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Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   Forest Fire Syllabus Prelims & Mains – Environment Context: At least five people have lost their lives in the fires that have now spread over 1,000 hectares of forests in much of Uttarakhand. There is a danger of the blaze fanning out to heavily populated urban centres including Nainital city. Poor visibility has constrained the Air Force’s firefighting efforts. Background:- Higher forest fire incidents are reported in India during March, April and May, due to the ample availability of dry biomass following the end of winter and the prevailing summer season. Key takeaways According to experts, three factors cause the spread of forest fires — fuel load, oxygen and temperature. Dry leaves are fuel for forest fires. The Forest Survey of India (FSI) website states that nearly 36 per cent of India’s forests are prone to frequent fires. Experts believe that burning forests intensifies heat and leads to black carbon emissions, adversely affecting water systems and air quality. However, some of the combustion is necessary for the forest to regenerate — the burning of litter promotes the growth of fresh grasses. The state government has blamed the fires on human activities and banned people from setting fire to fodder for a week. Urban bodies have been asked to stop people from burning solid waste in and around forests. These are much-needed emergency measures. Nearly 95 percent of forest fires in the country, including in Uttarakhand, are initiated by human activities. Historically, the accumulation of pine needles on the forest floor during the summer months was the main reason for the fires in the Himalayan season. Forest fires are, however, a far too serious problem to be doused by bans and punitive measures. The gutting of Uttarakhand’s forests is a sign of the aggravating climate crisis. Severe fires occur in many forest types particularly dry deciduous forest, while evergreen, semi-evergreen and montane temperate forests are comparatively less prone. The monsoon was deficient in large parts of the state last year. Uttarakhand has witnessed its driest April in five years. In such moisture-deficient conditions, fire spreads fast, especially in oxygen-rich environs such as forests. How are forest fires prevented and doused? The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) lists the following methods to prevent and control a forest fire: construction of watch towers for early detection; deployment of fire watchers; involvement of local communities, and the creation and maintenance of fire lines. According to the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) website, two types of fire lines are in practice – Kachha or covered fire lines and Pucca or open fire lines. In Kaccha fire lines, the undergrowth and shrubs are removed while trees are retained to decrease the fuel load. The Pucca fire lines are clear felled areas separating a forest/compartment/block from another to control the spread of potential fires. The FSI website says: “Satellite based remote sensing technology and GIS tools have been effective in better prevention and management of fires through creation of early warning for fire prone areas, monitoring fires on real time basis and estimation of burnt scars.” Source: Indian Express The ‘Muslim quota’ question Syllabus Prelims & Mains – Governance, Constitution, Polity, Social Justice. Context: In election season, India is debating fundamental constitutional questions around reservation. Can a secular country like India have religion-based reservation? Have Muslims ever been given reservation by reducing the quota for Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), or Other Backward Classes (OBCs)? Background: The Justice Rajinder Sachar Committee (2006) found that the Muslim community as a whole was almost as backward as SCs and STs, and more backward than non-Muslim OBCs. The Justice Ranganath Misra Committee (2007) suggested 15% reservation for minorities, including 10% for Muslims. Key takeaways : The Constitution of India moved away from equality, which refers to equal treatment for all, to equity, which ensures fairness and may require differential treatment or special measures for some groups. The Supreme Court has held that equality is a dynamic concept with many aspects and dimensions, and it cannot be “cribbed, cabined and confined” within traditional and doctrinaire limits (E P Royappa vs State Of Tamil Nadu, 1973). Formal equality is concerned with equality of treatment — treating everyone the same, regardless of outcomes — which can at times lead to serious inequalities for historically disadvantaged groups. Substantive equality, on the other hand, is concerned with equality of outcomes. Affirmative action promotes this idea of substantive equality. The first constitutional amendment inserted Article 15(4), which empowered the state to make “any special provision for the advancement of any socially and educationally backward classes of citizens or for the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes”. Article 15 specifically prohibits the state from discriminating against citizens on grounds only of both religion and caste (along with sex, race, and place of birth). After the Supreme Court’s judgment in State of Kerala vs N M Thomas (1975), reservation is considered not an exception to the equality/ non-discrimination clauses of Articles 15(1) and 16(1), but as an extension of equality. The crucial word in Articles 15 and 16 is ‘only’ — which implies that if a religious, racial, or caste group constitutes a “weaker section” under Article 46, or constitutes a backward class, it would be entitled to special provisions for its advancement. Some Muslim castes were given reservation not because they were Muslims, but because these castes were included within the backward class, and reservation was given without reducing the quota for SCs, STs, and OBCs by creating a sub-quota within the OBCs. The Mandal Commission, following the example set by several states, included a number of Muslim castes in the list of OBCs. The Supreme Court in Indra Sawhney (1992) laid down that any social group, whatever its mark of identity, if found to be backward under the same criteria as others, will be entitled to be treated as a backward class. Source: Indian Express LOCKBIT RANSOMWARE Syllabus Prelims – Current Event Context: The U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ) has recently

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   The India-Nepal Border issue Syllabus Prelims & Mains – Current Event,India and its neighbourhood relations. Context: Nepal’s cabinet last week decided to put a map on its Rs 100 currency note showing certain areas administered by India in Uttarakhand as part of its territory, provoking External Affairs Minister S Jaishankar to say that such “unilateral measures” by Kathmandu would not change the reality on the ground. Background:- The map was adopted by consensus in Nepal’s Parliament four years ago.Unlike then, when the new map was adopted, the May 2 decision to put it on the currency note has met with scepticism and criticism in Nepal. About the issue The territorial dispute is about a 372-sq-km area that includes Limpiadhura, Lipulekh, and Kalapani at the India-Nepal-China trijunction in Uttarakhand’s Pithoragarh district. Nepal has claimed for long that these areas belong to it both historically and evidently. The Treaty of Sugauli at the end of the Anglo-Nepalese War of 1814-16 resulted in Nepal losing a chunk of territory to the East India Company. Article 5 of the treaty took away the jurisdiction of Nepal’s rulers over the land to the east of the Kali River. The visit of Prime Minister Narendra Modi to Nepal in 2014 gave rise to hopes of a resolution of all contentious issues. Modi and his Nepali counterpart, Sushil Prasad Koirala, agreed to set up a boundary working group for speedy settlement of the border issue in Kalapani and Susta, a 145-sq-km area that had fallen on the Indian side after the River Gandak changed course. Frictions in bilateral ties The goodwill of the 2005-14 period when India mediated the transition of the Hindu Kingdom into a secular federal republic, evaporated in 2015 after the Maoists rejected outright the suggestion of New Delhi, conveyed through then Foreign Secretary Jaishankar, that Nepal’s new constitution should be delayed until the concerns of the Terai parties were addressed. The 134-day blockade of Nepal that began in September 2015 created significant distrust against India, and K P Sharma Oli, who took over as Prime Minister that October, quickly moved to sign a trade and transit agreement with China in order to create a fallback source for the supply of essential goods. In February 2018, Oli, chairman of the Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist Leninist), returned as Prime Minister with a massive mandate in the first election held under the new constitution. In 2020, he took the lead to build the consensus in Parliament for Nepal’s new map that formally included the 372 sq km in Uttarakhand, and pledged to bring it back. India decried Nepal’s “cartographic aggression” as unacceptable, but said the issue would have to be sorted out through diplomatic channels, on the basis of evidence. It is noteworthy that the cabinet decision on printing the new Rs 100 notes has come less than two months after Oli’s party joined the ruling coalition in Nepal. Nepal sorted out its boundary issues with China in the early 1960s through bilateral meetings of the boundary commission. Nepal’s former Prime Minister Kirtinidhi Bista had once quoted his Chinese counterpart Chou En-lai as saying that border issues, if left unresolved, turn into problems for the future generations that are difficult to address. Source:Indian Express Women Empowerment Syllabus Prelims & Mains – Economic and Social Development Context: A new government will soon be taking up the challenge of making India viksit by 2047. With women lagging behind on several parameters of well-being in the country today, empowering them economically lies at the heart of the challenge we face in transforming India into a developed country. Background: As history has shown, women are empowered when they step out of their homes and enter market work only when their education levels rise and “good” jobs appear. Improving the value of investments in women’s human capital, and at a low cost, is our best bet for engendering gender parity and creating a “developed” society.” Key Takeaways India’s overall employment rate has historically been around 50 per cent of the working-age population — much lower than in China (almost 70 per cent) or even our neighbour, Bangladesh (about 55 per cent), according to ILO and World Bank estimates. Bringing more working-age population into the productive workforce is critical to achieving a high GDP growth rate. Amongst the main reasons for the significantly lower labour force participation (LFP) rate in India, is women’s low LFP (currently around 25 per cent). According to World Bank estimates, Increasing women’s LFP to 50 per cent of labour force will bring India closer to 8 per cent GDP growth rates and a five-trillion dollar economy by 2030. At the core of expanding the LFP rates of the currently low-skilled, low-educated women, is expanding our manufacturing capacity, which shrank from 17 per cent of GDP to about 13 per cent in the last decade. Increasing production capacity is required in labour-intensive sectors such as readymade garments, footwear, and other light manufacturing, where women form a large proportion of workers. A key marker of a developed country is a dominant formal sector. The underlying challenge is to provide high-quality, relevant and affordable skilling to the masses, and women in particular.  Improving physical access, easing financial support and improving employer matches after skill training are some of the key areas that require interventions. While about 25 per cent of India’s employed are engaged in salaried (mostly formal sector) work, this proportion is 55 per cent and 40 per cent in China and Bangladesh, respectively. The ongoing structural transformation away from agriculture, and the informal character of the labour market, has affected women disproportionately in the past few decades — the fall in rural women’s labour force participation accompanies a high proportion of women working in the informal sector (almost 90 per cent). Although several policy initiatives are being undertaken to improve the skilling ecosystem in India, they currently lack focus on redressing stark gender imbalances. Improving physical access, easing financial support and improving employer matches

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   Export-import in agri sector Syllabus Mains – GS 2 & GS 3 Context: India’s agricultural exports fell 8.2% in the fiscal year ended March 31, 2024 on the back of shipment curbs on a host of commodities, from cereals and sugar to onions. Background:- The value of farm exports totaled $48.82 billion in 2023-24, down from the record $53.15 billion of 2022-23 and $50.24 billion for the previous fiscal, according to Department of Commerce data. Key takeaways Exports declined during the initial years of the Narendra Modi government (from $43.25 billion in 2013-14 to $35.60 billion in 2019-20), while accompanied by an increase in imports (from $15.53 billion to $21.86 billion). That was largely because of a crash in global agri-commodity prices. Low international prices reduced the cost competitiveness of the country’s exports, while also making it more vulnerable to imports. But the global price recovery following the Covid-19 pandemic and Russia’s invasion of Ukraine resulted in India’s farm exports as well as imports zooming to all-time-highs in 2022-23, before dropping in the fiscal just ended. Drivers of exports: The fall in exports to have been led primarily by sugar and non-basmati rice.The government hasn’t allowed any sugar to go out of the country during the current production year from October 2023. Concerns over domestic availability and food inflation have similarly triggered a ban on exports of all white non-basmati rice since July 2023. Currently, only parboiled grain shipments are being permitted within the non-basmati segment, while also attracting a 20% duty. Two other items that have borne the brunt of export restrictions — again triggered by domestic shortages and rising prices — are wheat and onion. Drivers of imports: There is 7.9% dip in overall agri imports during 2023-24 due to a single commodity: edible oils. Lower global prices, in turn, brought down the vegetable oil import bill to below $15 billion during last fiscal. But even as the foreign exchange outflow on account of cooking oil has reduced, imports of pulses almost doubled to $3.75 billion in 2023-24, the highest since the $3.90 billion and $4.24 billion levels of 2015-16 and 2016-17 respectively. Policy takeaways Farmers and agri-traders, like all businessmen, want policy stability and predictability. When governments resort to banning/restricting agri export they usually privilege the interests of consumers over producers. These actions hurt more when taken overnight, like with wheat exports. Building export markets takes time and effort. A more predictable and rules-based policy — say, introducing temporary tariffs instead of outright bans or quantitative restrictions — is what many economists would recommend. The same goes for imports. The Modi government has done away with import duties on most pulses — arhar (pigeon pea), urad (black gram), masoor (red lentils), yellow/white peas and, earlier this month, chana (chickpea) — and kept it at 5.5% for crude palm, soyabean and sunflower oil. The above zero/low tariffs are at variance with the government’s own objective to promote crop diversification — weaning away farmers from rice, wheat and sugarcane to growing pulses and oilseeds, which are less water-guzzling and also significantly imported. Source:Indian Express Air Pollution Syllabus Prelims & Mains – Environment Context: Environmental, climate change, and air pollution issues have featured in the 2024 Lok Sabha manifestos of most top political parties. But is it among the top priorities or guarantees for parties or candidates? This brings us to another question: Will we ever witness actual improvement in air quality without it becoming a people’s movement or a political issue? Background: Despite mention in manifestos, pollution hasn’t become a campaign issue. It is a reflection of low traction at grassroots level. Key Takeaways According to a 2019 study, the yearly deaths attributable to air pollution translate to an economic loss of Rs 2.7 lakh crore, that is, around 1.36 per cent of the country’s GDP. Another recent survey has revealed that the Indian GDP would have been 4.5 per cent higher if air pollution had grown 50 per cent slower each year. What needs to be done to tackle air pollution? Any effective step to tackle pollution will come only when the issue becomes a mass movement. What it needs is public awareness in its true sense.It is the job of academicians, scientific communities, experts, scholars, and bureaucrats alongside local governmental bodies to make common Indians realise that clean air is also a fundamental right like clean water, health, food, shelter, etc. In addition to core research and scientific activities, a significant portion of the fund should be allocated for on-ground activities aimed at pollution reduction. Activities to tackle pollution need a federal structure, where policies and strategies need to be decentralised and diffused into micro environments through district and local bodies. Every ward under the municipalities or municipal corporations and every village under the blocks should be thoroughly scrutinised by the respective local bodies to find out the pollution source in the vicinity as well as the scope for air quality improvement. This information should then be disseminated to the people who are residents of the area. There should be specific plans to identify open areas favourable for the ventilation of air — and hence the pollutants — open water bodies, green cover for every ward in a city, and all of them should immediately be marked as green zones and restored. These measures will ensure that air pollution, as an issue, directly connects to every single individual in these micro environments. Regular outreach or public awareness programmes should be conducted at the municipality or block level, and facilitated by local experts, academicians, and teachers. These initiatives must aim to disseminate knowledge about environmental pollution and provide guidance on both actions to take and actions to avoid. Source: Indian Express NON-MARKET ECONOMY (NME) Syllabus Prelims – Economy Context: Vietnam has been actively advocating for a shift from its current “non-market economy” status to a “market economy” designation in the United States. Background: For over two decades, Vietnam has remained on Washington’s list of non-market economies. By achieving market economy status,

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   KAWASAKI DISEASE Syllabus Prelims – Science Context: Two baby girls diagnosed with kawasaki disease , a condition causing inflammation of blood vessels, were successfully treated at Coimbatore Medical College and Hospital. Background:- The disease is named after Japanese pediatrician Tomisaku Kawasaki, who first described it in 1967. About Kawasaki disease Kawasaki disease is a rare but serious condition that primarily affects children under the age of 5. It’s also known as mucocutaneous lymph node syndrome. Kawasaki disease can lead to complications, particularly affecting the heart. If untreated for a prolonged period it may lead to heart complications such as inflammation of the coronary artery, inflammation of heart muscles, problems associated with heart valves, and weakening of the blood walls in the heart. Treatment usually involves intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) to reduce inflammation and fever, along with aspirin to prevent blood clots. Early diagnosis and treatment are crucial to reduce the risk of complications, especially involving the heart. It is not an infectious disease, that is, it does not spread between people The cause is not fully understood, but it’s believed to involve an abnormal immune response triggered by an infection or other environmental factors in genetically predisposed individuals. Symptoms Symptoms of Kawasaki disease include a fever greater than 102.2 degrees Fahrenheit (39 degrees Celsius) for five or more days. And the child has at least four of the following symptoms: A rash on the main part of the body or in the genital area. An enlarged lymph node in the neck. Very red eyes without a thick discharge. Red, dry, cracked lips and a red, swollen tongue. Swollen, red skin on the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet. Later the skin on fingers and toes peels. Other symptoms might include:Belly pain, Diarrhea, Fussiness, Joint pain, Vomiting. Risk factors include: Age: Children below 5 years are at high risk Gender: Boys are more likely than girls to develop Kawasaki disease Ethnicity: Japanese or Korean children are at higher risk to develop Kawasaki disease Source: Mayoclinic Auroras (Northern and Southern lights) Syllabus Prelims – Science Context: The night sky was lit up by northern lights, or aurora borealis, at Hanle village in Ladakh early Saturday morning. Northern lights were also witnessed in other parts of the world, including in the United States and the United Kingdom. Meanwhile, southern lights, or aurora australis, were spotted in countries such as New Zealand and Australia. Background: Severe geomagnetic storm has allowed rare aurora to show in Ladakh, as observed from the Hanle observatory. While rare, this is not the first sighting of Northern lights in Ladakh. Key takeaways : Auroras are essentially natural lights that appear as bright, swirling curtains in the night sky and can be seen in a range of colours, including blue, red, yellow, green, and orange. These lights primarily appear near the poles of both the northern and southern hemispheres all year round but sometimes they expand to lower latitudes. In the north, the display is called the aurora borealis; in the south, it is known as the aurora australis. Why do auroras occur? It is due to activity on the surface of the Sun. The star continuously releases a stream of charged particles, mainly electrons and protons, and magnetic fields called the solar wind. As the solar wind approaches the Earth, it is deflected by the planet’s magnetic field, which acts like a protective shield. However, some of the charged particles are trapped in the magnetic field and they travel down the magnetic field lines at the north and south poles into the upper atmosphere of the Earth. These particles then interact with different gases present there, resulting in tiny flashes that light up the night sky. When solar wind particles collide with oxygen, a green colour light is produced. Interaction with nitrogen produces shades of blue and purple. Auroras expand to midlatitudes when the solar wind is extremely strong. This happens when the activity on the Sun’s surface goes up, leading to solar flares and coronal mass ejections (CMEs), which are essentially extra bursts of energy in the solar wind. In such cases, the solar wind is so intense that it can result in a geomagnetic storm, also known as a magnetic storm — a temporary disturbance of the Earth’s magnetic field. It is during a magnetic storm that auroras can be seen in the mid-latitudes. One such geomagnetic storm was kicked off on Friday after a CME hit the Earth. That’s why auroras were visible in several parts of the world. Geomagnetic storms can also affect space-dependent operations like Global Positioning Systems (GPS), radio and satellite communications, flight operations, power grids, and space exploration programmes. Source: Indian Express Gulf of Aden Syllabus Prelims – Geography Context: European naval force detained six suspected pirates on Friday after they opened fire on an oil tanker traveling through the Gulf of Aden, likely part of a growing number of piracy attacks emanating from Somalia. Background: Once-rampant piracy off the Somali coast diminished after a peak in 2011. That year, there were 237 reported attacks in waters off Somalia. Somali piracy in the region at the time cost the world’s economy some $7 billion — with $160 million paid out in ransoms.However, concerns about new attacks have grown in recent months. In the first quarter of 2024, there have been five reported incidents off Somalia.   About Gulf of Aden The Gulf of Aden is a deepwater gulf of the Indian Ocean between Yemen to the north, the Arabian Sea to the east, Djibouti to the west, and the Guardafui Channel, Socotra and Somalia to the south. In the northwest, it connects with the Red Sea through the Bab-el-Mandeb strait, and it connects with the Arabian Sea to the east. To the west, it narrows into the Gulf of Tadjoura in Djibouti. The Aden Ridge lies along the middle of the Gulf and is causing it to widen about 15mm per year. The Gulf of Aden is approximately 900 km long and 500 km wide, covering roughly 410,000 square kilometers. It has an average depth of 500 meters and a maximum depth of 2,700 meters. The Gulf of

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   OLEANDER FLOWERS Syllabus Prelims – Science Context: Two Kerala government-controlled temple boards, which together manage 2,500-odd temples in the state, have banned use of oleander flowers (locally known as arali) in temple offerings after a 24-year old woman died after accidentally chewing some oleander leaves. Background:- Oleander’s toxicity has been recognised across the world. About Oleander Nerium oleander, commonly known as oleander or rosebay, is a plant cultivated worldwide in tropical, subtropical, and temperate regions. Known for its drought tolerance, the shrub is often used for ornamental and landscaping purposes. In Kerala, the plant is known by the names of arali and kanaveeram and is grown along highways and beaches as a natural, green fencing. There are different varieties of oleander, each with a flower of a different colour References in Ayurveda : The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India (API), a government document that describes the quality, purity, and strength of drugs used in Ayurveda, mentions oleander. According to API, an oil prepared from the root bark can be used to treat skin diseases. Charka [Charak Samhita] has prescribed the leaves of white-flowered variety externally in chronic and obstinate skin diseases of serious nature including leprosy. Bhavaprakasha has described Karvira [another name of the plant] as a visha (poison) and indicated it in treatment of vrana (infected wounds), kustha (skin diseases including leprosy), krimi (microbes and parasites), kandu (itching) etc Ingestion or inhalation of smoke from burning oleander can be intoxicating. This is due to the properties of cardiac glycosides (a type of chemical) including oleandrin, folinerin, and digitoxigenin, which are present in all parts of the plant. Cardiac glycosides are steroidal compounds capable of exerting pharmacological effects on cardiac muscle. The primary therapeutic value of these glycosides lies in their ability to exert profound tonic effects on the heart [stronger and faster heart contractions]. Effects of oleander toxicity include nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, rashes, confusion, dizziness, irregular heartbeat, slow heartbeat, and, in extreme cases, death. Source:Indian Express ZERO-DAY VULNERABILITY Syllabus Prelims – Current Event Context: Google released a security update for Chrome to fix a zero-day vulnerability. Background: The security vulnerability was being exploited in the wild, and could result in data leakage, code execution and crashes in the software.This is the fifth zero-day exploit Google fixed since the start of this year. Three zero-day exploits were discovered in March 2024. Key Takeaways A Zero-Day Vulnerability is an undiscovered flaw in an application or operating system. The term “Zero day” refers to the fact that the software or device vendor has zero days to fix the flaw because malicious actors can already use it to access vulnerable systems. The unknown or unaddressed vulnerability is referred to as a zero-day vulnerability or zero-day threat. A Zero-Day Exploit is a cyberattack vector that takes advantage of this unknown or unaddressed security flaw. A zero-day attack is when a malicious actor uses a zero-day exploit to plant malware, steal data, or otherwise cause damage to users, organizations, or systems. Zero-day vulnerabilities—especially in widely-used operating systems or computing devices—are a severe security risk. They leave huge numbers of users or entire organizations wide open to cybercrime until the vendor or the cybersecurity community identifies the problem and releases a solution. A similar but separate concept, Zero-Day Malware, is a virus or malware for which the signature is unknown or as yet unavailable, and therefore undetectable by many antivirus software solutions or other signature-based threat detection technologies Source: Hindu Kaziranga National Park Syllabus Prelims – Environment Context: Assam’s Kaziranga National Park collects highest revenue in its 50-year history.The revenue collected by the authorities of Kaziranga National Park, from the tourists, touches ₹8.8 crore. Background: Kaziranga National park is sprinkled with elephant-grass meadows, swampy lagoons, and dense forests is home to more than 2200 Indian one-horned rhinoceros, approximately 2/3rd of their total world population. About Kaziranga National Park: Kaziranga National Park is a national park located in the Golaghat and Nagaon districts of the state of Assam, India. Located on the edge of the Eastern Himalaya biodiversity hotspot, the park combines high species diversity and visibility. The park is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It’s renowned for its population of the Indian one-horned rhinoceros, which is one of the main attractions for visitors. Kaziranga is also recognized as an Important Bird Area by BirdLife International for the conservation of avifaunal species. The park’s contribution in saving the Indian one-horned rhinoceros from the brink of extinction at the turn of the 20th century to harbouring the single largest population of this species is a spectacular conservation achievement. The park is spread over an area of 1,090 km² (420 sq mi) and is home to a large breeding population of elephants, wild water buffalo, and swamp deer. The Endangered Ganges dolphin is also found in some of the closed oxbow lakes. Over the time, the tiger population has also increased in Kaziranga, and that’s the reason why Kaziranga was declared as Tiger Reserve in 2006. Due to the difference in altitude between the eastern and western areas of the park, one can see mainly four types of vegetation like alluvial inundated grasslands, alluvial savanna woodlands, tropical moist mixed deciduous forests, and tropical semi-evergreen forests. Kumbhi, Indian gooseberry, the cotton tree, and elephant Apple are amongst the famous trees that can be seen in the park. It is criss-crossed by four major rivers, including the Brahmaputra. The park faces several challenges, including poaching, habitat loss due to human encroachment, and annual flooding from the Brahmaputra River. Efforts to mitigate these threats involve anti-poaching measures, community involvement, and habitat restoration projects. Source: Hindu SICKLE CELL DISEASE Syllabus Prelims – Science Context: Recently, a 12-year-old boy from USA, became the first person in the world with sickle cell disease to begin a commercially approved gene therapy that may cure the condition. Background: The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved a gene therapy called Casgevy, which represents a significant milestone in the treatment of sickle cell disease. About Sickle Cell Disease : Sickle cell disease is a group of inherited disorders that affect the hemoglobin, the protein that carries oxygen through the body. People with

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   CHABAHAR PORT Syllabus Prelims & Mains – Current Event , GS 2 Context: India and Iran signed a 10-year contract on Monday for the operation of a terminal at the strategically important Chabahar port in Iran. Background:- The long-term bilateral contract was signed between Indian Ports Global Limited (IPGL) and the Port & Maritime Organisation (PMO) of Iran, enabling the operation of the Shahid Beheshti terminal at the Chabahar Port for 10 years.The pact replaces one-year contracts that were being signed to keep the port operational until now. About CHABAHAR PORT Chabahar is a deep water port in Iran’s Sistan-Baluchistan province. It is the Iranian port that is the closest to India, and is located in the open sea, providing easy and secure access for large cargo ships. History and Progress Modern Chabahar came into being in the 1970s, and Tehran realised the strategic importance of the port during the Iran-Iraq war of the 1980s. In January 2003, President Khatami and then Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee signed off on an ambitious roadmap of strategic cooperation. Among the key projects the two countries agreed on was Chabahar, which held the potential to link South Asia with the Persian Gulf, Afghanistan, Central Asia, and Europe. The timelines for the project were undone by India’s growing relationship with the United States. The US, which declared Iran as one of the “axis of evil” along with Iraq and North Korea, pushed New Delhi to abandon its strategic relationship with Tehran, and the Chabahar project became a casualty. While India spent about $100 million to construct a 218-km road from Delaram in western Afghanistan to Zaranj on the Iran-Afghan border to link with Chabahar, the port project itself progressed at a glacial pace. IPGL (India Ports Global Ltd) has been operating Chabahar port through its wholly owned subsidiary, India Ports Global Chabahar Free Zone (IPGCFZ), since December 24, 2018. The port has handled more than 90,000 twenty-foot-equivalent units (TEUs) of container traffic and more than 8.4 million metric tonnes (MMT) of bulk and general cargo since then. Chabahar and INSTC To better realise Chabahar ports potential, the development of the port must be integrated with the larger connectivity project of the International North South Transport Corridor (INSTC). The INSTC, which was initiated by Russia, India, and Iran, is a multi-modal transportation route envisaged to link the Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf to the Caspian Sea via Iran, and onward to northern Europe via St Petersburg in Russia. Source:Indian Express XENOTRANSPLANTATION Syllabus Prelims – Current Event Context: The first recipient of a modified pig kidney transplant passed away on Saturday (May 11), around two months after the surgery was carried out. Background: Richard Slayman got the first modified pig kidney transplant in March this year. Key Takeaways Xenotransplantation, derived from the Greek word “xenos” meaning “foreign” or “strange”, is the transplantation of living cells, tissues, or organs from one species to another. The transplanted cells, tissues, or organs are referred to as xenografts or xenotransplants. This process is contrasted with allotransplantation (the transplantation from one individual to another of the same species with a different genotype), syngeneic transplantation or isotransplantation (transplants between two genetically identical individuals of the same species), and autotransplantation (transplants from one part of the body to another in the same person) Xenotransplantation involving the heart was first tried in humans in the 1980s. The need for such a procedure was felt because of the significant gap between the number of transplantations needed by patients and the availability of donor organs. It offers a potential treatment for end-stage organ failure. A report from the Harvard Medical School, whose physicians were involved in Slayman’s operation, said 69 genomic edits were made to the pig kidney in his case. The gene editing technology CRISPR-Cas9 was employed to “Remove certain pig genes that produce sugars with antibodies our immune systems react to” and “Add certain human genes to improve the kidney’s compatibility with humans.” Why are pigs often used for xenotransplantation? Pig heart valves have been used for replacing damaged valves in humans for over 50 years now. The pig’s anatomical and physiological parameters are similar to that of humans, and the breeding of pigs in farms is widespread and cost-effective. Also, many varieties of pig breeds are farmed, which provides an opportunity for the size of the harvested organs to be matched with the specific needs of the human recipient. In January 2022, the first xenotransplantation of a genetically-modified pig heart was done. However, the patient passed away after two months due to a range of factors, including being tainted with a latent virus in the pig heart, which may have contributed to the dysfunction of the transplant. Source: Indian Express 55 Cancri e Syllabus Prelims – Current Event Context: A thick atmosphere has been detected around a planet that’s twice as big as Earth in a nearby solar system, researchers reported Wednesday.The so-called super Earth — known as 55 Cancri e — is among the few rocky planets outside our solar system with a significant atmosphere, wrapped a blanket of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide. Background: Super Earth refers to a planet’s size — bigger than Earth but smaller than Neptune. The boiling temperatures on this planet — which can reach as hot as 4,200 degrees Fahrenheit – mean that it is unlikely to host life. About 55 Cancri e : 55 Cancri e, also known as Janssen, is an exoplanet that orbits a Sun-like host star, 55 Cancri A. The planet is located in our Milky Way galaxy about 41 light-years from Earth, in the constellation Cancer.A light year is the distance light travels in a year, 5.9 trillion miles (9.5 trillion km). Four other planets, all gas giants, are known to orbit its host star. It was discovered on August 30, 2004. It was the first super-Earth discovered around a main sequence star. The mass of the exoplanet is about eight Earth masses and its diameter is about

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   INDIA VOLATILITY INDEX (VIX) Syllabus Prelims – Economy Context: India VIX, which is an indicator of the market’s expectation of volatility over the near term, surged past the 21 mark on Tuesday (May 14). Background:- The rise shows that fear among traders or market participants on the expected volatility is more now, as compared to 15 days earlier. Currently, the fear among the market players is coming from the outcome of the ongoing Lok Sabha elections. About INDIA VOLATILITY INDEX (VIX) The Volatility Index, VIX or the Fear Index, is a measure of the market’s expectation of volatility over the near term. Volatility is often described as the ‘rate and magnitude of changes in prices’ and in finance often referred to as risk. Usually, during periods of market volatility, the market moves steeply up or down and the volatility index tends to rise. As volatility subsides, the Volatility Index declines. The Volatility Index is a measure of the amount by which an underlying index is expected to fluctuate in the near term, (calculated as annualised volatility, denoted in percentage e.g. 20 per cent) based on the order book of the underlying index options. India VIX is a volatility index computed by the NSE based on the order book of NIFTY Options. For this, the best bid-ask quotes of near and next-month NIFTY options contracts, which are traded on the F&O segment of NSE are used. India VIX indicates the investor’s perception of the market’s volatility in the near term i.e. it depicts the expected market volatility over the next 30 calendar days. The higher the India VIX values, the higher the expected volatility and vice versa, as per NSE. In May so far, the India VIX has risen by around 53 per cent to above 20. On Tuesday, the index touched a high of 21.88 in afternoon trades. The India VIX has risen amid concerns over the results of the ongoing elections. The market participants said a lower voter turnout ratio in this election may have some impact on the BJP’s seat count. Additional Information The Chicago Board of Options Exchange (CBOE) was the first to introduce the volatility index for the US markets in 1993 based on S&P 100 Index option prices. In 2003, the methodology was revised and the new volatility index was based on S&P 500 Index options. ‘VIX’ is a trademark of the CBOE, and Standard & Poor’s has granted a license to NSE, with permission from the CBOE, to use such a mark in the name of the India VIX and for purposes relating to the India VIX Source: Indian Express FLiRT Syllabus Prelims – Current Event Context: The new coronavirus variant called KP.2 — nicknamed FLiRT — that has been linked to rising cases of Covid-19 in the United States, United Kingdom, and South Korea, has been in circulation in India since November 2023, genomic surveillance data show. Background: About 250 KP.2 sequences have been reported so far by INSACOG, the country’s genome sequencing consortium. Key Takeaways 2 is a descendant of the JN.1 variant of the virus. It is a sub-variant of the Omicron lineage with new mutations. FLiRT, the nickname of KP.2, is based on the letters representing two immune escape mutations that allow the virus to evade antibodies. FLiRT is characterised by its ability to evade immunity from vaccines and previous infections. Its symptoms are similar to those of earlier variants, including fever, cough, fatigue, and digestive issues. The US Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) notes that there are currently no indicators suggesting that KP.2 would cause more severe illness than other strains. However, FLiRT has a heightened transmission rate and, like its parent JN.1, it is likely to drive a wave of infections. Also, the infections are likely to spread silently — because without severe symptoms, most people are unlikely to get themselves tested. India’s Case A little more than half of the 250 KP.2 genomes sequenced by INSACOG — 128 sequences — were from Maharashtra. The highest number of KP.2 sequences were found in March. India has been reporting the highest proportion of KP.2 sequences in the world, global data show. 2 sequences made up 29% of Covid-19 sequences uploaded by India to the Global Initiative on Sharing All Influenza Data (GISAID), the world’s largest repository of these sequences, over the last 60 days. However, JN.1 continues to be the dominant variant of SARS-CoV-2 in the country. Source: Indian Express CONSUMER PROTECTION ACT 2019 Syllabus Prelims – Polity Context: The Supreme Court ruled on Tuesday that advocates cannot be held liable under the Consumer Protection Act of 1986 for deficiency in service. The court ruled that a complaint to this effect against an advocate was not maintainable before a consumer forum. Background: The Supreme Court overturned a 2007 ruling by the National Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission (NCDRC) which said services provided by lawyers fell under the Consumer Protection Act. About CONSUMER PROTECTION ACT 2019 : The Act was enacted on August 9, 2019, and came into force in July 2020, replacing the previous Consumer Protection Act, 1986. It was introduced in response to the evolving needs of consumers in the digital age, and aims to provide timely and effective administration and settlement of consumer disputes. Salient Features Defining “E-commerce” and expanding the scope of “Consumer”: As compared to CPA 1986, the definition of “Consumer” has been broadened under CPA 2019 .E-commerce has been specifically mentioned and is defined as buying and selling of goods/services/digital products online. Unfair contracts: Earlier, a consumer could file a complaint only for an unfair trade practice or restrictive trade practice adopted by the trader/service provider. However, there were numerous instances where consumers, left with little option, entered into agreements/contracts that were unilateral and arbitrary in nature. Thus, to protect the interests of these consumers, “unfair contracts” has been added as a ground for filing complaints in the present Act. Place of filing complaints: CPA 1986 required consumers to file complaints (in Forums) only at

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   POLLING STATIONS Syllabus Prelims – Polity Context:  During the ongoing Lok Sabha elections, 96.8 crore electors are enrolled to vote at 10.5 lakh polling stations spread out nationwide. Background:- The list of polling stations undergoes verification and updation during annual electoral roll revisions. Key Takeaways Under Section 25 of the Representation of the People Act, 1951 (RPA), the district election officer (DEO) is assigned the responsibility to set up and publish the list of polling stations in their district. Setting up polling stations: norms and principles There are some principles on the basis of which polling stations are set up. These include ensuring that voters do not have to travel more than two km to cast their vote, a station has a minimum area of 20 sq m, a station serves at most 1,500 electors, and a village with over 300 voters is provided with a polling station. These principles, however, are not set in stone. Polling stations can even cater to less than 300 voters in case access is a problem, say in rugged terrain. For instance, Arunachal Pradesh’s Malogam polling station caters to only a single voter. Conversely, in cases where the number of electors exceeds 1,500, auxiliary polling stations are set up, preferably in the same building. In urban areas, one building can have a maximum of four polling stations, whereas in rural areas, it can have at most two. Locations for polling stations are chosen carefully, preferably in government or semi-government institutions. Private buildings are avoided unless absolutely necessary — they can be requisitioned with the written consent of the owner, or forcefully under Section 160 of the RPA. Layout and some facilities There are separate entrance and exit points for voters, even if only one door is available. This is done with temporary fencing using bamboo and ropes. The voting compartment, constructed from opaque corrugated plastic sheet or steel grey flex board, measures at least 24 x 24 x 30 inches (length × width × height), and is positioned away from windows or doors. People inside a polling station, voting day restrictions Only specific individuals are permitted access inside a polling station. These include registered electors, polling officers, candidates, one polling agent per candidate at a time, authorised media personnel, public servants on election duty, ECI-appointed observers, micro observers, videographers, photographers, and webcasting staff for critical/sensitive polling stations, a child in arms accompanying an elector, a person assisting a blind or infirm voter, and any others admitted by the Presiding Officer for voter identification or assistance purposes, whenever required. A polling party comprises a Presiding Officer and three Polling Officers. The first Polling Officer verifies the elector’s identity, the second applies indelible ink on their left index finger, maintains the voters’ register, and issues voter slips. The third Polling Officer takes back the voter slip issued by the second polling officer, manages the EVM’s control unit, and ensures that an elector has been properly inked before being allowed to vote. There is also a prohibition on any political propaganda, use of cameras, mobile phones, and canvassing within a 100 metre radius of the polling station, with a penalty of arrest without warrant under Section 130 of the RPA. Candidates can set up their booths beyond 200 m of the polling station, and there are also restriction on the use of loudspeakers. Source: Indian Express MERCURY POLLUTION Syllabus Prelims – Environment Context: The Governments of Albania, Burkina Faso, India, Montenegro and Uganda have united to combat chemical pollution, launching a $134-million “Phasing out mercury measuring devices in healthcare project” to eliminate the use of mercury in medical devices. Background: Mercury is one of the top 10 chemicals of major public health concern, according to WHO. Released to the environment from a variety of human activities, it is transported around the globe and bioaccumulates in the food chain.People are exposed to mercury primarily through eating contaminated fish or breathing mercury vapour directly.Children, infants and fetuses are at the highest risk because of their developing nervous systems. About Mercury Mercury is a chemical element symbolized by Hg on the periodic table. It’s the only common metal that is liquid at ordinary temperatures.It’s heavy, silvery-white, and slowly tarnishes in moist air. Mercury Pollution Mercury occurs naturally in the earth’s crust, but human activities, such as mining and fossil fuel combustion, have led to widespread global mercury pollution. Mercury is a persistent, bioaccumulative, toxic pollutant. When released into the environment, it accumulates in water laid sediments where it converts into toxic methylmercury and enters the food chain. Mercury contamination is a significant public health and environmental problem because methylmercury easily enters the bloodstream and affects the brain. Mercury is introduced into the environment in three ways. First, mercury is emitted into the air naturally from volcanoes, the weathering of rocks, forest fires, and soils. Second, mercury is emitted into the air from the burning of fossil fuels and municipal or medical waste. Lastly, mercury can be re-introduced into the environment through natural processes such as evaporation of ocean water. Human exposure to mercury occurs from eating fish and shellfish contaminated with methylmercury. Mercury can also be found in beauty products, particularly skin-lightening creams, but also eye make-up and eye-cleansing products6. Globally, artisanal and small-scale gold mining is the largest source of anthropogenic mercury emissions (37.7%), followed by stationary combustion of coal (21%) Medical thermometers and sphygmomanometers (devices which measure blood pressure) contain mercury and are harmless as long as they remain intact. However, when these devices break or are taken out of service, the mercury they contain can escape into the environment where it vaporises, exposing health care workers and patients to harmful fumes. Inhalation can cause damage to the lungs, kidneys and nervous system, while the waste generated can contaminate the immediate area of the spill, as well as a facility’s wastewater. Phasing out mercury measuring devices in healthcare project Led by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), with funding from the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and executed by

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   RUSSIA Syllabus Prelims – Geography Context: Presidents Vladimir Putin and Xi Jinping met at the historic Great Hall of the People, seat of power of the Chinese Communist Party, on Thursday (May 16), where a welcome ceremony for Russia’s leader included a guard of honour by China’s People’s Liberation Army (PLA). Background:- Putin’s two-day visit to China comes when Russia has taken a firm grip on the course of the war in Ukraine. Xi has just returned from a tour of Europe where he met with the President of France, as well as the leaders of Hungary and Serbia, both of whom are friends with Putin. About Russia Russia or the Russian Federation is a country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia. It is the largest country in the world by area, extending across eleven time zones and sharing land borders with fourteen countries. Russia is bounded to the north and east by the Arctic and Pacific oceans, and it has small frontages in the northwest on the Baltic Sea at St. Petersburg and at the detached Russian oblast (region) of Kaliningrad (a part of what was once East Prussia annexed in 1945), which also abuts Poland and Lithuania. To the south Russia borders North Korea, China, Mongolia, and Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, and Georgia. To the southwest and west it borders Ukraine, Belarus, Latvia, and Estonia, as well as Finland and Norway. Russia has a maximum east-west extent of some 5,600 miles (9,000 km) and a north-south width of 1,500 to 2,500 miles (2,500 to 4,000 km). It is the world’s ninth-most populous country and Europe’s most populous country. Russia is a highly urbanized country consisting of 16 population centers with over million inhabitants. Its capital as well as its largest city is Moscow. Saint Petersburg is Russia’s second-largest city and cultural capital. Once the preeminent republic of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R.; commonly known as the Soviet Union), Russia became an independent country after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in December 1991. Russia has been militarily involved in a number of conflicts in former Soviet states and other countries, including its war with Georgia in 2008 and annexation of Crimea in 2014 from neighbouring Ukraine, followed by the further annexation of four other regions in 2022 during an ongoing invasion. Russia possesses the largest stockpile of nuclear weapons and has the third-highest military expenditure. The country is a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council; a member state of the G20, SCO, BRICS, APEC, OSCE, and WTO; and the leading member state of post-Soviet organisations such as CIS, CSTO, and EAEU/EEU. Russia contains Europe’s longest river, the Volga, and its largest lake, Ladoga. Russia also is home to the world’s deepest lake, Baikal, and the country recorded the world’s lowest temperature outside the North and South poles. There is an enormous variety of landforms and landscapes, which occur mainly in a series of broad latitudinal belts. Arctic deserts lie in the extreme north, giving way southward to the tundra and then to the forest zones, which cover about half of the country and give it much of its character. On the basis of geologic structure and relief, Russia can be divided into two main parts—western and eastern—roughly along the line of the Yenisey River. In the western section, which occupies some two-fifths of Russia’s total area, lowland plains predominate over vast areas broken only by low hills and plateaus. In the eastern section the bulk of the terrain is mountainous, although there are some extensive lowlands. Given these topological factors, Russia may be subdivided into six main relief regions: the Kola-Karelian region, the Russian Plain, the Ural Mountains, the West Siberian Plain, the Central Siberian Plateau, and the mountains of the south and east. Source: Britannica CHAR DHAM YATRA Syllabus Prelims – Current Event Context: With nearly twice the number of pilgrims embarking on the Char Dham yatra in Uttarakhand since it commenced on May 10, the state government has reported the death of 11 pilgrims in the first five days. Background: The pilgrimage to Yamunotri, Gangotri, and Kedarnath Dham commenced on May 10, while the doors to Badrinath Dham opened on May 12. Over 1.55 lakh pilgrims have already journeyed to Kedarnath, over 70,000 to Yamunotri, and over 63,000 to Gangotri. Within just three days, Badrinath Dham has welcomed over 45,000 pilgrims. About CHAR DHAM YATRA The Chota Char Dham Yatra is a significant pilgrimage in India, particularly in the state of Uttarakhand, also known as Devbhoomi or the Land of Gods. The term ‘Char Dham’ in Hindi translates to ‘four religious destinations’. This Yatra or pilgrimage is a tour of four holy sites nestled high up in the Himalayas.The pilgrimage sites are Yamunotri and Gangotri in Uttarkashi district, Kedarnath in Rudraprayag and Badrinath in Chamoli. While Kedarnath is the highest at around 11,700 ft, Gangotri is the lowest at around 10,200 ft. Yamunotri: The Yamunotri temple is lodged in a narrow gorge close to the source of River Yamuna, the second-most sacred Indian river after River Ganga, in Uttarkashi district. It is dedicated to Goddess Yamuna. Gangotri: Located in the Uttarkashi district, Gangotri is dedicated to Goddess Ganga, the most sacred of all Indian rivers. Kedarnath: Located in the Rudraprayag district, Kedarnath is dedicated to Lord Shiva. Badrinath: Home to the sacred Badrinarayan Temple, Badrinath is dedicated to Lord Vishnu. The Yatra is believed to be completed in a clockwise direction, starting from Yamunotri, proceeding towards Gangotri, onto Kedarnath, and finally ending at Badrinath. The high-altitude shrines remain shut for around six months every year, opening in summers (April or May) and closing with the onset of winter (October or November). Some devotees even do a Do Dham Yatra or a pilgrimage to two shrines – Kedarnath and Badrinath. Additional Information: The Char Dham Yatra in India comprises Chota Char Dham and the Bada Char Dham. While the Chota Char Dham involves four sacred sites—Yamunotri, Gangotri, Kedarnath, and Badrinath—nestled in the picturesque Himalayan peaks, the Bada Char Dham consists of four dhams of utmost significance—Badrinath, Rameswaram, Puri, and Dwarka. Source: Indian Express NATIONAL PHARMACEUTICAL PRICING AUTHORITY (NPPA) Syllabus Prelims – Current Event Context: The National Pharmaceutical Pricing Authority (NPPA) has announced a lowering of retail prices for 41 essential drugs and revised ceiling rates of seven scheduled formulations. Background: The revision of ceiling prices is a routine exercise undertaken by the NPPA. About NATIONAL PHARMACEUTICAL PRICING AUTHORITY (NPPA) : NPPA was constituted by the Government of India in 1997 as an attached office of the

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   FUTURES & OPTIONS TRADING Syllabus Prelims – Economy Context: A frenzied growth in India’s equity options market, which clocked a record 85 billion trades last year and accounted for 84 percent of all equity option contracts traded in 2023, is unnerving policymakers and regulators. Background:- Retail investors now make up over 35 percent of options trades, undeterred by the fact that 9 out of 10 individual traders in the equity futures and options (F&O) segment are recorded to have incurred losses. About FUTURES & OPTIONS TRADING Futures and options are two types of financial derivatives that derive their value from an underlying asset such as shares, stock market indices, commodities, ETFs, and more. Futures Futures are contracts that obligate the buyer to purchase a specific asset, and the seller to sell and deliver that asset, at a specific future date. They are typically used to hedge against risk or for speculation. Key Features: Standardization: Futures contracts are standardized in terms of contract size, expiration date, and other details, facilitating easy trading on exchanges. Obligation: Both parties in a futures contract are obligated to fulfill the contract at expiration. This means the buyer must purchase, and the seller must sell the asset at the agreed-upon price. Margin Requirements: Traders must maintain a margin account, which requires an initial margin (a percentage of the contract’s value) and maintenance margin (minimum balance to keep the position open). Options Options, on the other hand, give the buyer (of an options) the right, but not the obligation, to buy (or sell) an asset at a specific price at any time during the life of the contract. They are often used for hedging, speculation, or arbitrage. Key Features: Types: There are two types of options: call and put. A call option confers the right to buy a stock at the strike price before the agreement expires. A put option gives the holder the right to sell a stock at a specific price. Right, Not Obligation: The buyer has the right but is not obligated to exercise the option.The seller, however, has the obligation to fulfill the contract if the buyer exercises the option. Premium: The buyer of an option pays a premium to the seller for this right. The premium is the price of the option. Strike Price: This is the price at which the option holder can buy (call) or sell (put) the underlying asset. Expiration Date: Options have a finite life and must be exercised on or before their expiration date. Here are some key differences between futures and options: Obligation: A futures contract requires a buyer to purchase the underlying security or commodity—and a seller to sell it—on a specific future date, unless the holder’s position is closed earlier. An options contract, however, gives an investor the right, but not the obligation, to buy (or sell) shares at a specified price at any time before the contract’s expiration. Risk: Futures contracts carry a high level of risk because they require the holder to buy or sell the asset in the future, regardless of its current market price. Options contracts, on the other hand, limit potential loss to the cost of the option premium. Cost:Futures require margin and can involve significant capital commitment.Options require the payment of a premium, which is generally lower than the margin for futures. Source: Indian Express CHIR PINE Syllabus Prelims – Environment Context: As forest fires rage through Uttarakhand, the chir pine with its inflammable leaves or needles has been in the news for less benign reasons. Background: After a government ban in 1981 on felling of trees over 1,000 mt above sea level, the chir got an opportunity to spread lower in the foothills where the sal grows and above too, among the broad-leaved trees because it’s the nature of the chir to colonise. About CHIR PINE A conifer that can grow up to a height of about 30 metres, the chir pine covers almost 16.5 per cent of Uttarakhand’s total forested area. It owes its scientific name, Pinus roxburghii, to William Roxburgh, a Scottish doctor and naturalist, who went on to become superintendent of the East India Company’s botanic garden at Calcutta and who is widely regarded as the father of Indian botany. Native to the Himalayas, chir pine or the longleaf Indian pine, was not introduced to the Himalayas by the British, as is often believed, though they certainly gave it preference for its commercial use, mainly lumber and resin. Found all over the Western Himalayas at an elevation between 1,000 and 2,000 metres, it covers large parts of Garhwal and Kumaon where it can be seen growing on steep slopes and can be identified by its three needles and its round cone (unlike the elongated cones of other pines). Chir Pine does not allow any vegetation to grow around it as it makes the soil more acidic through its fallen needles. The accumulating carpet of needles on the forest floor under these trees makes conditions unfavourable for many common plants and trees to grow A few years ago, the Uttarakhand government had considered cutting pine trees to combat forest fires, an idea it later abandoned. For the short-term and long-term management of the forests in Uttarakhand, the dense chir pine forest, more like monocultures, must be converted into mixed forests. More broad-leaf species should be promoted and the dense chir pine forests should be effectively managed and their wood used. The state could effectively manage the chir forests and earn some revenue as well. The needles of chir falling onto the forest floor both suppressed the grass and rendered the hillside dangerous for cattle. Thus, in late April or early May, villagers resorted to the time-honoured remedy of fire to obtain a fresh crop of grass. Steps taken by the British to stop this practice often sparked popular protests. While its needles tend to catch fire easily because of their high resin content, the bark of the tree doesn’t catch fire easily since it has a very high