Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   JAMES WEBB SPACE TELESCOPE SPOTS EARLIEST-KNOWN GALAXY Syllabus Prelims – SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Context: NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) has spotted the earliest-known galaxy, one that is surprisingly bright and big considering it formed during the universe’s infancy.The discovery was made by an international team of astronomers, who used JWST to observe galaxies as part of the JWST Advanced Deep Extragalactic Survey (JADES) program. Background:- JWST, which by peering across vast cosmic distances is looking way back in time, observed the galaxy as it existed about 290 million years after the Big Bang event that initiated the universe roughly 13.8 billion years ago What do we know about the galaxy? This galaxy, called JADES-GS-z14-0, measures about 1,700-light years across. A light year is the distance light travels in a year, which is 9.5 trillion km. The galaxy has a mass equivalent to 500 million stars the size of our Sun and is rapidly forming new stars — about 20 every year. Until now, the earliest-known galaxy dated to about 320 million years after the Big Bang. The JADES team in the same study disclosed the discovery of the second oldest-known galaxy, from about 303 million years post-Big Bang. That one, JADES-GS-z14-1, is smaller — with a mass equal to about 100 million sun-sized stars, measuring roughly 1,000 light years across and forming about two new stars per year. James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), also known as Webb, is a large infrared telescope with a 6.5-meter primary mirror. The mirrors are made of ultra-lightweight beryllium. Webb’s biggest feature is a tennis court sized five-layer sunshield that attenuates heat from the Sun more than a million times. Webb is designed to conduct infrared astronomy. Its high-resolution and high-sensitivity instruments allow it to view objects too old, distant, or faint. Webb’s revolutionary technology will study every phase of cosmic history—from within our solar system to the most distant observable galaxies in the early universe. Over the last two years, scientists have used JWST to explore what astronomers refer to as Cosmic Dawn – the period in the first few hundred million years after the big bang where the first galaxies were born. Webb is an international collaboration between NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA), and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA). The Webb was launched on 25 December 2021 on an Ariane 5 rocket from Kourou, French Guiana. In January 2022 it arrived at its destination, a solar orbit near the Sun–Earth L2 Lagrange point, about 1.5 million kilometers (930,000 mi) from Earth. Source: Indian Express STATE FINANCES IN FY24 Syllabus Mains – GS 3 Context: Economists at the public sector Bank of Baroda have published a report about the finances of Indian states for the financial year ended March (FY2024). The report analyses state-level finances based on three variables: how much money they raised on their own, how much they spent to boost productive capacities of the state, and how much they borrowed from the market. Background: The rise in India’s import of discounted Russian oil over the past few months has hit flows from Saudi Arabia the most, the data shows. Key takeaways Fiscal Deficit The report found that most states were able to limit their fiscal deficit (the amount of money they had to borrow to bridge the gap between expenses and income) within the budgeted levels . This is a significant achievement, since over-borrowing by states adds to the Centre’s over-borrowings, and ultimately leaves less money for private sector firms to borrow. Capital spends This is the kind of spending that goes into making productive assets such as roads and bridges, which boost economic activity in the state. Typically, when governments try to meet fiscal deficit targets, they tend to cut on capex, which in turn, tends to undermine the ability of the state economy to grow faster. Taken together, states managed to spend only 84% of their capex budget. There were four outliers (in green) — Uttar Pradesh,Telangana, Bihar and Sikkim — that either spent the full amount or went beyond the target. Three states— Punjab, Chhattisgarh, and Nagaland — spent less than 50% of their capex budget. Tax revenues A state’s total tax revenues can be broadly divided into two heads: own tax revenues (OTR), and share in Union taxes. The researchers found that overall, OTR accounted for around 61% of tax revenues of states. Within the OTR, GST (Goods and Services Tax) collections made up the biggest chunk (almost 32%), followed by state excise and sales tax (22%) and stamp and registration (7%). A higher share of OTR helps a state to be more fiscally resilient. Telangana had the highest share of OTR in total tax revenue (82%), closely followed by Haryana (79%),Karnataka (78%), Kerala (77%), Maharashtra (73%), and Tamil Nadu (71%). Consumption divide GST is a consumption-based tax— that is, it is paid at the point where a good or service is consumed. So, if a car is made in Tamil Nadu but bought in UP, then GST is levied and collected in UP. As such, per capita GST collection can be used as a proxy for state-wise consumption patterns. Consumption levels, in turn, are a proxy for income levels.Higher consuming states end up paying higher taxes like GST and sales tax/ excise duty. NORTH-SOUTH DIVIDE:States in North India fall well below the national average, while states in the South pull up the national average. Per-capita GST levels in Karnataka or Telangana are almost 3-4 times that of Madhya Pradesh and Jharkhand, which shows the relative lack of prosperity of the average citizen in the latter states. EAST-WEST DIVIDE:There is a divide between some of the big states in the East and West. Consumption levels in Maharashtra and Gujarat are far in excess of those in Odisha, West Bengal and Assam. There are some exceptions — such as Haryana in the North — but a broad divide is clearly visible. Source: Indian Express CHANG’E-6 CRAFT Syllabus Prelims – SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Context: China landed an uncrewed spacecraft on the far

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   PM- KISAN Syllabus Prelims & Mains – AGRICULTURE Context: Over 1 lakh farmers voluntarily gave up their PM-Kisan benefits last year. Background:- Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan lead the chart of 1.16 lakh farmers who have voluntarily given up the benefits of the annual Rs 6,000 Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi (PM-Kisan) scheme across the country from June 2023 to May 2024, according to data available with the Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare. Possible reasons for some farmers giving up the PM-Kisan benefits include: absentee landlords who may have decided against availing of the subsidy; land going to tax-paying descendants who are not eligible; change in status of land-owners. About PM KISAN PM Kisan, or the PM-Kisan Samman Nidhi, is a Central Sector scheme with 100% funding from the Government of India. It has been operational since December 1, 2018. Here are some key details about the scheme: The scheme provides an income support of ₹6,000/- per year in three equal installments to all land holding farmer families. The definition of a family for the scheme is husband, wife, and minor children. The State Government and UT administration identify the farmer families which are eligible for support as per scheme guidelines. The fund is directly transferred to the bank accounts of the beneficiaries. There are certain exclusion categories for the scheme. The following categories of beneficiaries of higher economic status are not eligible for benefit under the scheme: All Institutional Land holders. Farmer families which belong to one or more of the following categories: Former and present holders of constitutional posts Former and present Ministers/ State Ministers and former/present Members of LokSabha/ RajyaSabha/ State Legislative Assemblies/ State Legislative Councils, former and present Mayors of Municipal Corporations, former and present Chairpersons of District Panchayats. All serving or retired officers and employees of Central/ State Government Ministries /Offices/Departments and its field units Central or State PSEs and Attached offices /Autonomous Institutions under Government as well as regular employees of the Local Bodies. Prime Minister released the 16th Installment of the PM KISAN scheme on February 28, 2024. eKYC is mandatory for PM KISAN Registered Farmers. Source: Indian Express EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT Syllabus Prelims – CURRENT EVENT Context: European Parliament elections will be held from June 6-9. Background: Around 373 million citizens across the 27 member states of the European Union are eligible to vote on June 6-9 in elections to the European Parliament, which is the only directly elected body of the EU. Key takeaways The European Parliament (EP)is the only directly elected body of the EU, representing the citizens of its member states. The Parliament has3 main roles: Legislative Passing EU laws, together with theCouncil of the EU, based on European Commission proposals Deciding on international agreements Deciding on enlargement of the bloc Reviewing the Commission’swork programme and asking it to propose legislation Supervisory Democratic scrutiny of all EU institutions Electing the Commission President and approving theCommission as a body. Possibility of voting a motion of censure, obliging the Commission to resign Granting discharge, i.e. approving the way EU budgets have been spent Examining citizens’petitions and setting up inquiries Discussing monetary policy with theEuropean Central Bank Questioning Commission and Council Election observations Budgetary Establishing the EU budget, together with the Council Approving the EU’s long-term budget, the “Multiannual Financial Framework” Unlike national parliaments, the EP does not have the right to propose laws but can only negotiate those proposed by the executive European Commission. The EP comprises 720 Members (MEPs) elected every five years. The MEPs then elect their president for a term of two and a half years. It represents the second-largest democratic electorate in the world (after the Parliament of India) with an electorate of around 373 million eligible voters. Who can vote in the elections? In 21 member states, people aged 18 and above can vote. In Belgium, Germany, Austria and Malta, the minimum voting age is 16. In Greece, people who turn 17 during the election year can vote, and in Hungary, married individuals can vote regardless of age. Citizens living in another EU country can choose to vote for candidates either from their country of origin or from their country of residence. Who can run? All candidates must be EU citizens. Voters may choose from individual candidates or political parties’ delegates, depending on the country. Once elected, politicians from each nation will flow into the European groups that form the Parliament, based on political orientations. Elected individuals cannot hold functions in national governments or other political bodies such as the EU Commission. Source: Indian Express MISSION KARMAYOGI Syllabus Prelims & Mains – Governance Context: Indian Institute of Public Administration assessed the impact of mission karmayogi by seeking inputs on recently trained staff from their supervisors and reported increased proficiency in data analytics and e-governance tools Background: Improved governance and efficient and competent civil services are required for achieving India’s ambitions. About Mission Karmayogi Mission Karmayogi, also known as the National Programme for Civil Services Capacity Building (NPCSCB), is an ambitious program launched by the Government of India. The mission was launched by the Union Cabinet on 2nd September 2020. It aims to transform the government’s human resource management, making the bureaucracy more efficient, effective, and accountable. The goal is to develop the skills and competencies of civil servants to deliver better results for citizens. The mission intends to lay down the foundations for the Indian civil servants’ capacity building and aims to enhance governance. The guiding principles of Mission Karmayogi include: Shift from rule to role-based training and capacity building: Capacity building of government officials under Mission Karmayogi focuses on enhancing the attitudes, skills, and knowledge of these individuals through role-based training. Moving to a competency-driven approach for capacity development: A competency-driven capacity building approach focuses on developing competencies critical for public officials to effectively undertake their various roles. Democratising and enabling continuous, lifelong learning opportunities: Mission Karmayogi aims to make available to all government officials, across hierarchies and geographies, the opportunity to continuously build and

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   OPEN NETWORK FOR DIGITAL COMMERCE (ONDC) Syllabus Prelims – CURRENT EVENT Context: The government-backed Open Network for Digital Commerce (ONDC) recorded an all-time high of 8.9 million transactions across retail and ride-hailing segments in May. This represented a robust 23 per cent month-on-month increase in total transaction volume, the ONDC said. Background:- The Open Network for Digital Commerce (ONDC) is a government-backed initiative in India that aims to create an open and interoperable e-commerce ecosystem. About Open Network for Digital Commerce (ONDC) The ‘Open Network for Digital Commerce’ (ONDC), is a Government of India (GoI) backed technology infrastructure. It is a network-centric model, wherein buyers and sellers can transact irrespective of the platforms/applications they use as long as “platforms/applications are connected to this open network”. In simple terms, ONDC is like a digital road network over which different digital storefronts (in the form of buyer and seller apps) can be built. The digital road network aims to enable e-commerce traffic to travel across these different digital storefronts seamlessly, thereby allowing buyers and sellers to transact regardless of the application / platform they use. This is a significant departure from existing platform centric models of e-commerce where buyers and sellers can only interact within walled platforms. To illustrate, today, a seller on Amazon cannot reach a buyer on Flipkart, and vice versa. These walled platforms have increasingly dominated transaction volumes in India’s ecommerce market over the years, and today are able to wield immense power and control over e-commerce supply chains. This concentration of power and control has led to harmful behaviour such as self-preferencing by platforms or leveraging data to distort competition, which squarely impacts MSME businesses and the consumer interest. ONDC is GoI’s answer to this market distortion. ONDC is expected to make e-Commerce more inclusive and accessible for consumers. Consumers can potentially discover any seller, product or service by using any compatible application or platform, thus increasing freedom of choice for consumers. It will enable the consumers to match demand with the nearest available supply. This would also give consumers the liberty to choose their preferred local businesses. Thus, ONDC would standardize operations, promote inclusion of local suppliers, drive efficiencies in logistics and lead to enhancement of value for consumers. ONDC was incorporated as a Section 8 (NON-PROFIT) company in December 2021, with the Quality Council of India and Protean eGov Technologies Limited as Founding Members. Various public and private sector entities have invested in ONDC, including Punjab National Bank, State Bank of India, Axis Bank, Kotak Mahindra Bank, BSE Investments, Central Depository Services, ICICI Bank, and the Small Industries Development Bank of India. It is important to note that the relationship between the GoI and ONDC is not legally defined and it does not flow from an act of parliament. Source: Internet freedom foundation APPRECIATION AND DEPRECIATION OF RUPEE Syllabus Prelims – ECONOMY Context: Between April-end 2014 and April 2024 – roughly the time the Narendra Modi-government has been in office – the rupee has depreciated by 27.6% against the US dollar, from Rs 60.34 to Rs 83.38. Background: India trades not only with the US. It exports goods and services to other countries as well, while also importing from them. The strength or weakness of the rupee is a function of its exchange rate with not just the US dollar, but also with other global currencies. Key takeaways Appreciation of the Rupee: When the Rupee appreciates, it gains strength against the Dollar. This means you need fewer Rupees to buy a Dollar. For example, if the value of 1 USD decreases from ₹75 to ₹70, this change is termed as an appreciation of the Rupee Here are some impacts of Rupee appreciation: Exports: Rupee appreciation affects exporters negatively as they may lose importers because they find imports from India more costly. Imports: Importers can import more quantity at a less price. This is because they need fewer Rupees to buy a Dollar. Depreciation of the Rupee: When the Rupee depreciates, it loses strength against the Dollar. This means you need more Rupees to buy a Dollar. For example, if the value of 1 USD increases from ₹70 to ₹75, this change is termed as depreciation of the Rupee. Here are some impacts of Rupee depreciation: Exports: Exporters stand to gain the most from Rupee depreciation as it makes exports more competitive. Imports: Imports will become costly. This is because importers need more Rupees to buy a Dollar. Inflation: The biggest impact of a weakening Rupee is inflation, given India imports more than 80% of its crude oil. This is because the cost of imported goods increases due to a reduction in the value of Rupee. IT Sector: The Indian IT sector, which focuses heavily on exports, can achieve more revenue from their global clients due to the decline of the Rupee value. Remember, the appreciation and depreciation of the Rupee are strongly influenced by the change in demand or supply for the Rupee and the Dollar. Source: Indian Express PRESTONE CURVE Syllabus Prelims – ECONOMY Context: The Preston curve refers to a certain empirical relationship that is witnessed between life expectancy and per capita income in a country. The average per capita income of Indians rose from around ₹9,000 per year in 1947 to around ₹55,000 per year in 2011. During the same period, the average life expectancy of Indians rose from a mere 32 years to over 66 years. Background: The empirical relationship was first proposed by American sociologist Samuel H. Preston in his 1975 paper “The changing relation between mortality and level of economic development”. About PRESTON CURVE The Preston curve is an empirical relationship between life expectancy and real per capita income. It is named after Samuel H. Preston who first described it in 1975. Preston studied the relationship for the 1900s, 1930s and the 1960s and found it held for each of the three decades. Preston found that people living in richer countries generally had longer life spans when compared with people living in poorer countries. This is likely because people in wealthier countries have better access

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   NATIONAL HEALTH CLAIM EXCHANGE (NHCX) Syllabus Prelims & Mains – Current Event Context: The health ministry and Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority of India  (IRDAI) are launching the National Health Claim Exchange (NHCX), a digital platform which will bring together insurance companies, healthcare sector service providers and government insurance scheme administrators. Background:- The primary hurdle in health insurance today lies in improving the relationship between hospitals and insurance companies. Issues such as discharge delays and miscommunication between hospitals and insurers further complicate matters. About NATIONAL HEALTH CLAIM EXCHANGE  The NHCX will serve as a gateway for exchanging claims-related information among various stakeholders in the healthcare and health insurance ecosystem. The integration with NHCX is expected to enable seamless interoperability of health claims processing, enhancing efficiency and transparency in the insurance industry, benefiting policyholders and patients. Acting as a centralised hub for all health claims, the NHCX will significantly alleviate the administrative burden on hospitals, which currently contend with multiple portals for various insurers. Twelve insurance companies and one TPA (Third Party Administrator) have completed the NHCX integration. While the actual on-ground launch of both the NHCX and time-bound insurance clearance is expected to roll out soon, a Health Ministry official confirmed that over 30 insurance companies are already onboard the NHCX platform while effort and awareness drives are going on to bring in the hospitals. What are some other incentives on offer? To encourage adoption of digital health transactions and digitisation of patient health records in the country, the National Health Authority had announced financial incentives under the Digital Health Incentive Scheme (DHIS) from January 2023. Under the DHIS, there is a provision that for every insurance claim transaction through NHCX, financial incentives of ₹500 per claim or 10% of the claim amount, whichever is lower, would be given to hospitals, according to a Health Ministry note. Why is NHCX being brought in? Arguing for the NHCX, the Health Ministry states that the platform will help in standardisation and interoperability of health claims and will bring in seamless exchange of data, documents and images between payer (insurance company/TPA/government scheme administrator) and provider (hospital/lab/poly clinic). Additionally, it will enable transparent and efficient claims processing and reduce related operational costs. The transition to digitisation is also anticipated to significantly decrease the cost of processing claims. Source: Hindu NATIONAL TESTING AGENCY Syllabus Prelims – Current Event Context: The National Testing Agency (NTA) and the Union Education Ministry announced the formation of a four-member committee to review the results of over 1,500 candidates who were awarded “grace marks” to compensate for the “loss of time” suffered while appearing for this year’s NEET (Undergraduate). Background: NTA has drawn widespread criticism for its conduct of NEET this year. About National Testing Agency (NTA) The National Testing Agency (NTA) is an autonomous agency under the Department of Higher Education of the Ministry of Education of India. It was established in November 2017. National Testing Agency (NTA) is a premier, specialist and self-sustained testing organization to conduct entrance examinations for admission/fellowship in higher educational institutions. To assess competence of candidates for admissions and recruitment has always been a challenge in terms of matching with research based international standards, efficiency, transparency and error free delivery. The National Testing Agency is entrusted to address all such issues using best in every field, from test preparation, to test delivery and to test marking. NTA conducts various examinations including the Common University Entrance Test (CUET), National Eligibility cum Entrance Test (NEET), Joint Entrance Examination (JEE), and University Grants Commission – National Eligibility Test (UGC-NET). Source: Deccan Herald COUNCIL OF MINISTERS (COM) Syllabus Prelims & Mains – POLITY Context: Prime Minister Narendra Modi took the oath of office for a historic third consecutive term along with his council of ministers in a grand ceremony at the Rashtrapati Bhavan. Background: With this, PM Modi has now equalled former PM Jawaharlal Nehru’s record, who also served three consecutive terms. About COUNCIL OF MINISTERS (COM) The Council of Ministers, also known as the Central Council of Ministers, is a central body that forms part of the executive branch of the Union Government. The Council serves as the principal advisory body to the Head of State i.e., the President of India. The Council of Ministers (COM) is the highest decision-making body in the government, headed by the Prime Minister. The Council of Ministers is headed by the Prime Minister and includes Cabinet Ministers, Ministers of State, and Deputy Ministers. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President, and the other Ministers are appointed by the President on the advice of the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister shall communicate to the President about the proposals for legislation. The Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the House of the People. Before a Minister enters office, the President administers the oaths of office and secrecy. The Union Ministers shall hold the office during the pleasure of the President of India. A Minister who for any period of six consecutive months is not a member of either House of Parliament shall, at the expiration of that period, cease to be a Minister. The salaries and allowances of Ministers are determined by Parliament. According to the 91st Constitutional Amendment Act 2003, the total number of ministers, including the Prime Minister, in the Central Council of Ministers shall not exceed 15 percent of the total strength of the Lok Sabha. Important constitutional provisions related to the Union Council of Ministers: Article 74: Council of Ministers to aid and advise the President of India. Article 75: Other provisions for Ministers. Article 77: Conduct of business of the Government of India. Article 78: Duties of the Prime Minister with respect to the furnishing of information to the President, etc. Article 88: Rights of Ministers with respect to the Houses. Source: Indian Express OPERATION BLUE STAR Syllabus Prelims – HISTORY Context: The 40th anniversary of Operation Blue Star was recently observed. Background: The anniversary passed off peacefully at

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   AGNIPATH SCHEME Syllabus Prelims & Mains – Current Event Context: The Bharatiya Janata Party-led government’s ambitious Agnipath scheme has faced opposition, from political parties and Armed Forces veterans alike, since it was announced in June 2022.Now, with the BJP short of a majority on its own in the Lok Sabha, crucial alliance partners too have called for a review of the contentious scheme. Background:- In fact, a key plank in INDIA bloc’s campaign in states like Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Rajasthan — where the Armed Forces are a sought after employer — was the opposition to this scheme for military recruitment. And the BJP’s performance in these states indicates that the pitch had some resonance on the ground. What is the Agnipath scheme? Agnipath was aimed at recruiting personnel below officer ranks — soldiers, airmen, and sailors who are not commissioned officers — to the Indian Armed Forces for a period of four years. At the end of this tenure, upto 25% of these recruits, the so called ‘Agniveers’, can join the services on a permanent commission (another 15 years), subject to merit and organisational requirements. Aspirants between the ages of 17.5 years and 23 years are eligible to apply (the upper age limit was increased from 21), and the recruitment standards remain the same as with regular service, prior to Agnipath. At present, all sailors, airmen, and soldiers, except the technical cadre of the medical branch, are recruited to the services under the scheme, which has also opened doors for the recruitment of women to the IAF and the Navy. The scheme was announced in June 2022, after military recruitment was paused for two years due to the Covid-19 pandemic. How are Agniveers compensated? Agniveers draw a basic salary of Rs 30,000-Rs 40,000 per month, and are entitled to other risk and hardship allowances. They contribute 30% of their monthly emoluments to the Seva Nidhi fund, which the government matches. At the end of their service, they receive approximately Rs 11.71 lakhs (with interest) as a lump sum severance package from this fund, which is exempt from income tax. If they die on duty, their family receives a lump sum of Rs 1 crore (including the Seva Nidhi package), and full pay for the period which the soldier could not serve. In case of disability, an Agniveer can receive upto Rs 44 lakh as compensation, depending on the percentage of disability suffered which is attributed to, or aggravated by military service. How is Agnipath different from regular military service? Unlike soldiers in regular service, Agniveers do not draw pensions post-retirement. Only the 25% of Agniveers who get absorbed into the forces after four years will receive pensionary benefits, although the initial four years of service will not be considered for these. This is the biggest change that Agnipath has brought in. Not only does the scheme will help reduce the Armed Forces’ permanent force levels, this in turn will considerably cut the defence pension bill, which has been a major concern for governments for many years. Why was Agnipath introduced? Apart from the unsaid intention of reducing the Armed Forces’ wage and pension bill, the government has argued that the scheme will ensure the forces’ “youthful profile”. At the time the scheme was brought in, the average age in the Armed Forces was 32 years, which Agnipath will bring down to 26 years, if implemented. Moreover, the government has argued that after the completion of their service, Agniveers would contribute to the civil society “through their education, skill, discipline and other qualities”. Why has Agnipath seen such strong opposition? Critics say that the scheme creates a “lesser” cadre of soldiers, who work on the same tasks as those with full commission, but with lesser pay, benefits, and prospects. On the ground, this disparity has caused significant disaffection among those who see military recruitment as a path to economic stability and upward mobility. Source: Indian  Express   LIQUID NITROGEN Syllabus Prelims – Science & Technology Context: The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI), has cautioned against use of liquid nitrogen in products such as cocktails, ice-creams, meetha pan and bakery items at the point of sale. Background: The food safety regulator said such use of liquid nitrogen immediately before consumption of food items is “unauthorised” and will attract “ action” in accordance with the regulations. Key Takeaways Nitrogen is a colourless and odourless gas or liquid, with the functional use of “freezing agent, propellant, packaging gas or foaming agent. FSSAI said that as per the FSS regulations, Nitrogen is a GMP (Good Manufacturing Practice) additive and its use has been laid out in the regulations for specific food categories. In addition, dairy-based desserts (ice-creams) at GMP level liquid nitrogen is permitted to be used only for “technological function of contact freezing and cooling only,” FSSAI added. FSSAI has taken cognisance of several instances of liquid nitrogen being used in bars, restaurants, food serving establishement, caterer in fairs and marriage in food items to make them more “eye-pleasing” at the time of serving. In an advisory, the food safety authority expressed concerns of instances where such “unauthorised use” of liquid nitrogen in food items and direct consumption of liquid nitrogen infused food by consumers has led to “serious health issues and injuries.” “Liquid nitrogen which is illicitly being used directly at the point of serving or plating is not allowed as this is not the intended purpose and technological use of the additive and shall be considered as non-compliance by the food businesses doing so,” FSSAI said. Source: Hindu Businessline   PRADHAN MANTRI AWAS YOJANA (PMAY) Syllabus Prelims & Mains – Government Schemes Context: The new Union Cabinet, led by Prime Minister Narendra Modi, has taken its first decision to provide assistance for the construction of three crore additional houses under the Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY). Background: This initiative aims to address the increase in the number of eligible families requiring housing. About Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana Pradhan Mantri Awas

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   SPEAKER Syllabus Prelims & Mains – POLITY Context: As the 18th Lok Sabha prepares to meet, the TDP and JD(U), key allies of the BJP in the National Democratic Alliance (NDA), are said to be jockeying for the post of Speaker. Background:- After a pro tem or temporary Speaker administers the oath to new members, the Speaker is chosen to be the Presiding Officer of the House. About Speakers post The Speaker has a key role in parliamentary democracy. The Constitution of India provides for the offices of the Speaker and Deputy Speaker who, according to Article 93, are to be elected “as soon as may be” after the commencement of the House. The Speaker is elected by a simple majority in the House. The term ends with the dissolution of the House, unless the Speaker resigns or is removed from office before that. A motion of no-confidence can be moved against the Speaker with notice of 14 days as per Article 94 of the Constitution. Separately, the Speaker, like any other member of the House, can face disqualification. There are no specific qualifications for becoming Speaker, which means any member is entitled to be considered. However, the post of Speaker is distinct from other members in the House. The salary of the Speaker is drawn from the Consolidated Fund of India unlike for other MPs, which flow from a statute voted on by the House itself. Powers of the Speaker Conducting house: The conduct of government business is decided by the Speaker in consultation with the Leader of the House. Prior permission of the Speaker is required for members to ask a question, or to discuss any matter. Question and Records: The Speaker decides the admissibility of a question raised by a member, as well as how the proceedings of the House are published. The Speaker has the power to expunge, in full or in part, remarks that she may consider to be unparliamentary. Critical remarks against the ruling party may not be published if the Speaker decides to expunge them. Casting Vote: According to Article 100 of the Constitution, which talks about voting in the Houses, the Chairman of Rajya Sabha or Speaker of Lok Sabha, or any person acting as such, “shall not vote in the first instance, but shall have an exercise a casting vote in the case of any equality of votes”. No-confidence Motion: One of the most important times when a Speaker’s impartiality impacts the Opposition is when a motion of no-confidence is moved against the government. Disqualification of members: The Tenth Schedule or the anti-defection law, introduced to the Constitution through the Fifty-Second (Amendment) Act, 1985, gives the Speaker of the House the power to disqualify legislators who ‘defect’ from a party. In the landmark case Kihoto Hollohan versus Zachillhu in 1992, the Supreme Court upheld the power vested in the Speaker and said that only the final order of the Speaker will be subject to judicial review. In 2020, the Supreme Court had ruled that Speakers of Assemblies and Lok Sabha must decide disqualification pleas within three months except in extraordinary circumstances. Source: Indian  Express BIRSA MUNDA Syllabus Prelims & Mains – HISTORY Context: The Jharkhand Governor and Chief Minister recently paid tribute to tribal icon Birsa Munda on his death anniversary. Background: Birsa Munda’s life and struggles are celebrated as an unparalleled example of service to the nation, and his legacy continues to inspire the ideals of patriotism and resistance against injustice. Key Takeaways Birsa Munda was a folk hero and a tribal freedom fighter from the Munda tribe. He was born on November 15, 1875, in Ulihatu village in present-day Jharkhand. Role in Freedom Struggle: He led an Indian tribal mass movement in the Bihar and Jharkhand belts in the early 19th century against British colonisation. He rallied the tribals to fight against the forceful land grabbing carried out by the British government. Birsa Munda Revolt: The Birsa Munda revolt, also known as the Munda Rebellion or Ulgulan (meaning ‘The Great Tumult’), was a significant tribal uprising against British colonial rule in India. It took place in the late 19th century, primarily in the Munda belt of Khunti, Tamar, Sarwada, and Bandgaon regions In response to the introduction of the Zamindari system in tribal areas, Birsa Munda declared “Ulgulan”, or revolt, against the British and the Dikus (outsiders) in 1894. Religious Influence: He created a faith called ‘Birsait’ and propagated the principles of Hindu religion. Known as ‘Dharti Abba’ or the Earth Father, Birsa Munda stressed the need for the tribals to study their own religion and not forget their cultural roots. Legacy: His struggle against exploitation and discrimination against tribals led to the Chotanagpur Tenancy Act being passed in 1908. The act restricted the passing on of land from the tribal people to non-tribals. The state of Jharkhand was created on his birth anniversary in 2000. Death: He died on June 9, 1900, at the age of 25. Source: Hindustan Times QUANTUM DATA Syllabus Prelims & Mains – Government schemes Context: A new quantum computing study claims that a recent finding in the production, storage and retrieval of “quantum data” has brought us one step closer to the quantum internet. Background: The study, conducted by researchers from Imperial College London, the University of Southampton, and the Universities of Stuttgart and Wurzburg in Germany, utilized a specialized photon source to achieve this feat. About QUANTUM DATA Quantum data refers to information stored and processed using the principles of quantum mechanics. Unlike classical data, which is represented by binary states (0s and 1s), quantum data is represented by quantum bits or qubits. Qubits can exist in multiple states simultaneously due to a property called superposition, and they can be entangled with other qubits, allowing for a kind of interconnectedness and correlation that classical bits cannot achieve. Applications of Quantum Data: Cryptography: Quantum key distribution (QKD) leverages the principles of quantum mechanics to create secure communication channels that are theoretically immune to eavesdropping. Optimization

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   HIGH SEAS BIODIVERSITY TREATY Syllabus Prelims – ENVIRONMENT Context: Grethel Aguilar, the director general of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), urged countries worldwide “to strive for a fully functional High Seas Biodiversity Treaty”. Background:- The high seas are those areas of the world’s oceans that are outside national jurisdictions. They constitute a huge chunk of the world’s oceans and are home to a wide variety of biodiversity. About HIGH SEAS BIODIVERSITY TREATY The United Nations agreement on biodiversity beyond national jurisdiction or BBNJ Agreement, also referred to by some stakeholders as the High Seas Treaty or Global Ocean Treaty, is a legally binding instrument for the conservation and sustainable use of marine biological diversity of areas beyond national jurisdiction. It is an agreement under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). The text was finalised during an intergovernmental conference at the UN on 4 March 2023 and adopted on 19 June 2023 Here are some key points about the treaty: Protection Beyond Borders: While countries are responsible for the conservation and sustainable use of waterways under their national jurisdiction, the high seas now have added protection from such destructive trends as pollution and unsustainable fishing activities. Cleaner Oceans: The treaty aims at strengthening resilience and contains provisions based on the polluter-pays principle as well as mechanisms for disputes. It addresses the issue of toxic chemicals and plastic waste flooding into coastal ecosystems. Sustainable Management of Fish Stocks: More than one third of global fish stocks are over-exploited, according to the UN. The treaty underlines the importance of capacity building and the transfer of marine technology. Legal Framework: The treaty provides a legal framework for addressing various stressors affecting the marine environment in the high seas. Addressing Planetary Crisis: The treaty is crucial for addressing the triple planetary crisis of climate change, biodiversity loss, and pollution. The treaty recognizes traditional knowledge. It has articles regarding the “polluter-pays” principle, and different impacts of human activities including areas beyond the national jurisdiction of the countries making those activities. The agreement was adopted by the 193 United Nations Member States. Before the treaty can enter into force, it needs to be ratified by at least 60 UN member states. However, only seven countries — Belize, Chile, Mauritius, Federated States of Micronesia, Monaco, Palau and the Seychelles — have ratified the treaty. India has neither signed nor ratified the treaty. Greenpeace called it “the biggest conservation victory ever”. The main achievement is the new possibility to create marine protected areas in international waters. Source: Down To Earth STICKY INFLATION Syllabus Prelims & Mains – ECONOMY Context: RBI in its recent monetary policy review decided to retain the repo rate, for eighth time in a row, due to concerns of sticky inflation. Background: Therepo rate is the interest rate at which the RBI lends money to commercial banks. When RBI wants to incentivise economic activity in the broader economy, it reduces the repo rate, which makes it cheaper for banks to borrow from it and lend onwards to customers. When it wants to disincentivise economic activity, it raises the repo rate, which makes it costly for everyone in the economy to borrow money. Key Takeaways Sticky inflation refers to a phenomenon where prices do not adjust quickly to changes in supply and demand, leading to persistent inflation. When prices are sticky, inflation can persist even if the economy operates below its potential level. Sticky inflation has been a concern for many central banks, making it difficult to control inflation. Simply put, if inflation stays persistently high (‘sticky’), it would necessitate the RBI to keep raising interest rates — or, at the very least, keep them at a high level for a longer period — and, in doing so, hurt India’s economic There is a constant tradeoff between maintaining price stability (read containing inflation) and boosting growth (which hopefully creates jobs and reduces unemployment). Why is the RBI not cutting interest rates? Currently, the retail inflation rate has been coming down closer to the 4% mark. In fact, it has stayed within the so-called “comfort zone” of the RBI — anywhere between 2% and 6% — since September 2023 and yet, the RBI has not changed the repo rate since February 2023. There are four broad reasons for it: One, despite keeping the repo rate consistently high, the retail inflation has not dropped to touch the 4% mark since January 2021. Although it has declined, the rate of its decline has been very gradual. In fact, the RBI has expressed its concern over the stickiness of inflation. Two, the RBI does not cut the repo rate as soon as the overall inflation rate falls to (or below) the 4% target in any one month. The RBI has to be convinced that inflation rate will stay around the 4% mark sustainably. The RBI’s policy statement predicts that inflation is likely to fall below the 4% target in the near future but that fall would only be due to temporary reasons. Three, as explained earlier, the RBI typically cuts the repo rate when it finds that economic activity needs a boost. However, India’s gross domestic product (GDP) growth rate has been surprisingly strong over the past year in particular. Under the circumstances, it is unlikely that repo rates are holding back India’s economic growth. Four, although not articulated by the RBI per se, the decision may have to do with India’s forthcomingUnion Budget. Most economists are waiting to see how the political compulsions of a coalition government will impact the Centre’s commitment to fiscal deficit — the amount of money the government intends to borrow from the market. Higher than anticipated fiscal deficit has implications for both inflation (if more fresh money is printed) or interest rates (if there is less money for the private sector to borrow). Source: Indian Express INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION OF MIGRATION (IOM) Syllabus Prelims – INTERNATIONAL Context: The International Organization for Migration (IOM) reported at least 49 migrants died and 140 others were missing after their boat capsized

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   NITROUS OXIDE EMISSIONS UP 40 % IN 40 YEARS Syllabus Prelims – ENVIRONMENT Context: Emissions of planet-warming nitrous oxide gas rose by 40 per cent between 1980 and 2020, a study by the Global Carbon Project revealed recently. Background:- China (16.7 per cent), India (10.9 per cent), US (5.7 per cent), Brazil (5.3 per cent) and Russia (4.6 per cent) were the top five emitters of the gas more potent than carbon dioxide and methane. About NITROUS OXIDE Nitrous oxide commonly known as laughing gas is a chemical compound, an oxide of nitrogen with the formula N2O. At room temperature, it is a colourless non-flammable gas, and has a slightly sweet scent and taste. At elevated temperatures, nitrous oxide is a powerful oxidiser similar to molecular oxygen. Nitrous oxide has significant medical uses, especially in surgery and dentistry, for its anaesthetic and pain-reducing effects. Its colloquial name, “laughing gas” is due to the euphoric effects upon inhaling it, a property that has led to its recreational use as a dissociative anaesthetic.It is on the World Health Organization’s List of Essential Medicines. Most recreational users are unaware of its neurotoxic effects when abused. When used chronically, nitrous oxide has the potential to cause neurological damage through inactivation of vitamin B12. It is also used as an oxidiser in rocket propellants, and in motor racing to increase the power output of engines. It is a major scavenger of stratospheric ozone, with an impact comparable to that of CFCs. Being the third most important greenhouse gas, nitrous oxide substantially contributes to global warming. Reduction of emissions is a popular topic in the politics of climate change. Key Takeaways from the study Agricultural production and livestock rearing were the two key human-driven sources of nitrous oxide. In the last decade agricultural production, chiefly owing to the use of nitrogen fertilisers and animal manure, contributed to 74 per cent of the total anthropogenic nitrous oxide emissions, according to the study. The world’s farmers used 60 million metric tonnes of commercial nitrogen fertilisers in 1980. By 2020, the sector used 107 million metric tonnes. Nitrous oxide is also emitted from natural sources such as oceans, inland water bodies and soil. These sources contributed to 11.8 per cent of the global emissions of the gas between 2010 and 2019. Agriculture activities and related waste generation, biomass burning, fossil fuels and industries together contributed to around six per cent of the global nitrous oxide emissions in 2010-2019, the study noted. The study involved examination of global data for all major economic activities that lead to nitrous oxide emissions and 18 anthropogenic and natural sources and three absorbent “sinks” of global nitrous oxide. The High levels of nitrous oxide in the atmosphere can deplete the ozone layer and compound effects of climate change, the study said. On the earth, excess nitrogen contributes to soil, water and air pollution. Among the 18 regions considered in this study, only Europe, Russia, Australasia, and Japan and Korea had decreasing nitrous oxide emissions. Europe had the largest rate of decrease between 1980 and 2020, resulting from reduced fossil fuel and industry emissions. China and South Asia, on the other hand, had the largest increases in nitrous oxide emissions from 1980 to 2020 at 92 per cent. Nitrous oxide emissions from human activities must decline in order to limit global temperature rise to 2 degrees Celsius as established by the Paris Agreement.Reducing nitrous oxide emissions is the only solution since at this point no technologies exist that can remove nitrous oxide from the atmosphere. Source: Indian Express RAM PRASAD BISMIL Syllabus Prelims & Mains – HISTORY Context: 11th June marked the birth anniversary of freedom fighter Ram Prasad Bismil. Background: His ideals of freedom struggle stood in contrast to that of Mahatma Gandhi and he would reportedly say “independence would not be achieved by means of non-violence”. About RAM PRASAD BISMIL Ram Prasad Bismil (11 June 1897 – 19 December 1927) was an Indian poet, writer, and revolutionary who fought againstBritish Raj. He composed poetry in both Urdu and Hindi, using pen names like Ram, Agyat, and Bismil. Early Life: Bismil was born on June 11, 1897, in Shahjahanpur district (present-day Uttar Pradesh, India). He came from a Brahmin family and showed early talent for writing patriotic poetry. Bismil learned Hindi from his father and Urdu from a moulvi. Despite his father’s disapproval, he attended an English-language school and joined the Arya Samaj. Revolutionary Activities: At 18, Bismil read about the death sentence passed on Bhai Parmanand, a scholar and companion of Har Dayal. Angered by this, he composed a Hindi poem titled “Mera Janm” (My Birth), expressing his commitment to removing British control over India. Bismil was associated with the Arya Samaj and became a founding member of the revolutionary organization Hindustan Republican Association (HRA). Conspiracies : Bismil participated in the Mainpuri Conspiracy of 1918 and the Kakori Conspiracy of 1925. Bismil got his name etched as a prominent freedom fighter with his participation in the Mainpuri conspiracy of 1918. Bismil along with Genda Lal Dixit, a school teacher from Auraiya, organised youth from Etahwah, Mainpuri, Agra and Shahjahanpur districts to strengthen their organisations, ‘Matrivedi’ and ‘Shivaji Samiti’. He published a pamphlet titled ‘Deshwasiyon ke Naam’ and distributed it along with his poem ‘Mainpuri ki Pratigya’ on January 28, 1918. To collect funds for the parties, they looted government coffers. The Kakori train robbery, masterminded by Bismil, aimed to fund revolutionary activities. On August 9, 1925, Ram Prasad Bismil along with companions Ashfaqulla Khan and others executed the plan of looting the train at Kakori near Lucknow. After the revolutionaries stopped the 8-Down Saharanpur Lucknow passenger train at Kakori, Ashfaqullah Khan, Sachindra Bakshi, Rajendra Lahiri and Ram Prasad Bismil subdued the guard and looted cash meant for the treasury. Within a month of the attack, the angered colonial authorities arrested more than a dozen HRA members.After the trial in the so-called Kakori conspiracy, these four revolutionaries were sentenced to be hanged. Source: PIB GENERAL ANTI-AVOIDANCE RULE (GAAR) Syllabus Prelims – CURRENT EVENT Context: The Telangana High Court has made a significant ruling regarding the General Anti-avoidance Rule (GAAR). Background: The court ruled against a taxpayer, Ayodhya Rami Reddy Alla, in

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   A NEW WAY TO PREDICT EL NIÑO, LA NIÑA Syllabus Prelims – GEOGRAPHY Context: Hyderabad-based Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) has developed a new product to predict the emergence of El Niño and La Niña conditions — they are different phases of El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) — up to 15 months in advance. Background:- In India, while El Niño conditions usually lead to a weak monsoon and intense heatwaves, La Niña conditions result in a strong monsoon. About ENSO ENSO is a climate phenomenon that involves changes in the temperature of waters in the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean, coupled with fluctuations in the overlying atmosphere. It can alter the global atmospheric circulation, which, in turn, influences weather across the world. ENSO occurs in irregular cycles of 2-7 years and has three different phases — warm (El Niño), cool (La Niña), and neutral. In the neutral phase, the eastern side of the Pacific Ocean (near the northwestern coast of South America) is cooler than the western side (near the Philippines and Indonesia). This is due to the prevailing wind systems that move from east to west, sweeping the warmer surface waters towards the Indonesian coast. The relatively cooler waters from below come up to replace the displaced water. In the El Niño phase, however, wind systems weaken, leading to lesser displacement of warmer waters. As a result, the eastern side of the Pacific becomes warmer than usual. In contrast, a La Niña event is characterized by a period of colder than average sea surface temperatures in the central and eastern Pacific Ocean and an intensification of the prevailing east to west surface winds. What is the new product? Known as Bayesian Convolutional Neural Network (BCNN), the new product uses the latest technologies such as Artificial Intelligence (AI), deep learning, and machine learning (ML) to improve forecasts related to the ENSO phases. The model’s prediction relies on the fact that El Niño or La Niña are connected to the slow oceanic variations and their atmospheric coupling, which gives sufficient lead time to issue early forecasts. How does BCNN compare with existing models? There are largely two kinds of weather models used for forecasting. One is the statistical model, which generates forecasts based on various information sets received from different countries and regions. The other is the dynamic model, which involves a 3D mathematical simulation of the atmosphere done using High Performance Computers (HPC). The dynamic model is much more accurate than the statistical model. The BCNN, however, is a combination of the dynamic model with AI. This helps it forecast the emergence of El Niño and La Niña conditions with a 15-month lead time — unlike other models which can give a prediction up to six to nine months in advance. Source: Indian Express GOVT LOOKS AT INCOME TAX RATE CUT TO BOOST DEMAND, TRIGGER PRIVATE INVESTMENT Syllabus Prelims & Mains – ECONOMY Context: As the Indian economy grapples with the problem of flagging consumption, policymakers in the government are in favour of rationalising the existing income tax structure, especially at lower income levels. Background: In the most recent GDP data release for the January-March quarter on May 31, Private Final Consumption Expenditure (PFCE), an indicator of consumption demand, dropped as a share of GDP to 52.9 per cent — the lowest level in the 2011-12 base year series. Key Takeaways According to senior government officials, it is likely that tax rate cuts for those earning less may likely take precedence over freebies or excessive welfare spending given the focus on fiscal consolidation. The tax cuts may be a more efficient measure to enhance disposable income, which in turn would result in higher consumption, and give a fillip to economic activities. A boost to consumption is being seen as crucial for reviving demand, which in turn is central to restarting the investment cycle, especially rekindling private capital expenditure in consumer-focused sectors. The revenue loss from any such measure requires a dynamic analysis, officials said. “Since it is expected to spur demand, it requires a general equilibrium analysis to assess the net effect. There will be more money in the hands of the people, leading to better consumption and more direct and indirect tax revenues. So even though revenue loss might be there, the net effect will be positive,” the official said. In the most recent GDP data release for the January-March quarter on May 31, Private Final Consumption Expenditure (PFCE), an indicator of consumption demand, dropped as a share of GDP to 52.9 per cent — the lowest level in the 2011-12 base year series. The government has been focusing on fiscal consolidation over the last few years, with an aim to bring down the fiscal deficit to 5.1 per cent of the GDP in 2024-25 and reduce it further to below 4.5 per cent in 2025-26. The discussions have taken note that the rise in marginal income tax is “too steep” in the existing tax structure. Right now, in the new tax system, first slab of 5 per cent starts at Rs 3 lakh. By the time it goes to Rs 15 lakh, which is five times, the marginal tax rate jumps from 5 per cent to 30 per cent — a six fold jump. So while income goes up five times, the marginal tax rate goes up six times, which is quite steep. Tax simplification is also being seen as a better tool than overt spending on welfare schemes, which may see possible leakages. Source: Indian Express TARAKNATH DAS Syllabus Prelims – HISTORY Context: Birth anniversary of Shri Taraknath Das was celebrated recently. Background: He was a pioneering immigrant in the west coast of North America and discussed his plans with Tolstoy, while organising the Asian Indian immigrants in favour of the Indian independence movement. About TARAKNATH DAS Taraknath Das (15 June 1884 – 22 December 1958) was an Indian revolutionary and internationalist scholar. Tarak was born at Majupara, in the 24 Parganas district

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   PANTANAL WETLAND Syllabus Prelims – GEOGRAPHY Context: Brazil’s Pantanal wetland is ablaze, with fires in June breaking historical records for that month. Background:- Brazil’s National Institute of Space Research (INPE) has detected 733 fires in the Pantanal biome so far this month, with the previous record for fires in Pantanal for June being 435 registered in 2005. About PANTANAL WETLAND   Situated in the heart of South America, the Pantanal is the world’s largest tropical wetland. At 42 million acres, the Pantanal covers an area slightly larger than England and sprawls across three countries—Bolivia, Brazil, and Paraguay. About 80 percent of the Pantanal is in Brazil. While not as globally familiar as the Amazon to the north, the Pantanal is one of the most biologically rich environments on the planet with more than 4,700 plant and animal species. In fact, the Pantanal contains South America’s highest concentration of some wildlife species, including the jaguar and caiman. From October to March, floodwaters fill the Pantanal like a giant reservoir and drain out slowly between April and September, providing ideal aquatic habitat, nutrient renewal, and flood control for millions of people downstream. The Pantanal also contains a hub of economic activity, ranging from cattle ranching to soy production to tourism. The economic activities of the states within the Pantanal contributed more than $70 billion to their respective economies in 2015. This wetland also provides an array of irreplaceable benefits that help the region’s economic development and environment, including river flow for boats to navigate, groundwater recharge, and regulation of floodwaters for millions of people. Source: CNN GREY ZONE WARFARE Syllabus Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: Since Lai Ching-te assumed office as Taiwan’s president, his tenure has faced a rocky start, marked by China’s belligerent reaction to his pro-independence stance. China has now shifted to a ‘grey-zone’ warfare strategy to consistently undermine Taiwan. Background: Experts from the US and Europe have characterised certain Russian actions also as examples of grey zone warfare. Key Takeaways Grey zone warfare generally means a middle, unclear space that exists between direct conflict and peace in international relations. A multitude of activities fall into the category grey zone warfare — from nefarious economic activities, influence operations, and cyberattacks to mercenary operations, assassinations, and disinformation campaigns. Experts also include economic actions such as debt traps and economic sanctions under grey zone. What grey zone warfare looks like: examples – Experts from the US and Europe have characterised certain Russian and Chinese actions of late as examples of grey zone warfare. It includes the Chinese military’s presence in the South China Sea. The Philippines is one of the countries which has challenged China’s claims in south china sea. In December 2023, it termed the presence of more than 135 Chinese maritime militia vessels near a disputed reef as “illegal”. It accused China of firing water cannons at its boats and ramming into others, while the Chinese coast guard blamed the Philippines for hitting Chinese boats. Another example can befound in a recent Reuters report, which said, “Taiwan has complained for four years of stepped-up Chinese military action, such as fighters regularly flying over the strait as part of a ‘grey zone’ strategy to wear down Taiwan with activities that stop short of a full-blown conflict.” US has also engaged in grey zone tactics . These include its economic sanctions against China and imposition of duties on Chinese imports to the US, along with maritime reconnaissance. Why is grey zone warfare seen as a separate category of action? Firstly, the challenges that grey zone warfare poses differ from those of an open conflict. Here, action is often covert or indirect, meaning a country’s response needs to be appropriate in terms of its scale. China might have other aims in mind.I ts actions could be designed to bait the other party into escalation, which would thus free Chinese forces to respond in kind – and the use of force would then be legitimised as a form of self-defence or response in kind to what the other party does. Other reasons for engaging in such tactics include the projection of strength, and to normalise disputed territorial claims by repeatedly marking a presence in those regions. Source: Indian Express MONTREAL PROTOCOL Syllabus Prelims & Mains – Environment Context: A new study released has reported the first significant decrease in atmospheric concentrations of hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), potent ozone-depleting substances (ODS). HCFC emissions peaked in 2021, earlier than the anticipated year of 2026, and are now on a downward trend. Background: This important milestone demonstrates the benefits of the Montreal Protocol for mitigating climate change and stratospheric ozone layer loss. About MONTREAL PROTOCOL The Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous substances that are responsible for ozone depletion. It was agreed on 16 September 1987, and entered into force on 1 January 1989. Since then, it has undergone nine revisions, in 1990 (London), 1991 (Nairobi), 1992 (Copenhagen), 1993 (Bangkok), 1995 (Vienna), 1997 (Montreal), 1999 (Beijing) and 2016 (Kigali). Due to its widespread adoption and implementation, it has been hailed as an example of successful international co-operation. Former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan stated that “perhaps the single most successful international agreement to date has been the Montreal Protocol”. The ozone treaty has been ratified by 198 parties (197 states and the European Union), making them the first universally ratified treaties in United Nations history. This truly universal treaty has also been remarkable in the expedience of the policy-making process at the global scale, where only 14 years lapsed between a basic scientific research discovery (1973) and the international agreement signed (1985 and 1987). The treaty is structured around several groups of halogenated hydrocarbons that deplete stratospheric ozone. All of the ozone depleting substances controlled by the Montreal Protocol contain either chlorine or bromine (substances containing only fluorine do not harm the ozone layer). Some ozone-depleting substances (ODSs) are not yet controlled by the Montreal Protocol, including nitrous oxide (N2O). For each group of ODSs, the