Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   India Employment Report 2024 Syllabus Prelims & Mains – Economy Context: The India Employment Report 2024, prepared jointly by the Human Development and the International Labour Organization, was released recently. Background:- It has analysed trends and patterns of the Indian labour market for two decades, including the COVID-19 years, and listed the “emerging characteristics of the employment challenges now confronting the economy as well as the impact of growth on employment.” key findings Basic long-term feature of the employment situation in the country continues to be insufficient growth of the non-farm sectors and the ability of these sectors to absorb workers from agriculture. India’s working-age population (aged 15–59) increased from 61% in 2011 to 64% in 2021 and is projected to reach 65% in 2036.About 7-8 million young people are added each year to the labour force. The authors warn that unemployment in the country is “predominantly a problem among youth”, especially those with a secondary level of education or higher, and that it has intensified over time. In 2022, the share of unemployed youth in the total unemployed population was 82.9%,” report noted, adding that the share of educated youth among all unemployed people also increased, from 54.2% in 2000 to 65.7% in 2022. Also, among the educated (secondary level or higher) unemployed youth, women accounted for a larger share (76.7%) than men (62.2%). There is a significant gender gap in the labour market, with low rates of female labour force participation. The gender gap in the LFPR has remained almost consistent over the past two decades. In 2022, the LFPR of young men (at 61.2%) was almost three times higher than that of young women (at 21.7%), and the gender gap was similar in both rural and urban areas. The ILO and IHD stated that the jobs remained low-productive and low-earning. Real wages and earnings showed a decline or had stagnated. While India’s large young workforce is a demographic dividend, the report noted that they don’t appear to have the skills to deliver — with 75% of youth unable to send emails with attachments, 60% unable to copy and paste files, and 90% unable to put a mathematical formula into a spreadsheet. Reports Recommendations: Make production and growth more employment-intensive. Improve the quality of jobs. Make systems for skills training and active labour market policies more effective. Bridge the deficits in knowledge on labour market patterns and youth employment. Integrating employment creation with macro and other economic policies to boost productive non-farm employment. Micro, small and medium-sized enterprises must be supported and decentralised. The ILO and IHD recommended that measures such as crafting policies to boost women’s participation in the labour market including larger provision for institutional care facilities, adaptable work arrangements, improved public transport, improved amenities and enhanced workplace safety must be taken in mission mode to address this gender gap in employment. Source: The Hindu Ladakh’s residents on a hunger strike Syllabus Prelims & Mains – Polity Context: On March 6, in Leh, Sonam Wangchuk, Ladakh’s famous educationist and environmentalist, began a 21-day hunger strike.The strike was in support of thousands of Ladakh residents who have been demanding safeguards under the Sixth Schedule of the Indian Constitution.Mr. Wangchuk discontinued his hunger strike on March 26; it is currently being continued by women in Leh. If their demands stay unmet, the youth, monks, and the elderly have said they will join the hunger strike as well, in phases. Background: In August 2019, the State of Jammu and Kashmir was split into two UTs: Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh. It ended people’s exclusive rights on land and jobs.Under the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019, Ladakh became a UT without a legislature. Why a hunger strike Residents of Ladakh says that the UT is administered by a Lieutenant Governor, who is a not a Ladakh resident.Several bureaucrats in key positions, influencing decisions for the region’s future, were also not residents of Ladakh. Further the existing Ladakh Autonomous Hill Development Councils (LAHDCs) in Leh and Kargil were rendered powerless after the national government declared Ladakh a UT. The draft Ladakh Industrial Land Allotment Policy 2023 is a case in point. While the LAHDCs have the powers to make decisions on land use and its management, the draft policy, which has been designed to attract investments in Ladakh, completely excludes them from having any powers related to land allotment- and lease-related decision-making. Protestors contend that Sixth Schedule could help tackle these issues because it enables the establishment of regional and district councils with the authority to make laws regarding land use for grazing, agriculture, residential purposes, and towards other purposes that cater to the residents’ interests. Considering more than 97% of Ladakh’s population of over 2.74 lakh (2011 Census) is tribal, the National Commission for Scheduled Tribes recommended in 2019 that Ladakh be brought under the Sixth Schedule. Source: The Hindu X- CLASS SOLAR FLARE Syllabus Prelims- Current Event Context: Earth was recently hit by an X-class solar flare that was strong enough to ionize part of the planet’s atmosphere. Background: This intense solar outburst was detected by satellites from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), specifically their Space Weather Prediction Center. About X- CLASS SOLAR FLARE The Solar flares are massive eruptions of charged particles on the sun. They emit intense bursts of electromagnetic radiation. These flares come in various intensities, with smaller A-class and C-class flares denoting relatively minor events. In contrast, the stronger M-class flares can amplify the auroras visible on Earth. The X-class flares are the most powerful type of solar flares. Effects X-class Solar Flares on Earth Geomagnetic Storms: X-class flares release an immense amount of energy, including charged particles and electromagnetic radiation. When these particles reach Earth, they interact with our planet’s magnetosphere, causing geomagnetic storms. During a severe geomagnetic storm, the magnetosphere weakens temporarily, allowing solar radiation to penetrate deeper into the atmosphere. Satellite Disruption: Long-lasting radiation storms from X-class flares can harm satellites orbiting Earth. Satellites may experience malfunctions or even permanent damage due

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   Vaikom Satyagraha Syllabus Prelims & Mains – History Context: Hundred years happened since the famous Vaikom Satyagraha-the first among temple entry movements. Background:- Vaikom, a temple town in the princely state of Travancore, saw the start of a non-violent agitation on March 30, 1924 — the first among temple entry movements that would soon sweep across the country. About Vaikom satyagraha The princely state of Travancore had a feudal, militaristic, and ruthless system of custom-ridden government. The idea of caste pollution worked not only on the basis of touch but also sight — lower castes were forbidden entry to any “pure” place, such as temples and the roads surrounding them. The second half of the 19th century, Travancore saw several social and political developments ushering in unprecedented social change. First, Christian missionaries converted large sections of lower castes seeking to escape the clutches of caste oppression. Second, the reign of Maharaja Ayilyam Thirunal Rama Varma (1860-80) saw many progressive reforms, such as universal free primary education — including for the lower castes. While religion and custom remained pervasive, the absolute material and intellectual deprivations of lower castes did not continue. The Ezhavas, in particular, emerged as the most educated and organised untouchable community in Travancore. While a small Ezhava elite had started to emerge, in many cases, the ritual discrimination, overrode material and educational progress. The issue of temple entry was first raised by Ezhava leader T K Madhavan in a 1917 editorial in his paper Deshabhimani. It was the entry of the Indian National Congress into the picture that changed the dynamics. Madhavan met Gandhi in 1921, and secured the Mahatma’s support for a mass agitation to enter temples. In the 1923 session of the INC in Kakinada, a resolution was passed by the Kerala Provincial Congress Committee to take up anti-untouchability as a key issue. This was followed by a massive public messaging campaign and a movement to open Hindu temples and all public roads to avarnas. Vaikom, with its revered Shiva temple, was chosen as the location for the very first satyagraha. Madhavan and other leaders took the strategic decision to initially focus on opening up the four roads around the temple — not the temple itself — to avarnas.They were promptly stopped and arrested. So, the next morning, another three men entered the forbidden roads and courted arrest. This went on every day — until the police stopped making arrests and barricaded the whole area instead. From then through September, protesters sat in front of the barricades, fasting and singing patriotic songs. Leaders such as Periyar and C Rajagopalachari came to Vaikom to offer support and lead the protesters. At the same time, counter-agitations raged on. In March 1925, Gandhi was finally able to iron out a compromise: three out of the four roads surrounding the temples were opened up for everyone, but the fourth (eastern) road was kept reserved for brahmins. This was finally implemented in November 1925, when the government completed diversionary roads that could be used by the low castes “without polluting the temple”. The last satyagrahi was recalled from Vaikom on November 23, 1925. The Vaikom satyagraha was a remarkable movement, which sustained itself for over 600 days, amidst hostile social forces, police crackdowns, and one of the worst floods in the town’s history in 1924. The final compromise disappointed many. Famously, Periyar, who had envisioned a far more spectacular outcome, fell out with Gandhi over the issue. In November 1936, the Maharaja of Travancore signed the historic Temple Entry Proclamation which removed the age-old ban on the entry of marginalised castes into the temples of the state.This, along with the demonstration of Gandhian methods of civil disobedience as effective tools of protest, was the great success of the Vaikom satyagraha. Source: The Indian Express Havana syndrome Syllabus Prelims – Current Event Context: Russia dismissed a joint media investigation which found evidence that a Russian military intelligence unit might be responsible for the mysterious health condition known as ‘Havana syndrome’ that affected US diplomats and spies across the world. Background: Havana syndrome typically involves symptoms such as hearing certain sounds without any outside noise, nausea, vertigo and headaches, memory loss, and balance issues. About Havana syndrome Havana syndrome refers to a set of mental health symptoms that are said to be experienced by United States intelligence and embassy officials in various countries. Generally, the word ‘syndrome’ simply means a set of symptoms. It does not mean a unique medical condition, but rather a set of symptoms that are usually experienced together whose origins may be difficult to confirm. Havana syndrome typically involves symptoms such as hearing certain sounds without any outside noise, nausea, vertigo and headaches, memory loss, and balance issues. As the name suggests, it traces its roots to Cuba in late 2016. This was about a year after the US opened its embassy in the capital city of Havana after ties between the two countries were normalised in 2015. Some US intelligence officials and members of the staff at the embassy began experiencing sudden bursts of pressure in their brains followed by persistent headaches, feelings of disorientation and insomnia. Since the Cuban incident, American intelligence and foreign affairs officials posted in various countries have reported symptoms of the syndrome. What did the investigation find? The investigation claims that members of a Russian military intelligence unit, called 29155, could have targeted the brains of US officials by using “directed energy” weapons. The 29155 unit, which has been operational for more than a decade, has been previously accused of carrying out foreign assassination, subversion, and sabotage. What are the causes of Havana syndrome? Study by scientists in the US and examination of the victims began to suggest that they may have been subjected to high-powered microwaves that either damaged or interfered with the nervous system. It was said to have built pressure inside the brain that generated the feeling of a sound being heard. Greater exposure to high-powered microwaves is said not only to interfere with the

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   Kerala-Centre dispute over States’ borrowing powers Syllabus Prelims & Mains – Polity Context: The Supreme Court on Monday declined any interim relief to Kerala in its suit seeking that the Union government relax its borrowing restrictions to enable the State to borrow additional funds. Background:- Kerala moved the top Court last year accusing the Union government of arbitrarily imposing a Net Borrowing Ceiling (NBC) on the State, which brought it to the brink of a financial crisis as it could not no longer pay salaries and pensions or fulfil other essential financial commitments. Fiscal autonomy under the Constitution Article 293 of the Constitution permits States to borrow only from within the territory of India on a guarantee from the consolidated fund of the State and within such limits as outlined by the legislatures of each State. The subject “Public Debt of the State” finds mention in Entry 43 of the State List of the Constitution and thus the Parliament cannot legislate or administer upon such matters. If a State wishes to borrow from the Centre, then such a transaction will be regulated by the FRBM Act, 2023. Pertinently, under Article 293(3), the State has to obtain the consent of the Centre to raise “any loan,” if “any part of the previous loan” extended by the Centre is outstanding. The NBC has been imposed by invoking the powers of the Centre under this provision. About Net Borrowing Ceiling (NBC) The NBC imposes a limitation on borrowings of a State from all sources including open market borrowings. The Union government decided to deduct liabilities arising from the public account of the States to arrive at such a cap. Additionally, borrowings by State-owned enterprises, where the principal and/or interest are serviced out of the Budget or through assignment of taxes, cess or any other State revenue, are also deducted from the NBC. The NBC for States is fixed at 3% of the Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) or ₹8,59,988 crore in absolute terms for the Financial Year (FY) 2023-24 as recommended by the 15th Finance Commission. Source: The Hindu Heat Waves Syllabus Prelims & Mains – Climate Change Context: The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) announced that India will see more than average heat wave days in this year’s hot weather season (April to June). Background: The announcement comes even as India is already struggling to keep up with its power demand, which increases significantly during summer season. About Heat wave: A period of abnormally high temperatures is called a heat wave. The IMD declares a heat wave if the maximum temperature of a weather station reaches at least 40 degrees C in the plains and at least 30 degrees C in hilly regions, with a departure of around 4.5-6.4 degrees C from the normal maximum temperature. The IMD can also declare a heat wave if the actual maximum temperature crosses 45 degrees C, and a ‘severe heat wave’ if it crosses 47 degrees C. Qualitatively, a heat wave can also occur when the temperature of the air becomes fatal to the human body. Heat waves in India are typically recorded between March and June, and tend to peak in May. A study published in the journal PLOS Climate in April 2023 found heat waves all over the world are getting more “recurrent, intense and lethal” due to climate change. Heat waves can make people ill, lower agricultural output, trigger water scarcity, increase energy demand, and affect ecosystems and air quality. Source: The Hindu CLEAN ENERGY TRANSITION PROGRAMME (CETP) Syllabus Prelims – Current Event Context: Recently, the International Energy Agency (IEA) launched the Clean Energy Transitions Programme annual report 2023. Background: The CETP Annual Report 2023 provides an in-depth overview of the program’s accomplishments during the past year. About Clean Energy Transitions Programme (CETP) The Clean Energy Transitions Programme (CETP) is launched by the International Energy Agency (IEA) in 2017. It is a flagship initiative aimed at accelerating progress toward a global net-zero energy system. It leverages the insights and influence of the world’s leading energy authority to accelerate clean energy transitions, particularly in emerging and developing economies. Three Pillars of Activity: Setting Transition Goals: The first pillar assists emerging and developing countries in establishing clean energy transition goals aligned with the Paris Agreement and UN Sustainable Development Goals. Multilateral Coordination: The second pillar facilitates collaboration among organizations like the Group of 20 (G20) and UN-affiliated bodies. Global-Level Support: The third pillar enables and accelerates clean energy transitions globally. Source: IEA MOHINIYATTAM Syllabus Prelims – Art & Culture Context: Recently, Kerala Kalamandalam, a prestigious deemed university for arts and culture, has lifted gender restrictions for boys to learn Mohiniyattam. Background: This historic move was unanimously approved during the governing council meeting of the Kalamandalam. Starting from the next academic year, boys will be eligible for admission to the Mohiniyattam course, which was previously restricted to female students. About MOHINIYATTAM Mohiniyattam is an Indian classical dance form that originated in the state of Kerala. It derives its name from the word ‘Mohini’, a female avatar of Lord Vishnu. Its roots date back to the age-old Sanskrit Hindu text on performing arts called ‘Natya Shastra’. Mohiniyattam used to be performed by Devadasis (temple dancers) in temples during the rule of the Chera kings from 9 to 12 C.E. The dance form developed further as a performing art during the 18th and 19th centuries due to the patronage of several princely states. Features It is conventionally a solo dance performed by female artists. It adheres to the Lasya type that showcases a more graceful, gentle, and feminine form of dancing. It emotes a play through dancing and singing, where the song is customarily in Manipravala, which is a mix of Sanskrit and Malayalam language. The dance is characterized by its graceful swaying body movements with no abrupt jerks or sudden leaps. More than the footwork, emphasis is given to hand gestures and Mukhabhinaya or subtle facial expressions. The hand gestures, 24 in number, are mainly adopted from ‘Hastha Lakshana

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   Ring of Fire Syllabus Prelims & Mains – Geography Context: Nine people died and more than 800 got injured in Taiwan after the island was hit by its biggest earthquake in at least 25 years Background:- Notably, Taiwan is prone to earthquakes as it lies along the Pacific “Ring of Fire” — where 90% of the world’s earthquakes take place. The island and its surrounding waters have registered about 2,000 earthquakes with a magnitude of 4.0 or greater since 1980, and more than 100 earthquakes with a magnitude above 5.5. Ring of Fire The Ring of Fire is essentially a string of hundreds of volcanoes and earthquake-sites which runs along the Pacific Ocean. It is a semicircle or horse shoe in shape and stretches nearly 40,250 kilometres. The Ring of Fire traces the meeting points of numerous tectonic plates, including the Eurasian, North American, Juan de Fuca, Cocos, Caribbean, Nazca, Antarctic, Indian, Australian, Philippine, and other smaller plates, which all encircle the large Pacific Plate. It runs through 15 more countries including the USA, Indonesia, Mexico, Japan, Canada, Guatemala, Russia, Chile, Peru, and the Philippines. Why is the Ring of Fire vulnerable to earthquakes? The Ring of Fire witnesses so many earthquakes due to constant sliding past, colliding into, or moving above or below each other of the tectonic plates. As the edges of these plates are quite rough, they get stuck with one another while the rest of the plate keeps moving. An earthquake occurs when the plate has moved far enough and the edges unstick on one of the faults. Taiwan experiences earthquakes due to the interactions of two tectonic plates — the Philippine Sea Plate and the Eurasian Plate. Why are there so many volcanoes in the Ring of Fire? The existence of volcanoes in the Ring of Fire is also due to the movement of tectonic plates. Many of the volcanoes have been formed through a process known as subduction. It takes place when two plates collide with each other and the heavier plate is shoved under another, creating a deep trench. When a ‘downgoing’ oceanic plate [like the Pacific Plate] is shoved into a hotter mantle plate, it heats up, volatile elements mix, and this produces the magma. The magma then rises up through the overlying plate and spurts out at the surface, which leads to the formation of volcanoes. Source: Indian Express Pelagia noctiluca Syllabus Prelims – Environment Context: In an unusual occurrence, a bloom of venomous jellyfish was reported by marine researchers across the Visakhapatnam coast on April 3 (Wednesday) morning. Background: Rarely seen in the East coast of India, scores of the venomous jellyfish species, with three to five centimetres long diameter of bell, were spotted across RK Beach and other parts of the coast, which are frequented by tourists and visitors. About Pelagia noctiluca: Pelagia noctiluca is a venomous species of jellyfish. It is also known as the mauve stinger or purple-striped jellyfish. These are bioluminescent, having an ability to produce light in the dark. It has a painful sting and it can cause different degrees of illnesses such as diarrhoea, vomiting and anaphylactic shock(a severe allergic reaction that can develop quickly and be life-threatening). Pelagia noctiluca is found worldwide in tropical and warm-temperature seas. Unlike other jellyfish species, it has stingers not just on the tentacles, but on the bell too. A jellyfish bloom is when the population of the species increases dramatically within a short period of time, usually due to a higher reproduction rate. According to marine biologists, jellyfish blooms are reported frequently as a result of rising ocean temperatures, one of the main causes of substantial population growths. Venomous jellyfish blooms have in the past been known to have caused massive damage to the fishing industry and impacted tourism.In the past, a bloom of Pelagia noctiluca had damaged penned salmon at a fish farm in Ireland. Source: The Hindu Previous Year Question Q1.)Why is a plant called Prosopis juliflora often mentioned in the news? Its extract is widely used in cosmetics. It tends to reduce the biodiversity in the area in which it grows. Its extract is used in the synthesis of pesticides. None of the above ATOMIC CLOCKS Syllabus Prelims – Science Context: Recently,India is taking a significant step by deploying atomic clocks across the nation to synchronize all digital devices with Indian Standard Time (IST). Background: This initiative aims for “one nation, one time,” enhancing uniformity and national security. About ATOMIC CLOCKS An atomic clock is a highly accurate timekeeping device that combines a quartz crystal oscillator with an atom (typically caesium or hydrogen). It uses the consistent frequency of atoms to maintain accurate time, making it more stable than conventional quartz clocks. These clocks were invented in 1955 by Louise Essen. How Do Atomic Clocks Work? Atomic clocks use atoms, specifically the electronic transition from one state to another, as their “pendulum.” The vibrations of atoms (such as caesium or rubidium) serve as the basis for precise time measurement. By sending microwaves to these atoms, we can make them vibrate even more regularly. We then compare these vibrations with the vibrations of a quartz crystal in a regular clock. Types of Atomic Clocks: Caesium Atomic Clocks: These are widely used and serve as the primary standard for defining the SI second. Hydrogen Maser Atomic Clocks: Even more accurate than caesium clocks, hydrogen maser clocks find applications in scientific research. Atomic Clocks in India: The Council of Industrial and Scientific Research (CSIR)-National Physical Laboratories (NPL) in New Delhi maintains Indian Standard Time (IST) using caesium and hydrogen maser clocks. To enhance uniformity and national security, India is deploying atomic clocks nationwide. New atomic clocks are being set up in Bhubaneswar, Jaipur, and Hyderabad, in addition to existing ones in Faridabad and Ahmedabad. By June, these new clocks will be installed, and the government will require all device manufacturers to sync with Indian Standard Time. The goal is to connect all atomic clocks using

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   Surrogacy Syllabus Prelims & Mains – Womens Rights Context: The Union government recently modified the Surrogacy (Regulation) Rules, 2022    to permit married couples to use donor eggs or donor sperm for surrogacy. The notification outlines that the child to be born through surrogacy must have at least one gamete from the intended parents. Background:- Modified Surrogacy (Regulation) Rules, 2022, permit married couples to use donor eggs or donor sperm for surrogacy — a move that provided a big relief to those with medical complications. This revoked a previous amendment made in March 2023 that banned the use of such donor gametes. About Surrogacy in India: It is a contractual process by which a women carries and delivers a child for a couple/individual after an embryo is implanted in her through in-vitro fertilisation(IVF). Commercial surrogacy is banned in India.Only altruistic arrangements where women acting as surrogates do not receive any monetary remuneration or compensation are allowed. Only married couples and ever-married single women (widowed or divorced) can seek a surrogacy. Would be parents can only pay for an altruistic surrogates insurance coverage and medical expense in India. Latest changes to the Surrogacy Regulation Act (2021) On March 14, 2023, Form 2 (Consent of the Surrogate Mother and Agreement for Surrogacy) of the Surrogacy Rules read with Rule 7 was amended to stipulate that donor eggs could not be used for gestational surrogacy of an intending couple. This has now been amended by a notification of the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare allowing married couples to use a donor gamete on the condition that a District Magistrate Board certifies that either the husband or the wife suffers from a medical condition. However, the notification outlines that the child to be born through surrogacy must have at least one gamete from the intending parents. This implies that a married couple where both partners are unable to use their gametes due to an existing medical condition cannot opt for surrogacy. The regulatory change is however not applicable to ever married single women as it specifies that a widow or a divorcee undergoing surrogacy must use self-eggs and donor sperm Who all cannot access surrogacy in India? Single persons (ever married i.e. widowed or divorced women are permitted to access), live-in couples, LGBTQ couples, couples older than 45 years. Source: The Indian Express Glacial Lake Outburst Floods Syllabus Prelims & Mains – Geography Context: The Uttarakhand government has constituted two teams of experts to evaluate the risk posed by five potentially hazardous glacial lakes in the region. These lakes are prone to Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs), the kind of events that have resulted in several disasters in the Himalayan states in recent years. Background: The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), which operates under the Union Ministry of Home Affairs, has identified 188 glacial lakes in the Himalayan states that can potentially be breached because of heavy rainfall. Thirteen of them are in Uttarakhand. About Glacial Lake Outburst Floods GLOFs are disaster events caused by the abrupt discharge of water from glacial lakes — large bodies of water that sit in front of, on top of, or beneath a melting glacier. As a glacier withdraws, it leaves behind a depression that gets filled with meltwater, thereby forming a lake. The more the glacier recedes, the bigger and more dangerous the lake becomes. Such lakes are mostly dammed by unstable ice or sediment composed of loose rock and debris. In case the boundary around them breaks, huge amounts of water rush down the side of the mountains, which could cause flooding in the downstream areas — this is referred to as a GLOF event. GLOFs can be triggered by various reasons, including glacial calving, where sizable ice chunks detach from the glacier into the lake, inducing sudden water displacement. Incidents such as avalanches or landslides can also impact the stability of the boundary around a glacial lake, leading to its failure, and the rapid discharge of water. GLOFs can unleash large volumes of water, sediment, and debris downstream with formidable force and velocity. The floodwaters can submerge valleys, obliterate infrastructure such as roads, bridges, and buildings, and result in significant loss of life and livelihoods. In recent years, there has been a rise in GLOF events in the Himalayan region as soaring global temperatures have increased glacier melting. Rapid infrastructure development in vulnerable areas has also contributed to the spike in such incidents. Uttarakhand has witnessed two major GLOF events in the past few years. The first took place in June 2013, which affected large parts of the state — Kedarnath valley was the worst hit, where thousands of people died. The second occurred in February 2021, when Chamoli district was hit by flash floods due to the bursting of a glacier lake. Source: Indian Express TORNADOS Syllabus Prelims & Mains – Geography Context: Recently, a tornado hit the Mainaguri area of Jalpaiguri district in West Bengal. Background: The tornado hit caused significant destruction, resulting in the tragic loss of five lives and injuring over 300 people. About TORNADOS A tornado is a violently rotating column of air that forms a connection between the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud (or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud). Tornadoes are funnel-shaped storms with very low pressure at the center. They are the smallest but most violent and disastrous of all the storms. Tornadoes generally occur in middle latitudes. Steep pressure gradients result in fast movement of air towards the center. Types of Tornadoes: Multiple-Vortex Tornado: Contains several smaller whirls rotating around a common center. Landspout: A non-supercellular tornado that develops over land. Waterspout: A spiraling funnel-shaped wind current that connects to a large cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud. Waterspouts generally form over bodies of water and are less common at high latitudes. Occurrence: Tornadoes are most common in the mid-latitudes of both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres in the spring and summer when thunderstorms are present.

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   Dark Energy Syllabus Prelims & Mains – Science Context: An international team of researchers has just released the most comprehensive “three-dimensional” map of the universe, which, scientists hope, could reveal some clues about dark energy. Background:- Dark energy, the mysterious form of energy that makes up about 68% of the universe, has intrigued physicists and astronomers for decades. Dark energy has been noted as “the most profound mystery in all of science” About Dark Energy Everything we see – the planets, moons, massive galaxies, you, me, this website – makes up less than 5% of the universe. About 27% is dark matter and 68% is dark energy. While dark matter attracts and holds galaxies together, dark energy repels and causes the expansion of our universe. Takeaways from the research: Using Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument or DESI, which is mounted over the Mayall 4-Meter Telescope in Arizona, United States, researchers have been able to measure light from six million galaxies — some of which existed as far back as 11 billion years ago — to prepare the most detailed map of the universe as yet with very precise information about the distances between these galaxies. The hypothesis of dark energy comes mainly from the observed phenomenon of the universe expanding at a rapid rate. The vast empty spaces between stars and galaxies have been measured to be expanding at an accelerating pace, despite the countervailing force of gravitation that has the effect of pulling things together. Scientists have been unable to find any explanation for this rapid expansion, and have been forced to hypothesise that there must be some “dark” energy causing this expansion. Understanding the nature of dark energy is one of the fundamental problems in science right now, because it can offer key insights into the origin and evolution of the universe, as well as its eventual fate. Source: The Indian Express Electric Vehicles Syllabus Prelims & Mains -Science & Environment Context: In March, the Union government had approved a new e-vehicle policy with the aim to facilitate the entry of global EV manufacturers in the country. Background: Attracting global EV players will provide Indian consumers with access to latest technology, boost the Make in India initiative, strengthen the EV ecosystem by promoting healthy competition among EV players leading to high volume of production, economies of scale, lower cost of production, reduce imports of crude Oil, lower trade deficit, reduce air pollution, particularly in cities, and will have a positive impact on health and environment. About the policy and Indias EV landscape: The policy involves lowering the duty for EV imports — this has been a long-standing demand for EV majors like Tesla — for companies setting up a manufacturing plant with a minimum investment of Rs 4,150 crore. Alongside, the policy also lays out clear localisation targets that companies have to achieve — 25 per cent by the third year and 50 per cent by the fifth — in order to boost domestic value addition. Access to one of the largest and fastest growing markets in the world — India is the third largest auto market behind China and the US — at a time when others are slowing down, will be a big draw for electric vehicle manufacturers like Tesla. While the EV market is currently small in the country, it is gaining traction — in 2023, sales of electric vehicles surpassed 1.5 million, dominated by two-wheelers and three-wheelers. The scope for growth in various segments is immense, especially considering the government wants to increase the share of electric vehicles to 30 per cent by 2030. Source: Indian Express AI WASHING Syllabus Prelims – Current Event Context: The US Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) has taken action against companies engaging in AI Washing. Background: SEC Chairman Gary Gensler emphasized the importance of truthfulness in AI-related marketing. He warned that companies should ensure their representations about AI usage are accurate and not deceptive. About AI WASHING AI washing is a marketing tactic where companies exaggerate the involvement of Artificial Intelligence (AI)in their products and services. This term is derived from “greenwashing”, which refers to companies making misleading claims about their environmental impact. AI washing refers to the practice of making exaggerated or false claims about the use of artificial intelligence (AI) in marketing, advertising, or business operations. Companies engage in AI washing to make their offerings seem more advanced than they are, capitalizing on the growing interest in AI technology. This can mislead consumers and investors who may assume that the company is using advanced AI technologies. For instance, a company might claim that its product is “powered by AI” when in reality, the AI component is minimal or non-existent. This can be misleading as consumers might assume that the product is more sophisticated or capable than it actually is. AI washing has become a global phenomenon, with regulatory bodies like the US Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) taking action against companies for misleading AI claims. Source: Down To Earth SHALLOW FAKES Syllabus Prelims : Current Event Context: Shallow fakes, also known as cheap fakes, are a cause for concern, especially during elections. Background: With rapid dissemination on social media, shallow fakes can go viral quickly. False or misleading content can become ingrained in public discourse. As we approach the Lok Sabha elections, staying informed and discerning between genuine and manipulated content is essential. About SHALLOW FAKES Shallow fakes are manipulated images, videos, and voice clips created without AI technology. Unlike deepfakes, which rely on sophisticated AI algorithms, shallow fakes use traditional editing tools to deceive viewers. They are increasingly used in political contexts, particularly during elections, to spread misinformation. Characteristics: Quality: The term “shallow” implies that these fakes are lower in quality compared to deepfakes. Methods: Shallow fakes involve conventional photo editing or altering video speed to change speech patterns. Misleading Context: They often mis-caption or mis-contextualize existing images or videos, falsely claiming they are from a different time or

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose Island Syllabus Prelims – Geography Context: The unchecked population growth of spotted deer (Chital) is creating problems in Netaji Subhash Chandra Boss Island. Background:- Introduced to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands for game hunting in the early 1900s by the British, the herbivore multiplied unchecked for years in the absence of large predators.It has become an “invasive” problem for the Union Territory’s authorities. About  Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose Island Earlier Ross Island, now officially known as Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose Island, is an island of the Andaman Islands. The Island is situated three kilometres East of Central Port Blair. It belongs to the South Andaman administrative district, Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are strategically located in the Indian Ocean between the Indian mainland, Myanmar, and Indonesia, and are close to important maritime routes. The islands were first controlled by the Dutch, then by the British, and were taken over by the advancing Japanese military during World War II. The Azad Hind government was able to obtain de jure control of the islands from the Japanese by the end of 1943, and Subhash Chandra Bose arrived in Port Blair on December 29. Keeping in mind the historical significance of the Andaman & Nicobar Islands and to honour the memory of Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose, Ross Islands was renamed as Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose Dweep by Prime Minister during his visit to the Island in 2018. Neil Island and Havelock Island were also renamed Shaheed Dweep and Swaraj Dweep. All the three islands are major tourist spots. Source: Indian Express Green Hydrogen Syllabus Prelims & Mains – Environment Context: The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) has announced a Rs-496-crore (until 2025-26) scheme to support pilot projects that either test the viability of green hydrogen as a vehicle fuel or develop secure supporting infrastructure such as refuelling stations. Background: Big Indian commercial vehicle manufacturers such as Tata Motors, Volvo Eicher, and Ashok Leyland are doubling down on efforts to develop hydrogen-powered trucks and buses by ramping up research and development, and building manufacturing capacities. About Green Hydrogen : Hydrogen is colourless, and green hydrogen is ‘green’ only by virtue of the way it is produced, and the source of the energy used to manufacture it. Green hydrogen refers to hydrogen that is produced from the electrolysis of water — splitting it into hydrogen and oxygen — using an electrolyser powered by renewable energy.This is considered to be a virtually emission-free pathway for hydrogen production — it is ‘end-to-end’ green because it is powered by green energy, uses water as feedstock, and emits no carbon on consumption. Currently, most hydrogen produced for industrial consumption and applications is ‘grey’ hydrogen, which is produced from natural gas through energy-intensive processes, and has high carbon emissions.Except for a difference in the production pathway and emissions, green hydrogen is essentially the same as grey — or hydrogen categorised by any other colour. Challenges to the large-scale use of green hydrogen in the transportation sector: The foremost among challenges is the prohibitive cost of production, followed by challenges of storage and transportation at scale. Green hydrogen-powered vehicles are not yet seen as a suitable alternative to four-wheel battery electric vehicles (BEVs) due to challenges arising from fuel costs and building supporting infrastructure. Hydrogen is extremely flammable, which means that special care would be needed in handling the fuel at retail stations compared to diesel, petrol, or even CNG. Robust and fool-proof handling and safety standards need to be developed before pushing large-scale adoption. Currently, most cylinders manufactured in India are designed to carry compressed natural gas (CNG). But hydrogen is stored at a much higher pressure, and CNG cylinders cannot carry hydrogen. For cylinders to carry a high mass of hydrogen, the carbon fibre needs to be stronger, which makes high-pressure hydrogen cylinders expensive. This is a key barrier to the adoption of hydrogen as a transport fuel. For the same reason, the existing natural gas pipeline infrastructure is also not seen as viable. Source: Indian Express RAKHIGARHI Syllabus Prelims – History Context: The NCERT recently introduced certain revisions to the history syllabus of Class 12 students, highlighting that Harappans were based out in Rakhigarhi. Background: These revisions reflect a deeper understanding of the Harappan civilization and its historical context, shedding light on their origins and societal structures. About RAKHIGARHI Rakhigarhi is an archaeological site located in Hisar, Haryana, and is recognized as one of the largest Harappan (Indus Valley Civilization) sites in the Indian subcontinent. Rakhigarhi is situated in the plains of the Saraswati River, about 27 km from the seasonal Ghaggar river. The site showcases continuity from the Harappan age to the present times. It is recognized for its extensive Harappan heritage, offering insights into ancient urban life and culture. Excavations were carried out at Rakhigarhi to study its evolution from 6000 BC (Pre-Harappan phase) to 2500 BC. In order to study the genetic history of the Harappans, DNA was extracted from the skeletal remains excavated at Rakhigarhi. Previous Year Question Q1. Which of the following characterizes/characterize the people of Indus Civilization? They possessed great palaces and temples. They worshipped both male and female deities. They employed horse-drawn chariots in warfare. Select the correct statement/statements using the codes given below: 1 and 2 only 2 only 1, 2 and 3 None of the statements given above is correct Source: Hindu DEMOGRAPHIC DIVIDEND Syllabus Prelims – Economy Context: The World Bank warned that South Asian nations run the risk of “squandering its demographic dividend” because job creation is not keeping up with the growth in the working-age population. Background: According to data in the report, between 2000 and 2023, When the working-age population grew by an average of 19 million per year, the region added 10 million employments annually on average. About DEMOGRAPHIC DIVIDEND: The United Nations Population Fund defines demographic dividend as “the economic growth potential that can result from shifts in a population’s age structure,

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   Hepatitis Syllabus Prelims – Science Context: India is one of the countries with the highest burden of viral hepatitis — with 2.9 crore people living with Hepatitis B infection and 0.55 crore living with Hepatitis C infection, according to the Global Hepatitis Report 2024 released by the World Health Organisation (WHO) Background:- There were over 50,000 new Hepatitis B cases and 1.4 lakh new Hepatitis C cases reported in 2022. And these infections killed 1.23 lakh people in India in 2022 as per the report. About Hepatitis: Hepatitis means inflammation of the liver. The liver is a vital organ that processes nutrients, filters the blood, and fights infections. When the liver is inflamed or damaged, its function can be affected. Heavy alcohol use, toxins, some medications, and certain medical conditions can cause hepatitis. However, hepatitis is often caused by a virus. There are five main strains of the hepatitis virus, referred to as types A, B, C, D and E. While they all cause liver disease, they differ in important ways including modes of transmission, severity of the illness, geographical distribution and prevention methods. Hepatitis B (HBV) is known to cause acute infection with nausea, vomitting and yellowing of the eye and skin for several weeks. Liver failure happens in severe cases. But the challenge is the chronic, life-long liver disease that it causes, especially when children get it. The chronic infection can lead to scarring of the liver called cirrhosis and increase the risk of liver cancer. Many people with the hepatitis C (HCV) virus don’t have symptoms or know they are infected. Those who do develop symptoms two to 12 weeks after exposure report yellow skin or eyes, loss of appetite, nausea, stomach ache, fever, dark urine, light-coloured stool, joint pain and exhaustion. Both infections are transmitted from mother to child during delivery, during transfusion of blood that hasn’t been screened properly, during contact with the blood of an infected person or while sharing needles by drug users.Both viruses can also be transmitted sexually. Since hepatitis B can be prevented through vaccination, the report highlights the need to ensure coverage. Hepatitis C is curable with medicines. Source: Indian Express Previous Year Question Q.1) Which of the following statements is not correct? (UPSC CSE 2015) Hepatitis B virus is transmitted much like HIV. Hepatitis B, unlike Hepatitis C, does not have a vaccine. Globally, the number of people infected with Hepatitis B and C viruses are several times more than those infected with HIV. Some of those infected with Hepatitis B and C viruses do not show the symptoms for many years. Lavender Cultivation Syllabus Prelims & Mains – Agriculture Context:When lavender cultivation was first introduced to Bhaderwah subdivision in Jammu and Kashmir’s Doda district in 2015, most farmers were sceptical and only a few adopted it. Today, these early adopters have significantly expanded cultivation, employ 30-40 people each on a full-time basis, have their own distillation units for making lavender oil, and market their products in different parts of the country. Background: The CSIR (Council Of Scientific and Industrial Research) – Aroma Mission is a flagship project of CSIR under which Lavender cultivation is being promoted in the temperate regions of J&K.The aim of the project is to increase the income of small and marginal farmers and develop agriculture-based Startups.Besides lavender, the Aroma Mission aims to inject scientific research and development into the cultivation of aromatic plants such as rose, lemon grass, rosemary and wild marigold. About Lavender Cultivation: Lavender, which can be grown in areas that experience snowfall and have a hilly terrain, blossoms and is ready for harvesting two-and-a-half years after it is planted. The same plant can bear flowers for 18-20 years, and does not require the amount of insecticides, pesticides, and other chemicals used on conventional crops like maize and paddy. The uses of lavender includes manufacturing perfumes, soaps, agarbatti, and room fresheners.Lavender oil has a calming effect and is a stress buster. CSIR developed an elite variety of lavender suitable for cultivation in temperate regions of J&K and provided free saplings and end-to-end agro-technologies to farmers and also installed distillation units for essential oil extraction in several regions of J&K. The success of Lavender cultivation in J&K earned it the sobriquet, ‘Purple Revolution’. The variety of Lavender is highly suitable for cultivation in the rainfed temperate regions of India. The crop was officially introduced in Bhaderwah by the Council Of Scientific and Industrial Research-Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine (CSIR-IIIM), Jammu, in 2015. According to officials, more than 700 acres of farmland has been brought under lavender cultivation in the area since 2017, and another 100 acres is set to be added. CSIR plans to distribute lavender plants to farmers in parts of Kathua, Rajouri, Poonch, and the Kashmir Valley, besides Uttrakhand, Himachal Pradesh and the Northeast. Source: Indian Express CREDIT-DEPOSIT RATIO Syllabus Prelims – Economy Context: Data from the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) reveals that the credit-deposit ratio has reached its highest level in at least 20 years. Background: This surge in the credit-deposit ratio indicates that more of the banks’ deposit base is being utilized for loans, including home loans and other consumption-related loans. About CREDIT-DEPOSIT RATIO The credit-deposit ratio is a financial metric that measures the proportion of a bank’s deposit base that is used for lending. It is calculated by dividing the total loans extended by the bank by its total deposits. A higher ratio indicates that a larger portion of the bank’s deposits is being lent out as credit, while a lower ratio suggests more deposits are being held in reserve or invested in other assets. For instance, if a bank has a credit-deposit ratio of 80%, it means that 80% of its deposits are being used to provide loans. This ratio is crucial for assessing a bank’s liquidity and lending capacity. Source: Livemint GULF COOPERATION COUNCIL (GCC) Syllabus Prelims – Current Event Context: Recently, for the first time since its inception, the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) announced its ‘Vision for

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   Time Standard for Moon Syllabus Prelims – Science Context: The United States officially directed the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to create a time standard for the Moon, which different international bodies and private companies can use to coordinate their activities on the lunar surface. Background:- According to Reuters, the head of the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP) told the space agency to work with other parts of the US government to finalise the strategy by the end of 2026 for establishing what it called a Coordinated Lunar Time (LTC). Time Standard for Moon: Most of the clocks and time zones are based on coordinated Universal Time (UTC), which is set by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in Paris, France. UTC is essentially an internationally agreed upon standard for world time. It is tracked by a weighted average of more than 400 atomic clocks placed in different parts of the globe. If a country lies on the west of the Greenwich meridian, it has to subtract from the UTC, and if a country is located on the east of the meridian, it has to add. UTC cannot be used to determine time on the Moon because time on the Moon flows differently than it does on the Earth. Why do we need a time standard for the Moon? Time flows differently on the Moon, and cannot be determined using UTC. Time is not absolute and it ticks slightly faster on the Moon as compared to the Earth. It is due to Einstein’s theory of general relativity which tells us that gravity bends space and time. On the Moon, the Earth-based clock will appear to lose on average 58.7 microseconds per Earth day with additional periodic variations. Improper time standards can create problems for spacecraft trying to dock on the Moon, transfer of data at a specific time, navigation, and communication. There may be a problem with multiple spacecraft working together at the same time. For example, NASA’s Artemis program aims to send humans back to the Moon after September 2026, and China and India intend to send their own astronauts to the lunar surface by 2030 and 2040 respectively. According to a 2023 report by the journal Nature, there will be a need to place at least three atomic clocks on the lunar surface that will tick at the Moon’s natural pace, and whose output will be combined by an algorithm to generate a more accurate virtual timepiece. These clocks have to be placed on the Moon at different locations since the Moon’s rotation and even local lumps of mass, called mascons, beneath the crust of the Moon affect the flow of time ever so slightly. These effects are minor but the output from these clocks can be synthesised to give the Moon its own independent time, which can be tied back to UTC for seamless operations from Earth as well. What are atomic clocks? Atomic clocks measure time in terms of the resonant frequencies — the natural frequency of an object where it tends to vibrate at a higher amplitude — of atoms such as cesium-133. In atomic time, a second is defined as the period in which a caesium atom vibrates 9,192,631,770 times. Source: Indian Express The Azad Hind government Syllabus Prelims & Mains – History Context:  Kangana Ranaut, in a recent interview, claimed that Subhas Chandra Bose, not Jawaharlal Nehru, was the first prime minister of independent India. After being criticised for the historicity (or lack thereof) of her comments, Kangana doubled down, citing the provisional government setup by Bose in 1943 as evidence of her claim. Background: Notably, 28 years before the Azad Hind government came into existence, the Provisional Government of India was formed in Kabul by a group known as the Indian Independence Committee (IIC). About the Azad Hind government: Subhas Chandra Bose proclaimed the formation of the Provisional Government of Azad Hind (“Free India”) in Singapore on October 21, 1943. Bose was the Head of State of this provisional government, and held the foreign affairs and war portfolios. A C Chatterjee was in charge of finance, S A Ayer became minister of publicity and propaganda, and Lakshmi Swaminathan was given the ministry of women’s affairs. A number of officers from Bose’s Azad Hind Fauj were also given cabinet posts. The Azad Hind government claimed authority over all Indian civilian and military personnel in Britain’s Southeast Asian colonies (primarily Burma, Singapore, and Malaya) which had fallen into Japanese hands during World War II. It also claimed prospective authority over all Indian territory that would be taken by Japanese forces, and Bose’s Azad Hind Fauj, as they attacked British India’s northeastern frontier. To give legitimacy to his government, much like Charles de Gaulle had declared sovereignty over some islands in the Atlantic for the Free French, Bose chose the Andamans. “It [the Azad Hind government] obtained de jure control over a piece of Indian territory when the Japanese handed over the Andaman and Nicobar islands in late December 1943, though de facto military control was not relinquished by the Japanese admiralty,” Sugata Bose wrote. Diplomatically, Bose’s government was recognised by the Axis powers and their satellites: Germany, Japan, and Italy, as well as Nazi and Japanese puppet states in Croatia, China, Thailand, Burma, Manchuria, and the Philippines. Immediately after its formation, the Azad Hind government declared war on Britain and the United States. Notably, 28 years before the Azad Hind government came into existence, the Provisional Government of India was formed in Kabul by a group known as the Indian Independence Committee (IIC). Much like Bose allied with the Axis powers during World War II to fight the British, during World War I, Indian nationalists abroad (mostly in Germany and the US), as well as revolutionaries and Pan-Islamists from India, attempted to further the cause of Indian independence with aid from the Central Powers. The IIC, with the help of the Ottoman Caliph and the Germans,

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)   Tipu Sultan Syllabus Prelims & Mains – History Context: The BJP president of Kerala said the renaming of Sulthan Bathery in Kerala’s Wayanad district is “inevitable”.  He said, “Sulthan Bathery should be renamed as Ganapathyvattam. Background:- One of the three municipal towns in Wayanad, along with Mananthavady and Kalpetta, is Sulthan Bathery. Key takeaways Sulthan Bathery is home to a stone temple that was formerly known as Ganapathyvattam. The temple was established by Jains who came to Wayanad from regions in what is now Tamil Nadu and Karnataka in the 13th century. It is designed in the dominant Vijayanagara architectural style. The temple was partly destroyed during the invasions of Tipu Sultan, the ruler of Mysuru in the second half of the 18th century. It remained abandoned for nearly 150 years. Later, it was taken over by the Archaeological Survey of India, which declared it as a monument of national importance. About Tipu Sultan Tipu Sultan was born Sultan Fateh Ali Sahab Tipu on November 10, 1750 in Devanahalli, present-day Bangalore. He was born to Hyder Ali, who rose through the ranks of the army of the Wodeyars, the then Hindu rulers of Mysore. Hyder Ali ceased power in 1761 with Tipu succeeding his father in 1782. While fighting the British in 1767, Tipu first came in contact with European culture and lifestyle, something that would fascinate him. This fascination would be reflected in his rule of Mysore: Tipu undertook various policies and reforms which would modernise the princely state and go on to become a lasting aspect of his legacy. Hyder Ali died in 1782, during a period of conquest and expansion of his realm. Thus, Tipu inherited the throne under trying circumstances, with his primary motivation being to consolidate the territory he had inherited from his father. Over the past 20 years, the kingdom of Mysore had slowly expanded by capturing disputed areas at its borders. Tipu inherited rebellious provinces in Malabar, Kodagu, and Bednur, all of which were crucial to Mysore’s strategic and economic interests. The Mysuru ruler’s military used Ganapathyvattam as a battery for their ammunition and the town became known as ‘Sultan’s Battery’ in British records. Tipu Sultan died defending his fortress of Srirangapatna against British forces in the Fourth Anglo Mysore War in 1799. His forces were heavily outnumbered and his French allies had not been able to come to his aid. Source: Indian Express Import restrictions on solar PV cells Syllabus Prelims & Mains – Renewable Energy Context: Recent government orders on attempts to increase local sourcing of solar modules to support India’s renewables manufacturing ecosystem has been widely reported in the media as import restrictions. Background: Ministry of New and Renewable Energy’s (MNRE), on March 29 ordered to re-implement its 2021 notification of an ‘Approved List of Models and Manufacturers of Solar Photovoltaic [PV] Modules’, also called the ALMM list. Approved List of Models and Manufacturers of Solar Photovoltaic [PV] Modules: This list consists of manufacturers who “are eligible for use in Government Projects/Government assisted projects/ projects under Government schemes & programmes including projects set up for sale of electricity to the Central and State Governments.” However, this notification was “kept in abeyance” two years after it was issued, for the past financial year. While the government did not give an explicit reason for this, it has been reported that it stems from concerns and demands of renewable power producers who had secured sale contracts with the government before these rules were issued, when solar modules and cells were overwhelmingly imported from China at highly competitive rates. India’s domestic renewables sector, at the time, was unlikely to meet the spike in demand for solar power production equipment at rates offered by Chinese manufacturers. The government’s re-introduction of this rule has been premised on the estimation that following measures, such as the Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme, India’s domestic sector has boosted its production capacities and bettered price competitiveness to meet local demand. This is an import substitution effort, and not an attempt to restrict imports. Does India rely on solar PV imports? India is overwhelmingly import dependent to meet its demand for solar cells and modules — with China and Vietnam being the country’s major suppliers. According to a reply by the Minister for New and Renewable Energy in Parliament in February last year, India imported about $11.17 billion worth solar cells and modules in the past five years. And until January of 2023-24, data from the Ministry of Commerce’s Import-Export showed that China accounted for 53% of India’s solar cell imports, and 63% of solar PV modules. Ratings agency ICRA estimates that China commands more than 80% share of the manufacturing capacity across polysilicon, wafer, cell and modules. “In comparison, the manufacturing capacity in India is relatively low and is largely restricted to the last manufacturing stage,” ICRA stated in its report, adding that the PLI scheme is expected to change this, with integrated module units expected to come up in India over the next 2-3 years. How have our policies responded? To address this over dependence, India made three significant efforts over the past five years. It began with the notification of the ALMM order in January 2019. Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman proposed the ₹19,500 crore PLI scheme in the Union Budget of 2022-23. This was to scale domestic manufacturing of the entire solar supply chain — from polysilicon to solar modules. The government also introduced a steep 40% customs duty on PV modules and 25% on PV cells. These duties were halved as solar capacity additions slowed and as Reuters had reported, developers had quoted “aggressively low tariffs” to win power purchase contracts based on imports of Chinese equipment. Why is China a leading exporter? The International Energy Agency (IEA) noted that China was the most cost-competitive location to manufacture all components of the solar PV supply chains. This is mainly because of the lower cost of power supplied to the industry, the agency observed, as electricity accounts for more than 40%