced its first report in 2019 in which it assessed the threat to global biodiversity. The information in this report became the basis for the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework. What does the latest report say? Nexus Report has highlighted the strong interlinkages between the five identified global challenges. Its key takeaway is that responses to all these challenges need to be harmonised so that positive actions taken on any one of these does not result in negative impacts on others. For example, an attempt to scale up food production, a positive action to deal with hunger and malnutrition, could have the unintended consequence of increasing stress on land and water resources and biodiversity. Exclusive focus on climate change could also go down on the same pathway. The report, therefore, argues that it was important to adopt synergistic approaches that deliver benefits across the spectrum. Report identified over 70 synergetic approach response options that produced positive outcomes across the five elements. Examples of such response measures included restoration of carbon-rich ecosystems such as forests, soils and mangroves, effective management of biodiversity to reduce risks of diseases spreading from animals to humans, promotion of sustainable healthy diets, and reliance on nature-based solutions wherever possible. The report pointed out that more than half of the global GDP — was moderately to highly dependent on nature. Transformative Change Report In another report released simultaneously, IPBES called for fundamental and transformative shifts in the way people view and interact with the natural world in pursuit of its well-being. This report, being called the Transformative Change Report, said current, and previous, approaches to deal with ecological decline had failed, and a new and different approach was needed. This new and transformative approach, it said, must be based on four fundamental principles — equity and justice, pluralism and inclusion, respectful and reciprocal human-nature relationships, and adaptive learning and action. It said the world needed to act immediately on new approaches because the cost of delaying action would increase the costs. There were also benefits to be had from immediate action. It said recent estimates suggested that more than 10 trillion dollars in business opportunities, and about 400 million jobs, could be generated by 2030 through sustainable economic approaches that rely on nature-positive economic models. Source: Indian Express   INDIA, KUWAIT LIFT TIES TO ‘STRATEGIC PARTNERSHIP Syllabus: Mains – GS 2 Context: Kuwait and India elevated their relationship to a “strategic partnership” and signalled that trade and defence cooperation would form the key pillars of their ties. Background: – PM Modi arrived in Kuwait on Saturday for a two-day visit — the first by an Indian PM in 43 years. The last Indian PM to visit Kuwait was Indira Gandhi in 1981. Key takeaways Defence Cooperation The two sides institutionalised defence cooperation through an overarching agreement that includes training, exchange of personnel and experts, joint exercises, supply of defence equipment, and collaboration in research and development, among others. Cooperation in Other Sectors Besides defence, three other MoUs (Memoranda of Understanding) were inked to facilitate cooperation in the areas of: Sports, Culture and Solar energy. India-GCC Cooperation India showed keen interest in intensifying its cooperation with the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) through Kuwait’s presidency of the influential grouping, which includes the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Oman, and Qatar. The total volume of India’s trade with GCC countries stood at US$ 184.46 billion in the financial year 2022-23. Both sides also stressed the importance of early conclusion of the India-GCC Free Trade Agreement. India-Kuwait Relations Kuwait is among India’s top trading partners, with bilateral trade valued at US$ 10.47 billion in 2023-24. The Indian community forms the largest expatriate group in Kuwait. Source: The Hindu SPADEX MISSION Syllabus: Prelims – SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: The satellites for the SpaDeX mission are set to launch onboard the PSLV C60 mission on December 30, 2024. Background: If the SpaDeX test is successful, India will become the fourth country in the world to have a space programme capable of docking in space. Key takeaways: The SpaDeX mission (Space Docking Experiment) is an ambitious project by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) aimed at demonstrating in-space docking technology. The primary goal of the SpaDeX mission is to develop and demonstrate the technology required for rendezvous, docking, and undocking of two small spacecraft in low-Earth orbit. ISRO needs to master in-space docking so that satellites launched in separate rocket launches can link up to perform more sophisticated tasks. The technology will be essential for the ‘Bharatiya Antariksh Station,’ a new India-made space station ISRO has begun work on. Mission Details: Spacecraft: The mission involves two small spacecraft, SDX01 (Chaser) and SDX02 (Target), each weighing approximately 220 kg. Launch: The spacecraft will be launched aboard the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV-C60) from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre. Orbit: Both spacecraft will

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) REVERSING THE SLOWDOWN Syllabus: Mains – GS 3 Context: With the new year around the corner, it is important to think ahead and recognize that the big economic issue in India in 2025 is likely to be the growth slowdown. Background: – For a rich country like the US with an annual per capita GDP of $86,000, slowing growth does not hurt a lot. But for a poor country like India, with a per capita GDP of only $2,700, slowdowns are painful and worrisome. Key takeaways The recently released GDP growth figures have triggered discussion over whether the slowdown is a temporary blip or a warning of a serious trend. Official statistics show that growth has declined in four out of the last five quarters. Consumption demand has been subdued. Partly as a consequence, private investment has been weak. While government investment has been growing over the past few years, propping up demand, it is soon going to run into fiscal constraints. There is one major opportunity for reigniting growth. India’s GDP is roughly $4 trillion while global GDP is a little more than $100 trillion. That means that India’s share of the global economy is around 4 per cent. But its share in global goods exports is much smaller, less than 2 per cent. Assume that India decides to bring its export share in sync with its share in the global economy. If this could be achieved, it would do wonders for growth. Many multinational companies are wanting to move out of China. And the only other country with a large population base and strong growth prospects is India. There is now a historic opening to attract foreign direct investment (FDI) in manufacturing, which all across Asia has been the key to increasing countries’ global export market share. The government, to its credit, has been trying to seize this opportunity by rolling out the well-funded Production Linked Incentives (PLI) subsidy scheme. India should adopt a well-defined export-led growth strategy, the critical component of which would be minimising risk and policy uncertainty. To give an important example, the country needs a consistent and coherent trade policy that does not involve frequent changes in import tariffs or worse still, import or export bans. Source: Indian Express   CII SEEKS REFORMS IN INDIA’S PRIORITY SECTOR LENDING FRAMEWORK Syllabus: Mains – GS 3 Context: Industry body CII has proposed reforms in India’s Priority Sector Lending (PSL) framework, suggesting the inclusion of emerging sectors and high-impact sectors like digital infrastructure, green initiatives, healthcare, and innovative manufacturing. Background: – CII also suggested setting up of a high level committee to look at the revision of PSL norms and explore the need for any new Development Finance Institutions (DFIs) to cater to some of the new and emerging sectors. Key takeaways Priority Sector Lending is a policy tool aimed at ensuring that key sectors crucial to the nation’s development receive adequate financial support.  Mandated by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), PSL obligates banks to allocate a specified proportion of their loans to sectors such as agriculture, education, housing, and small industries etc. Despite success, the PSL framework requires regular recalibration to remain relevant. This recalibration is essential to ensure that the financial resources are optimally distributed. For instance, while agriculture contributes 14 per cent of the GDP today, its PSL allocation remains at 18 per cent, unchanged from when its GDP share exceeded 30 per cent. Similarly, sectors like infrastructure and innovative manufacturing lack adequate PSL focus despite their potential to drive economic growth. Source: Livemint INDIA’S RELIANCE ON CHINA FOR CRITICAL MINERALS Syllabus: Mains – GS 2 Context: The Ministry of Mines has identified 30 critical minerals. While it highlighted India’s complete import dependency for 10 critical minerals, it did not fully address a more pressing concern — the extent and nature of dependency on China. Background: Transitioning away from China will require sustained investment and long-term commitment. Is China a dominant player? China’s unparalleled dominance in critical minerals stems from its vast resource base and strategic investments across the value chain.  Reserves of minerals, particularly copper, lead, zinc, nickel, cobalt, lithium, gallium, germanium, and crystalline graphite, increased significantly, supported by robust exploration investment.  China’s dominance extends beyond reserves to include processing and refining, with control over 87% of rare earth processing, 58% of lithium refining, and 68% of silicon processing.  Furthermore, China has strategically invested in overseas mining projects and built unparalleled midstream refining capabilities, raising supply chain vulnerabilities for countries including India, the U.S., and EU nations. What about China’s export controls? When it comes to China’s approach to weaponising critical mineral exports, it is strategic and calculated.  Beijing primarily targets minerals deemed critical by West and their allies, especially those essential for semiconductors, batteries, and high-tech manufacturing. However, China carefully balances these decisions against two constraining factors: it avoids controlling minerals which heavily depend on Western raw material imports, and it refrains from actions that could disrupt its domestic industry or export-dependent sectors. This strategy was evident in China’s 2010 rare earth embargo against Japan, its recent restrictions on antimony, gallium, and germanium exports, and its December 2023 ban on rare earth extraction and processing technologies. Is India dependent on China? An in-depth examination of import data of 30 critical minerals spanning 2019 to 2024 reveals India’s acute vulnerability to Chinese supplies, particularly for six critical minerals where dependency exceeds 40%: bismuth (85.6%), lithium (82%), silicon (76%), titanium (50.6%), tellurium (48.8%), and graphite (42.4%).  Why does India rely on imports? India’s heavy reliance on imports stem from several structural challenges in its mining and processing ecosystem.  Many critical minerals are deep-seated, requiring high-risk investments in exploration and mining technologies — a factor that has deterred private sector participation in the absence of adequate incentives and policy support.  The country’s processing capabilities are also limited. This is particularly evident in the case of the recently discovered lithium deposits in Jammu and Kashmir, where despite the presence

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) CONCERN BEHIND THE STATE OF FOREST Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – ENVIRONMENT Context: The 18th biennial State of Forest Report (ISFR-2023) by the Forest Survey of India (FSI) found a marginal gain of 156 sq km in forest cover, and a sizable increase of 1,289 sq km in tree cover since 2021. Background: – Irrespective of land use or ownership, tree patches measuring 1 hectare or more with a minimum canopy cover of 10% are counted as forests in India :  Very dense forest: Canopy density of 70% or more Moderately dense forest: Canopy density of 40–70% Open forest: Canopy density of 10–40% Key takeaways For the first time, India’s green cover has exceeded the 25% threshold with 8,27,357 sq km (25.17%) of the country now under forest (21.76%) and tree (3.41%) cover. Of this, 4,10,175 sq km is classified as dense forests. Tree patches smaller than 1 hectare do not count as forests, and have been measured separately by FSI as tree cover since 2001. IFSR-2023 recorded a 0.5 percentage point jump in two years, with tree cover rising to 3.41%. In comparison, India’s forest cover has increased by only 0.05 percentage points since 2021. This is consistent with the trend of diminishing growth since India’s forest cover crossed the 20% threshold at the turn of the millennium.  Between 2003 and 2013, forest cover increased by 0.61 percentage points, from 20.62% to 21.23%. In the next 10 years, it grew by only 0.53 percentage points to 21.76%. Depending on factors such as climate and biotic pressure, a forest can improve or degrade to the next density category — a VDF patch may thin to become a moderately dense forest (MDF) or an OF may get upgraded as an MDF — during a 2-year IFSR cycle. SFR-2023 shows that 3,913 sq km of dense forests — an area larger than Goa — have disappeared in India in just two years since 2021. This is consistent with the worsening trend over the past two decades: 17,500 sq km of dense forests were wiped out between 2013 and 2023, while 7,151 sq km disappeared between 2003 and 2013. The bulk of this loss has been offset by the rapid transformation of 15,530 sq km of non-forested or scantly forested land to dense or even very dense forests in successive two-year windows during 2003-2023. These are plantations, say experts, because natural forests do not grow this fast. The trend of steady replacement of natural dense forests with plantations has been criticised by experts. Plantations usually have trees of the same age (and often the same species), are vulnerable to fire, pests and epidemics, and often act as a barrier to the regeneration of natural forests which are more biodiverse, perform a wider range of ecological functions, and support numerous species. Source: Indian Express   GOOD GOVERNANCE DAY Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT ; GS 2 Context: Every year, Good Governance Day is celebrated on December 25th. Background: – This day aims to raise awareness among citizens about government accountability and effective administration while promoting the practice of “good governance” among civil servants. Key takeaways In 2014, the Union government announced that December 25 would be celebrated as “Good Governance Day.” This day honors the birth anniversary of former Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee. According to Good Governance Index Report, “Good governance can be referred as an effective and efficient process of decision making and the process by which decisions are implemented (or not implemented) keeping the amelioration of citizens as the topmost priority. Resource allocation, creation of formal establishments, setting up rules and regulations etc., are part of achieving this goal.” Atal Bihari Vajpayee Atal Bihari Vajpayee was born on December 25, 1924 in Gwalior, present-day Madhya Pradesh. He held his first major national position as the External Affairs Minister in Morarji Desai’s post Emergency government. Eventhough he resigned and the government soon fell, Vajpayee had earned major plaudits for his tenure, with his UN General Assembly speech in Hindi drawing praise. While he first became Prime Minister in 1996 (for 16 days) it was his 1998-1999  and 1999-2004 terms that left a lasting impact on the nation. He was the first non-Congress prime minister to serve a full term in the office. Under his tenure, India formally became a nuclear power ( Pokhran-II nuclear tests in 1998) despite criticism from the West, ably faced war and peace with Pakistan, undertook massive public welfare projects including Sarva Shikshya Abhiyaan and PM Gramin Sadak Yojana, and ushered in a new era of foreign investment and international relations, especially with the US. In 2015, he was honoured India’s highest civilian honour – Bharat Ratna. When Prime Minister Narendra Modi announced the new “Good Governance Day” in 2014, there were two primary reasons cited.  First was to commemorate the life of Atal Bihari Vajpayee. Second, was to use the day as a way to increase awareness of government services and accountability among people and inculcate “good governance” as a habit for civil servants. Source: Indian Express OBLIGATIONS TOWARDS ROHINGYA REFUGEES Syllabus: Mains – GS 2 Context: A recent study examining the plight of Rohingya refugees detained in India has highlighted gross violations of constitutional and human rights and criticised India’s failure to uphold its obligations under international human rights treaties. Background: According to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), nearly 22,500 Rohingya refugees currently reside in India. How are Rohingya refugees protected under international law? The Rohingya of Myanmar constitute the world’s largest stateless population, estimated to number approximately 2.8 million. The 1951 Refugee Convention and its 1967 Protocol enshrine the principle of non-refoulement, which prohibits states from expelling individuals when evidence suggests they would face persecution, torture, or other severe human rights violations upon return. Moreover, its status as customary international law imposes binding obligations on states regardless of formal assent.  In a 2007 advisory opinion, the UNHCR affirmed that non-refoulement constitutes customary law and is binding on all states, including those not parties to the Refugee Convention or the 1967

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) GOVERNORS: APPOINTMENT AND TRANSFER Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – POLITY Context: Government announced new gubernatorial appointments, including former Union Home Secretary Ajay Kumar Bhalla as Governor of Manipur and former Army Chief V K Singh as Governor of Mizoram. Among the other appointments by President are: Kerala Governor Arif Mohammed Khan as Governor of Bihar; Mizoram Governor Dr Hari Babu Kambhampati as Governor of Odisha; and Bihar Governor Rajendra Vishwanath Arlekar as Governor of Kerala. Background: – The choice of Bhalla as Manipur Governor is significant as the Centre has been struggling to control the ethnic violence in the state for over one-and-a-half years. Bhalla was Union Home Secretary when the violence began on May 3, 2023. Key takeaways Article 153 of the Constitution says “There shall be a Governor for each State.” A few years after the commencement of the Constitution, an amendment in 1956 laid down that “nothing in this article shall prevent the appointment of the same person as Governor for two or more States”. Article 155 says that the “Governor of a State shall be appointed by the President by warrant under his hand and seal”. Under Article 156, “the Governor shall hold office during the pleasure of the President”, but his normal term of office will be five years. If the President withdraws her pleasure before the completion of five years, the Governor has to step down. Since the President acts on the aid and advice of the Prime Minister and the Union Council of Ministers, in effect, the Governor is appointed and removed by the central government. Articles 157 and 158 lay down the qualifications of the Governor and the conditions of his office. The Governor must be a citizen of India and should have completed the age of 35 years. The Governor should not be a member of Parliament or a state legislature, and must not hold any other office of profit. Powers and Functions Executive Powers : Article 154 – The executive power of the State shall be vested in the Governor and shall be exercised by him either directly or through officers subordinate to him in accordance with this Constitution. The Governor appoints the Chief Minister and other ministers based on their majority in the Legislative Assembly (Article 164). Key Appointments: Appoints the Advocate General (Article 165), State Election Commissioner (Article 243K), and members of the State Public Service Commission. Legislative Powers Summoning and Dissolution: Summons, prorogues, and dissolves the state legislature (Article 174). Addresses the legislative assembly at the beginning of its first session (Article 176). Assent to Bills: Can give or withhold assent to bills, or reserve them for the President’s consideration (Article 200). Ordinances: Can promulgate ordinances during recess of the legislature (Article 213). Judicial Powers Can grant pardons, reprieves, respites, or remissions of punishment, or suspend, remit, or commute sentences in cases involving state laws (Article 161). Discretionary Powers Article 163: The Governor acts on the advice of the Council of Ministers except in matters where they are required to exercise their discretion. Examples of discretionary powers: Reserving a bill for the President’s consideration. Recommending President’s Rule (Article 356) in case of a breakdown of constitutional machinery. Appointing a Chief Minister when no party has a clear majority. Source: Indian Express   CONCERN OVER PLAN TO REDESIGN SIKKIM DAM WASHED AWAY IN 2023 Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: A Union environment ministry expert panel has expressed serious concerns about the redesign of the 1,200 MW Teesta-III Chungthang Dam in Sikkim, which was washed away after a glacial lake outburst in October 2023, and deferred its nod for restarting the project with a new dam. Background: – The expert appraisal committee (EAC) appraising hydroelectric and river-valley-sector projects said it had concerns regarding the dam’s design and stability and its ability to withstand potential natural disasters in the future. Key takeaways Government enterprise Sikkim Urja Limited has sought an amendment to the project’s old environmental clearance as it has proposed to redesign the project dam. It wants to replace the washed-away, concrete-faced rockfill dam with a concrete gravity dam. On the intervening night of October 3 and October 4, an ice avalanche hit the South Lhonak Lake, located at an altitude of 5,200 metres, breaching the glacial lake. The avalanche created giant waves, leading to a glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF), and triggered a flash flood downstream in Teesta. The force of the floodwaters breached the Chungthang dam, exacerbating the floods, killing 40 people across four districts of Sikkim. Across Mangan, Gangtok, Pakyong, and Namchi districts, about 100 villages were affected and 76 people were reported missing. The Teesta-III project is in Mangan district and utilises a drop of about 800m in the Teesta River between Chungthang and Sankalang villages. The flash floods triggered by the GLOF event had overtopped the project dam and flooded the underground powerhouse, bringing power generation to a halt.  Following the GLOF event, the Centre and Sikkim government are collaborating on reducing levels of potentially risky glacial lakes in the upper reaches of Mangan district. The Centre has approved a Rs 150 crore National GLOF Risk Mitigation Programme and 189 lakes have been identified as high-risk glacial lakes, to mitigate the risks they pose. Source: Indian Express KEN-BETWA LINK PROJECT (KBLP) LAUNCHED Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: Prime Minister Narendra Modi laid the foundation stone for the Ken-Betwa river-linking project in Madhya Pradesh’s Khajuraho, aimed at solving the water woes of the Bundelkhand region, spread across parts of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. Background: The Ken-Betwa Link Project is the first project under India’s National Perspective Plan for interlinking rivers, which was prepared in 1980. This plan has 16 projects under its peninsular component, including the KBLP. Apart from this, 14 links are proposed under the Himalayan rivers development plan. Key takeaways The Ken-Betwa Link Project (KBLP) is a major river interlinking project in India with a project outlay of ₹45,000 crore. Objective: The project aims to transfer water from

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) REAL EFFECTIVE EXCHANGE RATE (REER) SOARS TO AN ALL-TIME HIGH Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – ECONOMY Context: The rupee is hitting fresh lows against the US dollar each day, yet its exchange rate has scaled an all-time-high in “real effective” terms. Background: – Real effective exchange rate (REER) is a measure of a currency’s value against its trading partners, adjusted for inflation.  Key takeaways The real effective exchange rate (REER) index of the rupee touched a record 108.14 in November, strengthening by 4.5 per cent during this calendar year, according to the latest Reserve Bank of India (RBI) data. The REER measures the rupee’s value vis-à-vis not only the dollar, but other global currencies as well. In this case, it is a weighted average of the rupee’s exchange rate against a basket of 40 currencies of countries that account for about 88 per cent of India’s annual exports and imports. The REER also adjusts for inflation differentials between India and each of these trading partners. The rupee’s REER — with 2015-16 as the base year — fell from 105.32 in January 2022 to 99.03 in April 2023. But since then, it has been on an appreciating trajectory. The main reason for the divergence — the rupee’s simultaneous weakening and strengthening — has to do with the dollar’s behaviour over the past three months, especially post Trump’s victory. In other words, the rupee isn’t weakening as much as the dollar is strengthening — against all currencies. The dollar is strengthening because of Trump’s public pronouncements favouring tariff hikes, income tax cuts and deportations of illegal immigrants.  From a longer timeframe, the rupee has, since the start of 2022, dipped against the dollar (from 74.30 to 85.19), euro (84.04 to 88.56) and pound (100.30 to 106.79), while firming up only against the yen (0.6454 to 0.5425). Despite that, its REER has increased. And that is a result of inflation in India being higher relative to its major partners. Assuming the rupee was “fairly” valued in 2015-16, when the REER was set to 100, any value above 100 signifies overvaluation and the exchange rate not falling enough to offset higher domestic inflation. The rupee is, to that extent, is overvalued today, making imports cheaper and exports less competitive. Source: Indian Express   PRADHAN MANTRI AYUSHMAN BHARAT HEALTH INFRASTRUCTURE MISSION (PM-ABHIM) Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: The Delhi High Court directed that the Aam Aadmi Party government in Delhi needed to sign an MoU with the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare before January 5 for implementation of the Pradhan Mantri Ayushman Bharat Health Infrastructure Mission (PM-ABHIM), irrespective of imposition of Model Code of Conduct in the run-up to the Assembly elections. Background: – PM-ABHIM is a Central government scheme that aims to strengthen public health infrastructure to respond to future pandemics and outbreaks. Key takeaways Pradhan Mantri Ayushman Bharat Health Infrastructure Mission (PM-ABHIM) is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme (CSS) with some Central Sector Components (CS) which has an outlay of Rs. 64,180 Crores for the scheme period (2021-22 to 2025-26). The measures under the scheme focus on developing capacities of health systems and institutions all levels viz. primary, secondary and tertiary level and on preparing health systems in responding effectively to the current and future pandemics/disasters.  The objective of the scheme is to fill critical gaps in health infrastructure, surveillance and health research – spanning both the urban and rural areas. The following are the components under CS Component of the scheme:  12 Central Institutions as training and mentoring sites with 150 bedded Critical Care Hospital Blocks (CCBs);  Strengthening of the National Centre for Disease Control (NCDC), 5 New Regional NCDCs and 20 metropolitan health surveillance units;  Expansion of the Integrated Health Information Portal to all States/UTs to connect all public health labs;  Operationalization of 17 new Public Health Units and strengthening of 33 existing Public Health Units at Points of Entry, that is at 32 Airports, 11 Seaports and 7 land crossings;  Setting up of 15 Health Emergency Operation Centres and 2 container based mobile hospitals; and  Setting up of a national institution for One Health, 4 New National Institutes for Virology, a Regional Research Platform for WHO South East Asia Region and 9 BioSafety Level III laboratories.  Following support is provisioned for States/UTs under CSS component of the scheme:   Construction of 17,788 rural Health and Wellness Centres (HWCs). Support for 11,024 urban Health and Wellness Centres in all the States with the focus on slum like areas. Establishing 3382 Block Public Health Units (BPHUs) at block levels.  Setting up of Integrated Public Health Labs (IPHLs) in 730 districts.  Establishing Critical Care Hospital Blocks (CCBs) in 602 districts (with population more than 5 lakhs) and with referral linkages in other districts. Source: Indian Express CONDUCT OF ELECTION RULES Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – POLITY Context: The Centre recently amended the Conduct of Election Rules to restrict access for the public to a section of poll documents. This was done by the Union Law Ministry following a recommendation from the Election Commission (EC). Background: While the EC said the amendment aims to restrict access to electronic data, the Opposition and transparency activists have been up in arms, branding it as an attack on the right to information and electoral freedom. Key takeaways The Conduct of Election Rules,1961, is a set of rules which provide for provisions on how to conduct the elections as per the Representation of People Act. Rule 93(2)(a) of the 1961 Conduct of Election Rules had earlier stated that “all other papers relating to the election shall be open to public inspection” but after the amendment, it reads, “all other papers as specified in these rules relating to the election shall be open to public inspection.” Why has the amendment been brought in now? The move comes after a recent direction to the EC by the Punjab and Haryana High Court to share all documents related to the Haryana Assembly election, including

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) THE SAHEL CRISIS Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – GEOGRAPHY ; GS 2 Context: The Sahel region of Africa possesses vast resources, but its population remains enmeshed in poverty, famine, political instability and warfare. In the last two years, there have been military coups in Niger, Guinea, Mali, Burkina Faso, and Chad. Background: – A number of factors contribute to the plight of people in the Sahel region including weak state institutions, military coups, and external exploitation of its resources. Key takeaways The Sahel is a region in western and north-central Africa that extends eastward from Senegal to Sudan, forming a transitional zone between the arid Sahara Desert to the north and humid Savannas to the south.  As per the United Nations Integrated Strategy for the Sahel (UNISS), the region has ten countries, i.e. Senegal, Gambia, Mauritania, Guinea, Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, Chad, Cameroon and Nigeria.  With its abundance of resources, including uranium, gold, and oil, the Sahel is one of the world’s most endowed regions. For instance, Mali is Africa’s third-largest gold producer, and Burkina Faso is the fourth-largest and fastest-growing producer of gold in the African Continent, and Niger is the world’s leading source of uranium. Factors behind coups in the Sahel In recent years, there have been military coups in Mali (2020 and 2021), Niger (2023), Burkina Faso (2022), Guinea (2021), and Chad (2021). The inability of civilian governments to effectively control large territory, popular frustration with the deteriorating security, and the lack of economic and social progress are some of the major factors that contributed to military takeovers. Military usually capitalise on the widespread popular disenchantment with the elected governments to seize power. But they rarely have long-term vision. The rivalry among global powers in this unstable area has been the primary reason behind the political instability.  Struggle for socio-economic development On the HDI, the countries of the region are in the bottom ten. In response to the crisis in Mali, the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 2056, which led to the creation of UNISS in 2013. The strategy focuses on six critical areas: cross-border cooperation, prevention and sustaining peace, economic revitalisation and inclusive growth, climate action, renewable energy, and women and youth empowerment. The objectives of UNISS were intended to contribute to achieving both the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the African Union’s Agenda 2063. However, the recent spate of military coups has revealed the failure of the policies in addressing the region’s root causes of instability. External factors The Sahara-Sahel region has emerged as a new geopolitical hotspot, driven by a mix of weak states, interfering global powers, and transnational non-state actors.  For much of modern history, the region has been France-centric, with French forces frequently intervening to control and influence regional security.  The people of the Sahel continue to suffer in poverty because their leaders, along with their former colonial power, continued to exploit them. For instance, Niger was providing France with the majority of its uranium at a fraction of its market value. However, France’s aggressive intervention in 2013, encountered substantial resistance from local non-state actors and widespread resentment. This provided powers like Russia with an opportunity. Russia’s foothold in Libya, where it consolidated power through military groups like Wagner Group contractors, enabled it to position itself as an alternative security provider and expand its presence into Mali and Burkina Faso – countries that had grown disillusioned with France’s military presence. The failure of French foreign policy in the region has resulted in a power rivalry between France and Russia. The NATO intervention in Libya led to a surge in trans-Saharan terrorism and crime, created new security challenges. This failure of NATO provided Russia with an opportunity to fill the void. The Sahel’s turmoil and India’s role Reliance on security-focused international dependence has failed to address the root causes of violence, poverty, and instability in the Sahel. In particular, the failure of the French efforts, which were largely focused on countering jihadism through militarisation and retaining its status as the dominant external player in Africa, has been detrimental. The international community’s role should focus on strengthening state institutions rather than prioritising self-serving resource extraction and security/military objectives. It should support Sahelian governments in a way that avoids creating perpetual external dependence. There are significant ramifications for India. The Sahel serves as a prime example of a geopolitical hotspot that could escalate tensions, potentially leading to a larger east-west conflict. The resulting upheaval would have a negative impact on India’s ambitions of becoming a global powerhouse. Moreover, India depends on critical resources such as oil, gas, and uranium from the Sahel and its surroundings. Therefore, India needs to engage meaningfully in efforts to stabilise the region.  Source: Indian Express   CHINA APPROVES WORLD’S LARGEST DAM ON BRAHMAPUTRA RIVER Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: China has approved the construction of the world’s largest dam, stated to be the planet’s biggest infra project costing USD 137 billion, on the Brahmaputra River in Tibet close to the Indian border. Background: – The Brahmaputra is a trans-boundary river which flows through Southwestern China, Northeastern India, and Bangladesh. It is known as Brahmaputra or Luit in Assamese, Yarlung Tsangpo in Tibetan, the Siang/Dihang River in Arunachali, and Jamuna River in Bengali. Key takeaways The Chinese government has approved the construction of a hydropower project in the lower reaches of the Yarlung Zangbo River.  The dam is to be built at a huge gorge in the Himalayan reaches where the Brahmaputra river makes a huge U-turn to flow into Arunachal Pradesh. The dam could produce 300 billion kilowatt-hours of electricity annually. That would more than triple the 88.2 billion kWh designed capacity of the Three Gorges Dam, currently the world’s largest, in central China. The Yarlung Zangbo becomes the Brahmaputra river as it leaves Tibet and flows south into India’s Arunachal Pradesh and Assam states and finally into Bangladesh. The Brahmaputra Dam presents enormous engineering challenges as the project site is located along a tectonic plate boundary where earthquakes occur. The Tibetan plateau, regarded as the roof of the world, frequently experiences earthquakes

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) WESTERN DISTURBANCE Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – GEOGRAPHY Context: A western disturbance swept across northern India recently, bringing fresh snowfall to Kashmir and widespread rain to Delhi, Rajasthan, Punjab, and Haryana.  Background: – Weather experts note that the western disturbances, earlier predicted, seem to be more intense than expected.  Key takeaways A Western Disturbance (WD) is an extra-tropical storm originating in the Mediterranean region, characterized by its movement from west to east. It is carried towards South Asia by the subtropical westerly jet stream. Formation and Origin: Formed over the Mediterranean Sea, Caspian Sea, or Black Sea. Develops as low-pressure systems with associated upper-air cyclonic circulations. Movement: Moves eastwards, influenced by the jet stream, entering India through the northwestern regions. Seasonality: Primarily active during winter (November to March) but can occasionally occur in other seasons. Regions Affected: Northwestern India: Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Western Uttar Pradesh. Extends to the Himalayan states: Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and Jammu & Kashmir. Sometimes influences central and eastern India. Weather Impact: Rainfall and Snowfall: Causes winter rainfall in the northwestern plains. Triggers snowfall in the Himalayan regions, critical for replenishing glaciers and water reserves. Temperature Effects: Leads to a decrease in daytime temperatures (due to cloud cover and rain). Increases nighttime temperatures (acts as a blanket by trapping terrestrial radiation). Agricultural Significance: Beneficial for Rabi crops like wheat and mustard due to moisture availability. Disruptive Effects: Can lead to flash floods, landslides, and avalanches in mountainous regions. Interaction with Local Systems: When WDs interact with moist easterly winds (originating from the Bay of Bengal), they intensify, leading to widespread precipitation. Source: Financial Express PANGOLINS Syllabus: Prelims – ENVIRONMENT Context: Recent incidents in Telangana have renewed concerns about the smuggling of pangolins, a scaly nocturnal mammal known for its huge demand in the international market. This has prompted renewed vigilance against its illicit trafficking. Background: – The creatures are strictly nocturnal, repelling predators by curling up into scaly spheres upon being alarmed. The same defence mechanism however, makes them slow and easy to catch once spotted. Key takeaways Globally there are eight pangolin species, four each in Africa and Asia. India is home to two species – Indian pangolin Manis crassicaudata and Chinese pangolin Manis pentadactyla.  Indian pangolins are found in Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. In India, the species (Indian pangolin) is widely distributed and has been recorded in Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Goa, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Odisha, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal. In India, both Indian pangolins and Chinese pangolins are listed in Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, of 1972. Therefore hunting, trade, or any other form of utilisation of the species or their body parts and derivatives is banned.  Since 2017, all pangolin species have been listed in Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), prohibiting their commercial trade. Chinese Pangolin is classified as ‘Critically Endangered’ on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List while the Indian Pangolin is classified as ‘Endangered’ on the IUCN Red List. They are the only known mammals with large keratin scales covering their skin. They are also toothless. These animals are inherently shy and have minimal requirements for sustenance. Their diet primarily consists of ants, termites, and their eggs and larvae. Their sense of smell is extraordinary but vision and hearing are poor. Pangolins are the most trafficked mammal in the world—with demand primarily in Asia and in growing amounts in Africa—for their meat and scales. There is also demand in the United States for pangolin products, particularly for their leather to be used in boots, bags, and belts. Significance of Pangolins Pangolins are “ecosystem engineers” that build burrows that help circulate soil organic matter, increase soil moisture and aeration, and affect plant community succession through their burying behaviour. The burrows made by pangolins also get utilised as shelters by other species within their ecosystem. Source: Indian Express PM CARES FUND Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: The contribution to Prime Minister’s Citizen Assistance and Relief in Emergency Situations Fund (PM CARES Fund) fell to Rs 912 crore during the financial year 2022-23,  its lowest since the public charitable trust was created in March 2020 following the COVID-19 outbreak. Background: A study of the audited statements on PM CARES Fund website shows that the voluntary contribution peaked at ₹7,184 crore in 2020-21 and then fell to ₹1,938 crore in 2021-22, before declining further in 2022-23 as the Covid threat receded after 2021. Key takeaways The PM CARES Fund was set up on March 28, 2020, as a public charitable trust under the legal framework of the Registration Act, 1908. It aims to provide relief during emergencies, including health crises, natural disasters, and other distress situations. Trustees: The Prime Minister is the Chairperson of the fund. Ex-officio trustees include the Minister of Defence, Minister of Home Affairs, and Minister of Finance. The Chairperson of the Board of Trustees (Prime Minister) shall have the power to nominate three trustees to the Board of Trustees who shall be eminent persons in the field of research, health, science, social work, law, public administration and philanthropy. Any person appointed a Trustee shall act in a pro bono capacity. Voluntary Contributions: The fund accepts voluntary contributions from individuals, organizations, and foreign donors and does not get any budgetary support. Donations to the PM CARES Fund qualify for 100% exemption under Section 80G of the Income Tax Act, 1961. They also count as Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) expenditure under the Companies Act, 2013. Foreign Contributions: The fund is exempt under the Foreign Contribution (Regulation) Act (FCRA), allowing it to accept donations from foreign individuals and organizations. Administrative Costs: No administrative expenses are deducted; the entire contribution is used for relief efforts. Non-Governmental Status: The fund is not considered a “public authority” under the Right to Information (RTI) Act, 2005, sparking debates over transparency and accountability. Source: Hindustan Times SIANG UPPER MULTIPURPOSE PROJECT (SUMP) Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: A sense of unease prevails in two districts along the Siang River in

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) ALL INDIA MUSLIM LEAGUE Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – HISTORY Context: On December 30 in 1906, the All India Muslim League, best known for securing India’s partition into two nations, was founded.  Background: – After Partition, the Muslim League was disbanded in India. In Pakistan and later in Bangladesh too, the League broke into factions and did not survive long.  Key takeaways The AIML was founded on December 30, 1906, at the All-India Muhammadan Educational Conference in Dhaka, under the leadership of Nawab Salimullah Khan, Sir Aga Khan, and others. Headquarters: Initially in Dhaka, later shifted to Lucknow. At the time of its founding, the League was a collective of elite Muslim men, and remained so for almost three decades. Muhammad Ali Jinnah, eventually its tallest leader, was then in the Congress.  Key moments Separate Electorates (1909): The league successfully lobbied for separate electorates for Muslims, introduced in the Indian Councils Act of 1909 (Morley-Minto Reforms). The Lucknow Pact, 1916: In December 1916, the Congress under Bal Gangadhar Tilak and the Muslim League under Muhammad Ali Jinnah signed the Lucknow Pact. Put briefly, the pact called for more Indian, elected representation in bodies like the provincial and central legislatures and the central executive council, and the Congress agreeing to separate electorates. Shift Towards Separatism (1930s): The league gradually moved toward the idea of a separate nation for Muslims under the leadership of Muhammad Ali Jinnah. The Lahore Resolution, 1940: From the Lucknow pact to the Lahore Resolution, both the League and Jinnah had transformed entirely, insisting on nothing but Partition. Thus, the Lahore Resolution, adopted by the All-India Muslim League during its general session in Lahore from March 22 to March 24, 1940, formally called for an independent state for Muslims. March 23 is observed as Pakistan National Day to commemorate this resolution. Source: Indian Express VIKRAM SARABHAI Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: Vikram Ambalal Sarabhai, the father of India’s space programme, died on December 30, 1971, in Kovalam, Kerala, at the age of 52. Background: – Late President APJ Abdul Kalam once had called the “Mahatma Gandhi of Indian Science”. Key takeaways Born to Ambalal and Sarla Devi, Ahmedabad’s leading textile-mill owners on August 12, 1919. After studying from Gujarat University in Ahmedabad, Sarabhai went to study physics and mathematics at Cambridge University, but was forced to return when World War II broke out. He completed his post-graduation at the Indian Institute of Science in Bengaluru under Dr CV Raman, where he also met Dr Homi Bhabha, and returned later to Cambridge for a PhD in cosmic rays. Key Contributions to Indian Science and Technology: Space Research and ISRO Formation: Visionary Leader: Recognized the importance of space technology for India’s development. Played a significant role in establishing the Physical Research Laboratory (PRL) in Ahmedabad in 1947, focusing on fundamental physics and space sciences. Establishment of ISRO (1969): Played a pivotal role in setting up the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) to promote space exploration and satellite-based communication. Instrumental in India’s first satellite, Aryabhata (1975), launched posthumously. Atomic Energy and Research Institutes: Worked with Homi Bhabha to strengthen India’s atomic energy program. Sarabhai succeeded Homi Bhabha as the chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission of India. Indian Institute of Management (IIM), Ahmedabad: Co-founded IIM Ahmedabad in 1961, establishing it as a premier management institute globally. Satellite Technology and Applications: Conceptualized the Indian National Satellite System (INSAT) to advance communication, education, and meteorology. Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) : Sarabhai started a dialogue with NASA that formed the base for Satellite Instructional Television Experiment. Launched in 1975 from village Pij in Gujarat’s Kheda district, it would beam TV programmes to villages and was the first Indo-US space venture using technology for education. Source: Indian Express KAMARAJAR PORT Syllabus: Prelims – GEOGRAPHY Context: The cargo-handling capacity at Indian ports has risen from 871.52 million tonnes per annum (MTPA) in 2014-15 to 1629.86 MTPA in 2023-24. Minister for Ports, Shipping and Waterways Sarbananda Sonowal said the capacity increased by 87 per cent in the last nine years, with Tamil Nadu’s Kamarajar Port registering a whopping swell of 154 per cent. Background: India is a maritime nation with a 7,517-km coastline Ninety-five per cent of trade by volume and 70 per cent by value is done through maritime transport. Key takeaways Kamarajar Port Limited (KPL), formerly known as Ennore Port, is located on the Coromandel Coast about 24 km north of Chennai Port in Tamil Nadu, India. History and Establishment Foundation: Kamarajar Port was declared a major port under the Indian Ports Act, 1908, in March 1999 and incorporated as Ennore Port Limited under the Companies Act, 1956, in October 1999. Name Change: It was renamed Kamarajar Port Limited in 2014 to honor the former Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu, K. Kamarajar. Key Features First Corporatized Port: Kamarajar Port is the first corporatized major port in India. Strategic Location: The port is designed to decongest Chennai Port and improve environmental quality. Capacity: The port has a permissible draught of 13.5 meters and handled a total volume of 11.01 million tonnes in 2010-2011. Cargo Handling: The port handles a variety of cargo, including thermal coal, automobiles, project cargo, LPG, chemicals, and other bulk and liquid products. Source: New Indian Express THORIUM Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: India’s largest power generator NTPC Limited has signed a strategic pact with US-based Clean Core Thorium Energy (CCTE) to explore development and deployment of advanced nuclear energy for enriched life (Aneel). Aneel is a thorium-based fuel for pressurised heavy water reactors (PHWRs), and the deal is subject to approval from both the governments. Background: – The move is aimed at NTPC’s efforts to venture into nuclear energy and use it as a clean, dispatchable, and baseload source of energy. Key takeaways Thorium is a weakly radioactive, silvery metal found naturally in the Earth’s crust. Thorium (chemical symbol Th) is found at trace levels in soil, rocks, water, plants and animals. All known

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) AMAZON CAPS BRUTAL YEAR OF FIRES, DROUGHT Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – ENVIRONMENT Context: 2024 was a brutal year for the Amazon rainforest, with rampant wildfires and extreme drought ravaging large parts of a biome that’s a critical counterweight to climate change. Background: – The Amazon is twice the size of India and sprawls across eight countries and one territory, storing vast amounts of carbon dioxide that would otherwise warm the planet. About Amazon Rainforest The Amazon Rainforest, often referred to as the “lungs of the Earth,” is the world’s largest tropical rainforest. Lies within the Amazon River Basin, covering countries such as Brazil, Peru, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana. Climate: Features an equatorial climate with high humidity, temperatures ranging from 25–30°C, and significant rainfall throughout the year. Environmental Significance Carbon Sink: Absorbs 2 billion tons of CO₂ annually, mitigating global warming. Oxygen Production: Contributes significantly to the global oxygen cycle, earning its nickname as the “lungs of the Earth.” Water Cycle Regulation: Produces 20% of the world’s freshwater runoff into the oceans via the Amazon River. Influences global and regional precipitation patterns, including the South American monsoon. Source: The Hindu INDIA’S FOREIGN POLICY Syllabus: Mains – GS 2 Context: After Modi was sworn in for a third time in June, the year was jam-packed with incoming and outgoing visits. 2024 was full of global insecurity and shocks in the neighbourhood, particularly Bangladesh. Background: – As 2025 looks to be even more uncertain, Indian foreign policy’s biggest challenge is to remain poised for change. Key highlights of  India’s external relations in 2024 The most difficult negotiation completed was for disengagement at the Line of Actual Control with China. While restoring ties shattered by the Chinese transgressions since 2020 is a prolonged task, the first formal Modi-Xi Jinping meeting in five years at Kazan, on the sidelines of the BRICS summit in Russia, was a turning point. Early in 2024, the conclusion of the India-European Free Trade Association agreement, India’s first with Europe, was heralded as a template for India to complete other such negotiations, although the year ended without similar progress on FTAs with Australia, the U.K., and the European Union. The transformation of Bangladesh, from a friendly neighbour under Sheikh Hasina, to becoming estranged over her ouster from power was the year’s biggest shock. The MEA repeatedly raised concerns over the sharp rise in attacks on Hindu minorities that followed, and Ms. Hasina’s stay in India has become the biggest thorn in the relationship. Ties with Canada took a turn for worse as Canada doubled down on allegations that Indian officials had ordered the Nijjar killing, even naming Home Minister Amit Shah in the alleged conspiracy. U.S. Department of Justice filed indictments against the Adani group and a new indictment against an Indian official for the alleged Pannun assassination plot comes as new challenges in relationship with US. The U.S.’s role in the South Asian neighbourhood, especially with the changes in Bangladesh, and China’s forays into Nepal and other neighbours are a continuing challenge. However, the election of U.S. President Donald Trump and the largely pro-India team he has picked could be a breather. How did Indian foreign policy navigate global conflict? With both the Russia-Ukraine conflict and Israel’s war in Gaza, India consistently put itself on the “side of peace”. While New Delhi repeatedly called for an end to the civilian casualties, it continued to hedge its position at the UN on resolutions seeking to bring Israel to account for the killings in Gaza.  With multilateral initiatives like IMEC (India-Middle East Europe-Economic Corridor) and I2U2 (India, Israel, UAE and U.S.) in trouble, India sought to engage West Asian countries bilaterally. Source: The Hindu TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO Syllabus: Prelims – GEOGRAPHY Context: The government of Trinidad and Tobago declared a state of emergency on Monday (December 30), following a deadly weekend of violence in the Caribbean dual-island nation. Background: Trinidad and Tobago has a population of 1.5 million and already accounted for one of the highest murder rates in the Caribbean, along with Jamaica and Haiti. Key takeaways Trinidad and Tobago is a twin-island nation located in the southern Caribbean, near the northeastern coast of Venezuela. It is the southernmost island country in the Caribbean. It is an active member of CARICOM, Organization of American States (OAS), and the Commonwealth of Nations. Trinidad is the larger and more populous island. Tobago, the smaller island is located northeast of Trinidad. The capital city is Port of Spain, located on the island of Trinidad. History Colonial Past: Trinidad was colonized by the Spanish in the 16th century, followed by the British in the 19th century. Tobago changed hands between the British and French several times before becoming a British colony. Indentured Labour: After the abolition of slavery, Indians were brought as indentured laborers (1845–1917) to work on sugar plantations, shaping the country’s demographics and culture. Independence: Trinidad and Tobago gained independence from Britain on August 31, 1962. Republic: The country became a republic within the Commonwealth on August 1, 1976. Culture Carnival: Trinidad and Tobago is famous for its Carnival, a world-renowned festival featuring colorful parades, music, and dance. Music: The islands are known for their contributions to calypso and soca music. Source: Indian Express UNDERWATER TELESCOPES TO DETECT ‘GHOST PARTICLES Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: Scientists are deploying two telescopes to detect high-energy neutrinos, also known as ghost particles, under the Mediterranean Sea. The two telescopes are part of the Cubic Kilometre Neutrino Telescope or KM3NeT. Background: – These telescopes are much like the IceCube Neutrino Observatory, which can detect high-energy neutrinos from deep space but is under the frozen ice in the Antarctic rather than being in the water. What are neutrinos? Detected for the first time in 1959 — though their existence was predicted almost three decades earlier, in 1931 — neutrinos are tiny particles, very similar to electrons, but without any electric charge.  They are one of the