Archives (PRELIMS  Focus) PM-SHRI Scheme Category: Government Schemes Context: The ruling Left Democratic Front (LDF) appears divided over the Kerala government’s move to sign a MoU with the Union government to access the Prime Minister’s Schools for Raising India (PM SHRI) government school modernisation funds. About Pradhan Mantri Schools for Rising India (PM-SHRI) Scheme: Launch: It is a centrally sponsored initiative, launched in 2022, by the Government of India aimed at establishing over 14,500 PM SHRI Schools by enhancing existing schools to showcase the implementation of the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020. Objective: The primary objective is to create an inclusive and nurturing environment that promotes the well-being and safety of every student, offering diverse learning experiences and access to quality infrastructure and resources. Funding: The funding pattern is 60:40 between Centre and State Governments and UTs with legislature (except J&K). The sharing pattern is 90:10 for North Eastern and Himalayan States and UT of J&K and 100% central funding for the Union Territories without legislature. Need of MoU: States must confirm their participation by signing a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with the Education Ministry. Duration: The duration of the scheme is from 2022-23 to 2026-27, after which it shall be the responsibility of the states/UTs to continue to maintain the benchmarks achieved by these schools. Eligibility: Schools managed by Central/State/UT Governments and local bodies.  All Kendriya Vidyalayas and Navodaya Vidyalayas which are non-project and run from permanent buildings. Main features of these schools: These schools will focus on holistic student development of students including the skills of communication, collaboration and critical thinking.  Schools will have modern labs, libraries, art rooms, and promote “green” initiatives like water conservation and waste recycling. Learning outcomes will be prioritized, with competency-based assessments that apply knowledge to real-life situations. Source: The Hindu Chandrayaan-2 Category: Science and Technology Context: The lunar orbiter of India’s second moon mission, Chandrayaan-2, has made the first-ever observation of the effects of the sun’s coronal mass ejection (CME) on the moon.   About Chandrayaan-2: Nature: It is the second lunar exploration mission developed by ISRO after Chandrayaan-1. It is the 1st Indian expedition to attempt a soft landing on moon with indigenous technology. Objectives: to study lunar topography, mineralogy, elemental abundance, the lunar exosphere, and signatures of hydroxyl and water ice; to study the water ice in the south polar region and thickness of the lunar regolith on the surface; and to map the lunar surface and help to prepare 3D maps of it. Launch vehicle: It was launched using India’s most powerful launcher GSLV MK-III from Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Andhra Pradesh. Components: There are three components of the mission, a lunar orbiter, the Vikram lunar lander, and the Pragyan rover. The mission’s lander is named Vikram after Dr Vikram A Sarabhai, the Father of the Indian Space Programme. The lander, rover and orbiter will perform mineralogical and elemental studies of the lunar surface. The orbiter is deployed at an altitude of 100 kilometers above the surface of the Moon.  Major payloads: Chandrayaan-2 Large Area Soft X-ray Spectrometer (CLASS) Solar X-ray Monitor (XSM) CHandra’s Atmospheric Compositional Explorer 2 (CHACE 2) Dual Frequency Synthetic Aperture Radar (DFSAR) Imaging Infra-Red Spectrometer (IIRS) Terrain Mapping Camera (TMC 2) Orbiter High Resolution Camera (OHRC) Dual Frequency Radio Science (DFRS) Experiment Step towards PLANEX: The mission is an important step in India’s plans for planetary exploration, a program known as Planetary Science and Exploration (PLANEX). Source: The Hindu BrahMos Missile Category: Defence and Security Context: Defence Minister Rajnath Singh said that the BrahMos missiles were a symbol of India’s growing indigenous strength in defence manufacturing and every inch of Pakistan was within their reach. About BrahMos Missile: Nomenclature: It is named after the Brahmaputra River of India and the Moskva River of Russia. Range: An Indo-Russian joint venture, the standard BrahMos missile has a range of 290 km and but extended-range versions can reach up to 500 km. Future variants like the BrahMos-II are planned to have a much longer range of up to 1,500 km. Fastest cruise missile: It is the world’s fastest cruise missile with a top speed of Mach 2.8 (about three times the speed of sound).  Two-stage missile; It is a two-stage (solid propellant engine in the first stage and liquid ramjet in the second) missile. The solid propellant booster engine propels it to supersonic speed before separating, and during the cruise phase, the liquid ramjet or second stage, propels the missile closer to 3 Mach. Launch platforms: It is a multiplatform missile which can be launched with great accuracy from land, air and sea having multi-capability capabilities and can operate during day and night despite bad weather.  Uniqueness: It operates on the “fire and forget” principle i.e. it does not require guidance after launch. It also carries a conventional warhead weighing 200 to 300 kg. Propulsion and Flight: Jet engines are the primary mode of propulsion for cruise missiles. Most cruise missiles are subsonic and use Turbofan and Turbojet engines. While less common, supersonic and hypersonic cruise missiles utilize Ramjet and Scramjet engines. Source: The Hindu Indian Wolf Category: Environment and Ecology Context: A discreet, charismatic denizen of scrubland and grasslands, the Indian wolf (Canis lupus pallipes) is likely to be classified as a new species by the IUCN. About Indian wolf: Nature: The Indian wolf is one of the most ancient and genetically unique wolf lineages in the world, endemic to the Indian subcontinent. Scientific Name: Canis lupus pallipes, commonly referred to as the Peninsular wolf or Indian grey wolf. Uniqueness: Fossil and genetic studies show that it diverged from other wolf species thousands of years ago, making it one of the oldest wolf lineages in the world. Conservation status: It is classified as ‘Vulnerable’ by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). It is placed under ‘Schedule 1’ of the Wildlife Protection Act. Distribution: The Indian wolf was historically found across northern and western India, from Punjab and Haryana to Rajasthan and Maharashtra, thriving in open plains and semi-arid regions. Drastic reduction in population:

Archives (PRELIMS  Focus) Cell2Sentence-Scale 27B (C2S-Scale) Category: Science and Technology Context: Google’s new AI, Cell2Sentence-Scale 27B (C2S-Scale) finds promising approach for cancer treatment. About C2S-Scale: Nature: The Cell2Sentence-Scale 27B (C2S-Scale) is a 27-billion-parameter foundation model designed to understand the language of individual cells within the body. This enables it to simulate and predict cellular behaviour under various conditions, such as in diseases like cancer. Significance: C2S-Scale can generate insights that were previously unrecognized by understanding how individual cells react and interact. This allows researchers to explore new pathways in drug discovery and disease treatment.  Development: The C2S-Scale is an advanced artificial intelligence (AI) model developed by Google DeepMind and Google Research in collaboration with Yale University and based on the Gemma framework. Changes course of medical research: This development marks a significant milestone in medical research by generating new scientific hypotheses, bridging computational predictions with experimental validation. Working mechanism: The model was trained using large data sets to identify patterns in cell behavior, especially under conditions where immune system responses are low (low levels of interferons), such as in early-stage cancer. By analyzing this data, C2S-Scale can generate hypotheses about cellular behavior and suggest potential drug combinations that could trigger immune responses in tumors that are typically hidden from the immune system. Source: The Hindu H-1B Visa Category: International Relations Context: The U.S. Chamber of Commerce has filed a lawsuit challenging the Donald Trump administration’s $100,000 fee on new H-1B visa applications. About H-1B Visa:   Nature: The H-1B is a non-immigrant visa which allows temporary entry to the US for purposes like tourism, business, work, study, or medical treatment.  Objective: It allows US-based companies to hire and employ foreign workers for specialty jobs like science, technology, engineering, mathematics (STEM), and IT (High skills and at least a bachelor’s degree). Introduction: It was introduced in 1990 to help US employers address skill shortages when qualified US workers are unavailable. Duration: The H-1B visa is valid for three years and can be extended one time for an additional three years. In general, the H-1B is valid for a maximum of six years. There is no limit to the number of H1-B Visas that an individual can have in his or her lifetime. Buffer period for reapplication: After this period, the visa holder must either leave the US for at least 12 months before reapplying for another H-1B visa or apply for a Green Card (Lawful Permanent Residency for themselves and their family). Eligibility: A valid job offer from a U.S. employer for a role that requires specialty knowledge Proof of a bachelor’s degree or equivalent experience in that field The US employer must show that there is a lack of qualified U.S. applicants for the role. Limit: Currently, there is a regular annual cap of 65,000 new H-1B visas each fiscal year. An additional 20,000 visas are available for applicants who hold a master’s degree or higher from a US university.  Exemptions: Petitions for H-1B visa holders seeking continued employment and those seeking employment at higher education institutions, affiliated nonprofits, or government research organizations are eligible for cap exemption. Dominance of Indians: People born in India are the largest beneficiaries accounting for more than 70% of all approved H-1B petitions annually since 2015. People born in China rank second, consistently making up 12-13% of petitions since 2018. Source: The Hindu Rotavirus Category: Science and Technology Context: A recent study on the impact of the indigenous rotavirus vaccine in India found marked reductions in rotavirus-based gastroenteritis in sites across the country.       About Rotavirus: Family: Rotavirus is a double-stranded RNA virus genus in the Reoviridae family. Contagious: Rotavirus is a contagious disease that spreads easily from child to child. Mortality: Rotavirus is a leading cause of severe diarrhoea and death among children less than five years of age. It is responsible for around 10% of total child mortality every year. Mode of spread: Rotavirus spreads easily through the fecal-oral route )when a person comes in contact with the feces of someone who has rotavirus and then touches their own mouth). For example, rotavirus can spread when a child with rotavirus doesn’t wash their hands properly after going to the bathroom and then touches food or other objects. Symptoms Severe diarrhea Throwing up Dehydration Fever Stomach pain Dosage: World Health Organisation (WHO) recommends that the first dose of rotavirus vaccine be administered as soon as possible after 6 weeks of age, along with DTP vaccination (diptheria, tetanus and pertussis). Inclusion in National Schedules: WHO has recommended the inclusion of rotavirus vaccine in the National Schedules of the countries where under five mortality due to diarrhoeal diseases is more than 10%. Vaccines available: Currently, two vaccines are available against rotavirus: Rotarix (GlaxoSmithKline): is a monovalent vaccine recommended to be orally administered in two doses at 6-12 weeks. Rota Teq (Merck) is a pentavalent vaccine recommended to be orally administered in three doses starting at 6-12 weeks of age. Source: The Hindu National Green Hydrogen Mission (NGHM) Category: Government Schemes Context: In a move towards greener public transport, Pune has begun trials of a hydrogen fuel-powered bus under the Centre’s National Green Hydrogen Mission.        About National Green Hydrogen Mission (NGHM): Launch: India launched the National Green Hydrogen Mission (NGHM) in January 2023 with the budget outlay of Rs. 19,744 crore. Ministry: The Ministry of New & Renewable Energy (MNRE) is tasked with implementing the scheme. Objective: The mission’s primary aim is to establish India as a global hub for the production, utilisation, and export of green hydrogen and its derivatives. The main target of the scheme to achieve a production capacity of 5 million tonnes per annum of Green Hydrogen in the country by the year 2030. Major components of the scheme: Strategic Interventions for the Green Hydrogen Transition Programme (SIGHT): SIGHT will incentivise the domestic manufacturing of electrolysers and the production of green hydrogen. Green Hydrogen Hubs: The mission will identify and develop states and regions into Green Hydrogen Hubs, fostering large-scale production and utilization. Hydrogen Valley Innovation Cluster (HVIC): The Department of Science

Archives (PRELIMS  Focus) Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) Category: International Relations Context: Members of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) should harness the initiative to advance the aspirations of the Global South, said Minister of State for External Affairs. About Non-Aligned Movement (NAM): Background: The Non-Aligned Movement was formed during the Cold War as an organization of States that did not seek to formally align themselves with either the United States or the Soviet Union, but sought to remain independent or neutral. Origin: The basic concept for the group originated in 1955 during discussions that took place at the Asia-Africa Bandung Conference held in Indonesia. Foundation: The Non-Aligned Movement was founded and held its first conference in Belgrade, Yugoslavia, in 1961 under the leadership of Josip Broz Tito of Yugoslavia, Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt, Jawaharlal Nehru of India, Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana, and Sukarno of Indonesia. Objective: The purpose of the organization was enumerated in Havana Declaration of 1979 to ensure “the national independence, sovereignty, territorial integrity and security of non-aligned countries” in their struggle against imperialism, colonialism, neo-colonialism, racism, and all forms of foreign subjugation. Members: It has 120 members comprising 53 countries from Africa, 39 from Asia, 26 from Latin America and the Caribbean and 2 from Europe (Belarus, Azerbaijan). There are 17 countries and 10 international organizations that are Observers at NAM. Significance: During the cold war era, the NAM played a vital role in stabilizing the world order and preserving peace and security. Non alignment of NAM doesn’t mean the neutrality of state on global issues, it was always a peaceful intervention in world politics. Panchsheel: The principles of NAM was largely guided by Panchsheel principles, some of them are: Respecting each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty. Not to take aggressive action against each other. Not to interfere in each other’s internal matters. To follow the policy of equality and mutual benefit. Believe in the policy of peaceful co-existence. Source: The Hindu National Green Tribunal (NGT) Category: Polity and Governance Context: The National Green Tribunal (NGT) termed the submitted replies on the pollution and encroachment level in the river Markanda “materially deficient” and instructed the pollution boards of Himachal Pradesh and Haryana to submit fresh reports. About National Green Tribunal (NGT): Establishment: The National Green Tribunal (NGT) was established on October 18, 2010, under the National Green Tribunal Act, 2010, to expedite environmental justice in India. Headquarters: The headquarters of NGT is in New Delhi. It also has regional benches in Bhopal, Pune, Kolkata, and Chennai. Disposal of cases: The tribunal endeavours to resolve cases within six months from the filing date. Composition: It has a chairperson (a retired Supreme Court judge or Chief Justice of a High Court), 10-20 Judicial Members (former Supreme Court or High Court judges) and 10-20 expert Members (with a Master’s degree in Science, Engineering, or Technology and relevant environmental experience). Follows principles of natural justice: The NGT operates under the principles of natural justice and has the authority to create its procedures, rather than following those outlined in the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908 now Bhartiya Nagarik Suraksha Samhita. Powers of a civil court: It has the power to act as a Civil Court when settling cases. Suo-moto powers: The NGT is endowed with suo motu powers, allowing it to take up environmental issues on its initiative without requiring a formal complaint. Enforcement of laws: The National Green Tribunal (NGT) addresses violations of key environmental laws, which include: Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974; Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981; Environment (Protection) Act, 1986; Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980; Biological Diversity Act, 2002; and Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991. Source: The Indian Express Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006 Category: Environment and Ecology Context: The Chhattisgarh High Court for the first time, addressed the question of whether forest rights granted under the 2006 Forest Rights Act (FRA) can be revoked or cancelled, given that the law does not explicitly provide for any such measure. About Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006: Landmark legislation: The Forest Rights Act, 2006 (officially known as the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act) is a landmark legislation aimed at recognizing and securing the rights of forest-dwelling communities in India. Reasons behind bringing the Act: The FRA, 2006 was implemented to recognize and vest the forest rights and occupation in forest land in forest dwelling Scheduled Tribes and other traditional forest dwellers who have been residing in such forests for generations but whose rights could not be recorded. The Act also aimed to undo the historical injustice occurred to the forest dwelling communities due to the forest management policies of colonial and post-colonial India, which did not acknowledge their symbiotic relationship with the forests. The Act further intended to empower the forest dwellers to access and use the forest resources in a sustainable manner, to conserve the biodiversity and ecological balance, and to protect them from unlawful evictions and displacement. Major provisions of the Act: The Act recognizes and vests the forest rights and occupation in Forest land in Forest Dwelling Scheduled Tribes (FDST) and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (OTFD) who have been residing in such forests for generations. Forest rights can also be claimed by any member or community who has for at least three generations (75 years) prior to the 13th day of December, 2005 primarily resided in forest land for bona fide livelihood needs. The Gram Sabha is the authority to initiate the process for determining the nature and extent of Individual Forest Rights (IFR) or Community Forest Rights (CFR) or both that may be given to FDST and OTFD. Four types of rights, identified by the Act: Title rights: It gives FDST and OTFD the right to ownership to land farmed by tribals or forest dwellers subject to a maximum of 4 hectares. Ownership is only for land that is actually being cultivated by the concerned family and no new lands will be granted. Use rights: The rights of the dwellers extend to

Archives (PRELIMS  Focus) Green Crackers Category: Science and Technology Context: Ahead of Deepavali, the Supreme Court relaxed the blanket ban on fireworks in Delhi and the National Capital Region (NCR) and allowed the sale of green fireworks approved by Petroleum and Explosives Safety Organisation (PESO). About Green Crackers: Nature: Green crackers are dubbed as ‘eco-friendly’ crackers and are known to cause less air and noise pollution as compared to traditional firecrackers. Designed by: These crackers were first designed by the National Environmental and Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), under the aegis of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) in 2018. Objective: These crackers replace certain hazardous agents in traditional crackers with less polluting substances with the aim to reduce the noise intensity and emissions. Range of sound: Regular crackers also produce 160-200 decibels of sound, while that from green crackers are limited to about 100-130 decibels. Features: Most green crackers do not contain barium nitrate, which is the most dangerous ingredient in conventional crackers. Green crackers use alternative chemicals such as potassium nitrate and aluminium instead of magnesium and barium as well as carbon instead of arsenic and other harmful pollutants. Types of green crackers: SWAS – Safe Water Releaser: These crackers do not use sulphur or potassium nitrate, and thus release water vapour instead of certain key pollutants. It also deploys the use of diluents, and thus is able to control particulate matter (PM) emissions by upto 30%. STAR – Safe Thermite Cracker: Just like SWAS, STAR also does not contain sulphur and potassium nitrate, and besides controlling particulate dust emissions, it also has lower sound intensity. SAFAL – Safe Minimal Aluminium: It replaces aluminium content with magnesium and thus produces reduced levels of pollutants. Production: All three types of green crackers can currently only be produced by licensed manufacturers, approved by the CSIR. Certification: The Petroleum and Explosives Safety Organisation (PESO) is tasked with certifying that the crackers are made without arsenic, mercury, and barium, and are not loud beyond a certain threshold. About Petroleum and Explosives Safety Organisation (PESO): Ministry: PESO is an office under the Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade, Ministry of Commerce and Industries. Establishment: It was established in 1898 as a nodal agency for regulating safety of substances such as explosives, compressed gases and petroleum. Head office: Its head office is located in Nagpur, Maharashtra. Source: The Hindu India–Middle East–Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC) Category: International Relations Context: The IMEC visualises the upgradation of maritime connectivity between India and the Arabian Peninsula, as well as high-speed trains running from the ports in the UAE to the Haifa port in Israel through Saudi Arabia and Jordan. About India–Middle East–Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC): Launch: The IMEC is a strategic multi-modal connectivity initiative launched through a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) during the G20 Summit 2023 in New Delhi.  Members: Signatories include India, US, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, France, Germany, Italy and the European Union. Objective: It aims to develop an integrated network of ports, railways, roads, sea lines, energy pipelines, and digital infrastructure aimed at enhancing trade between India, the Middle East, and Europe.  Alternative to BRI: IMEC seeks to position itself as a viable alternative to China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) by promoting transparent, sustainable, and debt-free infrastructure without compromising national sovereignty.  Part of PGII: The initiative is a part of the Partnership for Global Infrastructure and Investment (PGII), launched by the G7 in 2021. Focus on cooperation: IMEC includes energy pipelines, clean energy infrastructure, and undersea cables to enhance trade and energy cooperation. Corridors: IMEC has two parts the Eastern Corridor (India to Gulf) and the Northern Corridor (Gulf to Europe).  Significance for India: IMEC is set to reduce logistics costs by up to 30% and transportation time by 40%, compared to the Suez Canal Maritime route making Indian exports more competitive globally.  In sync with OSOWOG: India’s One Sun One World One Grid (OSOWOG) initiative aligns with IMEC’s energy goals, enabling India to harness solar and green hydrogen power from the Middle East, a region rich in renewable energy potential.  It will attract Foreign Direct Investment into India, particularly in infrastructure, logistics, green energy, and digital technologies, helping India access low-cost renewable energy and transition to a low-carbon economy.  Setback:  The project faced a major setback due to the Israel-Hamas conflict in 2023. Geopolitical instability in the Middle East has temporarily slowed momentum.  Source: The Hindu National Commission for Minorities (NCM) Category: Polity and Governance Context: The Delhi High Court sought a response from the Union government on long-pending vacancies in the National Commission for Minorities (NCM). About National Commission for Minorities (NCM): Genesis: The Minorities Commission (MC) was established in 1978 through a Ministry of Home Affairs Resolution and was moved to the newly created Ministry of Welfare in 1984. Nature: It is a statutory body established under the National Commission for Minorities Act, 1992. The first statutory Commission was constituted on 17th May 1993. In 1988, the Ministry of Welfare excluded linguistic minorities from the Commission’s jurisdiction. Objective: It was formed with the vision to safeguard and protect the interests of minority communities.   Composition: It consists of a Chairperson, a Vice-Chairperson, and five Members, all nominated by the Central Government but absence of a full body has led to concerns over inefficiency.  Eligibility of members: Each member must belong to one of the six notified minority communities: Muslim, Christian, Sikh, Buddhist, Parsi, and Jain.  Powers: It has quasi-judicial powers and each member serves a three-year term from the date they assume office.  Removal: The Central Government may remove the Chairperson or any Member of the NCM if they:  Are adjudged insolvent,   Take up paid employment outside their duties,   Refuse or become incapable of acting,   Are declared of unsound mind by a court,   Abuse their office, or   Are convicted of an offence involving moral turpitude. About Minorities in India: Not defined by Constitution: The Constitution of India does not provide a definition for the term ‘Minority’,

Archives (PRELIMS  Focus) Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Category: Polity and Governance Context: The Madras High Court has held that involving the parents of victim, is essential for deciding on applications filed by individuals accused of offences under the Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act. About Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO): Enactment: The POCSO Act came into effect on 14th November 2012 which was enacted in consequence to India’s ratification of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child in 1992. Objective: The aim of this special law is to address offences of sexual exploitation and sexual abuse of children, which were either not specifically defined or in adequately penalised. Definition of a child: The Act defines a child as any person below the age of 18 years. The Act provides punishment as per the gravity of offence. Major features of the Act: The Act recognizes that both girls and boys can be victims of sexual abuse and that such abuse is a crime regardless of the gender of the victim. There is sufficient general awareness now to report cases of sexual exploitation of children not only by individuals but also by institutions as non-reporting has been made a specific offence under the POCSO Act. The storage of child pornography material has been made a new offence. Further, the offence of ‘sexual assault’ has been defined in explicit terms (with increased minimum punishment) unlike an abstract definition of ‘outraging modesty of a woman’ in the Indian Penal Code. Further amendments: The Act was further reviewed and amended in 2019 to Introduce more stringent punishment including the death penalty for Committing sexual crimes on children, with a view to deter the perpetrators & prevent such crimes against children. The Government of India has also notified the POCSO Rules, 2020. About POCSO Rules, 2020: Rule-9 of the POCSO Rules allows the Special Court to order interim compensation for the child’s needs related to relief or rehabilitation after the FIR’s registration. The Child Welfare Committee (CWC) may recommend immediate payment for essential needs like food, clothes, and transportation, using funds from the District Legal Services Authority (DLSA), the District Child Protection Unit (DCPU), or funds maintained under the Juvenile Justice Act 2015. The POCSO Rules empower the CWC to provide a support person to assist the child throughout the investigation and trial process. Source: The Hindu Microplastics Category: Environment and Ecology Context: According to a study, microplastics pollution threatens Goa’s estuarine fisheries as well as human consumers. About Microplastics: Definition: They are defined as plastics less than five millimetres in diameter. It can be harmful to our ocean and aquatic life. Formation: Under the influence of solar UV radiation, wind, currents, and other natural factors, plastic fragments into small particles, termed microplastics (particles smaller than 5 mm) or nanoplastics (particles smaller than 100 nm). Classification of microplastics: Primary Microplastics: They are tiny particles designed for commercial use and microfibers shed from clothing and other textiles. E.g., microbeads found in personal care products, plastic pellets, and plastic fibres. Secondary Microplastics: They are formed from the breakdown of larger plastics, such as water bottles. Exposure to environmental factors, primarily solar radiation and ocean waves, is the cause of this breakdown. Applications of Microplastics: Medical and Pharmaceutical Uses: Used in targeted drug delivery due to the capacity to absorb and release chemicals effectively. Industrial Applications: Used in air-blasting technology for cleaning machinery and in the production of synthetic textiles. Cosmetics and Personal Care Products: Used as exfoliating agents in facial scrubs, toothpaste, and other personal care products. Steps taken to address microplastics: United Nations Environment Assembly (UNEA) Resolutions: The UNEA resolution mandated the development of an international legally binding instrument on plastic pollution, including in the marine environment. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Plastics Treaty: The UNEP is working on an international legally binding instrument to address plastic pollution, including microplastics. Source: The Hindu PM Surya Ghar: Muft Bijli Yojana Category: Defence and Security Context: A new hub of the National Security Guard (NSG), the elite counter-terror and counter-hijack force, will be established at Ayodhya in Uttar Pradesh. About National Security Guard (NSG): Establishment: The NSG is a counter-terrorism unit that formally came into existence in 1986 by an act of Parliament- ‘National Security Guard Act, 1986’. Incidents that led to its formation: The idea behind raising such force came in the aftermath of Operation Blue Star in 1984, Akshardham Temple attack and the assassination of former PM Indira Gandhi. Objective: It aims for ‘combating terrorist activities with a view to protect states against internal disturbances.’ Specialisations: The NSG is trained to conduct counter-terrorist task including counter hijacking tasks on land, sea, and air; Bomb disposal (search, detection, and neutralization of IEDs), Post Blast Investigation (PBI), and Hostage Rescue missions. Distinctive uniform: The NSG personnel are often referred to in the media as Black Cat Commandos because of the black outfit and black cat insignia worn on their uniform. Motto: The motto of ‘Sarvatra, Sarvottam, Suraksha’ has always been upheld by it with a focus on its basic philosophy of swift and speedy strike and immediate withdrawal from the theatre of action. Ministry: It operates under the Ministry of Home Affairs and is a task-oriented force that has two complementary elements in the form of: Special Action Group (SAG) comprising of the Army personnel- is the main offensive or the strike wing of the NSG, and Special Ranger Groups (SRG) comprising of personnel drawn from the Central Armed Police Forces/State Police Forces. They generally handle VIP securities. Source: The Hindu World Health Organization (WHO) Category: International Relations Context: The World Health Organization (WHO) has issued a medical product alert on three liquid medicines identified in India as contaminated and reported to it on October 8. About World Health Organization (WHO): Specialised agency of UN: The World Health Organization (WHO) is the UN’s specialized agency for health, coordinating international public health efforts and working to ensure the highest possible

Archives (PRELIMS  Focus) Nobel Prize in Economics 2025 Category: Economics Context: The Nobel prize in Economics was declared for year 2025 by Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.   About Nobel Prize in Economics 2025: Awardees: Joel Mokyr, Philippe Aghion and Peter Howitt won the 2025 Nobel economics prize. Mr. Mokyr was awarded half the prize with the other half being shared between Aghion and Howitt. Awarded for: They were awarded the Nobel economics prize for “having explained innovation-driven economic growth.” Significance: The laureates have taught us that sustained growth cannot be taken for granted. Economic stagnation, not growth, has been the norm for most of human history. Their work shows that we must be aware of, and counteract, threats to continued growth. About the winners: Mr. Mokyr is a professor at Northwestern University, in Evanston in the United States, while Mr. Aghion is professor at the College de France and INSEAD, in Paris, and at the London School of Economics and Political Science, in Britain. Mr. Howitt is a professor at Brown University, in Providence in the United States. About Nobel Economics Prize: Feature: The prestigious award, formally known as the Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel, is the final prize, given out every year and is worth 11 million Swedish Kronor ($1.2 million). First Nobel Economics Prize: The economics prize was established much later (compared to other Nobel prizes), being given out first in 1969 when it was won by Norway’s Ragnar Frisch and Jan Tinbergen from the Netherlands for work in dynamic economic modelling. Famous Recipients: While few economists are household names, relatively well-known winners include former U.S. Federal Reserve chairman Ben Bernanke, and Paul Krugman and Milton Friedman. Last year’s economics award: It went to U.S.-based academics Simon Johnson, James Robinson and Daron Acemoglu for research that explored the relationship between colonisation and the establishment of public institutions to explain why some countries have been mired in poverty for decades. Source: The Hindu Uniform Civil Code (UCC) Category: Polity and Governance Context: The Uttarakhand government approved a crucial amendment in the Uniform Civil Code (UCC) bringing relief to citizens of Nepali and Bhutanese origin who are living in the State and do not have an Aadhaar card as identity proof to register their marriage. About Uniform Civil Code (UCC): Definition: The Uniform Civil Code refers to a single set of laws governing personal matters such as marriage, divorce, adoption, inheritance, and succession for all citizens of India. Constitutional provisions: Part of DPSP: The concept of UCC is mentioned in Article 44 of the Indian Constitution as a Directive Principle of State Policy, which states that the state shall endeavour to secure a uniform civil code for citizens throughout the territory of India. Entry 5 of the Concurrent List in the Seventh Schedule: It specifically addresses various aspects including marriage, divorce, adoption, and succession, among others, allowing for legislation concerning personal laws. Important judgements: 1985 – Shah Bano Case: The Court upheld a Muslim woman’s right to maintenance, linking UCC to national integration.  1995 – Sarla Mudgal Case: Strongly favoured UCC, especially for the majority Hindu population, questioning the delay in its implementation. 2017 – Shayara Bano Case: Addressed triple talaq, reigniting the UCC debate but separating it from the issue of human rights. Arguments in favour: A UCC would ensure equal rights and treatment for all citizens, regardless of their religious background. This aligns with Article 14 of the Indian Constitution, which guarantees equality before the law. Many personal laws have been criticized for being discriminatory towards women. A UCC could address issues like triple talaq, unequal inheritance rights, and child marriage. India’s current system of multiple personal laws based on religion creates a complex legal landscape. A UCC would simplify this system, making it easier for courts to administer justice and for citizens to understand their rights. Arguments against: India’s pluralistic society is characterized by a rich blend of cultural and religious practices, many of which are protected under personal laws. Critics argue that a UCC could erode this diversity, leading to cultural homogenization. Opponents of UCC argue that it could infringe on the right to religious freedom guaranteed by Article 25 of the Constitution. They contend that personal laws are an integral part of religious practice for many communities. There are concerns that a UCC could disproportionately affect minority communities, potentially leading to a sense of marginalization. Source: The Hindu PM Surya Ghar: Muft Bijli Yojana Category: Government Schemes Context: Despite a near four-fold increase in applications between March 2024 and July 2025, only 13.1% of the targeted 1 crore solar rooftop installations, under the PM Surya Ghar: Muft Bijli Yojana, has been achieved. About PM Surya Ghar: Muft Bijli Yojana: Feature: It is a central scheme to promote the adoption of solar rooftop systems by providing substantial financial subsidies and ensuring ease of installation. Objective: It aims to provide free electricity to one crore households in India, who opt to install roof top solar electricity units. The households will be able to get 300 units of electricity free every month. Implementation Agencies: The scheme will be executed at two levels. National Level: Managed by the National Programme Implementation Agency (NPIA). State Level: Managed by State Implementation Agencies (SIAs), which are the Distribution Utilities (DISCOMs) or Power/Energy Departments of the respective states or UTs. Supervision: As SIAs, DISCOMs are responsible for facilitating various measures to promote rooftop solar adoption, including ensuring the availability of net metres, and conducting timely inspections and commissioning of installations. Capping of subsidy: The scheme provides subsidies to reduce the cost of installing solar rooftop systems. The subsidy is capped at a maximum of 3kW capacity. Eligibility: Grid-connected rooftop solar systems on residential properties, including roofs, terraces, balconies, and elevated structures are eligible for Central Financial Assistance (CFA). Source: The Hindu Snow Leopards Category: Environment and Ecology Context: Snow leopard that inhabits the rugged ranges of 12 Asian countries, including India, has the lowest genetic diversity

Archives (PRELIMS  Focus) National Commission for Scheduled Castes (NCSC) Category: Polity and Governance Context: The National Commission for Scheduled Castes has prescribed conditions under which complaints to the panel can be rejected — in some cases, without a hearing. About National Commission for Scheduled Castes (NCSC): Nature: The NCSC is a Constitutional Body established with a view to provide safeguards against the exploitation of Scheduled Castes and to promote and protect their social, educational, economic and cultural interests. Composition: The NCSC comprises a Chairperson, a Vice-Chairperson, and three additional Members. Appointment: These positions are filled through the President’s appointment, indicated by a warrant under his hand and seal. Conditions of service: Their conditions of service and tenure of office are also determined by the President. Evolution: Initially, the constitution provided for the appointment of a Special Officer under Article 338. The special officer was designated as the Commissioner for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. By 65th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1990, it amended Article 338 of the Constitution and replaced the one-member system with a multi-member National Commission for Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes(ST). Through 89th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2003, Article 338 was amended, and the erstwhile National Commission for SC and ST was replaced by two separate Commissions from the year 2004. Powers: The Commission, while investigating any matter or inquiring into any complaint, has all the powers of a civil court trying a suit and in particular in respect of the following matters: summoning and enforcing the attendance of any person and examining him on oath; receiving evidence on affidavits; and requisitioning any public record from any court or office. Changes post 2018: Till 2018, the commission was also required to discharge similar functions with regard to the other backward classes (OBCs). It was relieved from this responsibility by the 102nd Amendment Act, 2018. Source: The Hindu Thalassemia Category: Science and Technology Context: Thalassemia patients flagged shortage of leukocyte filter sets and iron chelation drugs in Kerala. About Thalassemia: Nature: Thalassemia is an inherited blood disorder that reduces the body’s ability to produce normal hemoglobin, leading to fewer healthy red blood cells and anemia. Cause: Thalassaemia is caused by inheriting a gene mutation (change in the normal DNA) from one or both parents. Symptoms: Symptoms range from growth issues, delayed puberty, and bone abnormalities in mild cases to poor appetite, jaundice, dark urine, and facial bone irregularities in severe cases. Types of Thalassemia: Alpha Thalassemia: It is caused by defective alpha-globin genes inherited from both parents. Beta Thalassemia: It is caused by defects in beta-globin genes. Treatments: Blood transfusions – regular blood transfusions treat and prevent anaemia; in severe cases these are needed around once a month. Chelation therapy – treatment with medicine to remove the excess iron from the body that builds up as a result of having regular blood transfusions. The only possible cure for thalassaemia is a stem cell or bone marrow transplant, but this is not done very often because of the risks involved. Source: The Hindu Wildlife Trust of India (WTI) Category: Environment and Ecology Context: A report on 25 years of support for wildlife warriors by the Wildlife Trust of India (WTI) has highlighted the role of India’s forest protectors. About Wildlife Trust of India (WTI): Nature: The Wildlife Trust of India (WTI) is a non-profit conservation organisation dedicated to safeguarding India’s natural heritage. It is a registered charity in India (under Section 12A of the Income Tax Act, 1961). Establishment: It was established in 1998 in response to the numerous crises confronting India’s wildlife and wild habitats. Objective: Its mission is to conserve nature, especially endangered species and threatened habitats, in partnership with communities and governments. Ministry: It works closely with the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change under the Government of India, as well as with the respective state government forest and wildlife departments. Headquarters: It is headquartered in New Delhi. About Van Rakshak Project (VRP): The WTI launched the Van Rakshak Project (VRP) in 2000 with the International Fund for Animal Welfare’s (IFAW) support. It aimed at building a well-equipped, and motivated force of frontline forest staff across India. The project has supported more than 21,000 personnel nationwide through a diverse range of capacity-strengthening initiatives. A key component of the VRP is the Supplementary Accident Assurance Scheme, which offers immediate financial assistance to frontline forest staff in the event of injury or death in the line of duty. Source: The Hindu Iron Age Culture Category: History and Culture Context: The first season of excavations carried out by the Tamil Nadu State Department of Archaeology (TNSDA) at Thirumalapuram in Tenkasi district has brought to light the presence of Iron Age culture close to the Western Ghats in Tamil Nadu. More about the findings: According to ‘Archaeological Excavations in Tamil Nadu: A Preliminary Report’, the burial site at Thirumalapuram  covers nearly 35 acres and lies about 10 km northwest of the present-day village, between two seasonal streams that rise from the Western Ghats near the Kulasegarapereri tank. The excavations also yielded a rich collection of ceramics found in graves and among grave goods. These included white-painted black-and-red ware, red ware, red-slipped ware, black-polished ware, and coarse red ware. The black-and-red ware, black ware, and black-slipped ware types had white-painted designs, a unique feature first reported from T. Kallupatti and later from Adichanallur, Sivagalai, Thulukkarpatti, and Korkai. According to the report, symbols on the urns were among the most striking discoveries at Thirumalapuram. One red-slipped pot featured dotted designs showing a human figure, a mountain, a deer, and a tortoise. A total of 78 antiquities made of bone, gold, bronze, and iron were also found. They include a tweezer, sword, spearhead, gold ring, axe, dagger, chisel, bonehead, and arrowhead. About Iron Age: Nature: The Iron Age is a prehistoric period that followed the Bronze Age, characterized by the widespread use of iron for tools, weapons, and other implements. Various cultures associated with it: Black-and-Red Ware (BRW): It is characterized by distinctive pottery with black interiors and red exteriors due

Archives (PRELIMS  Focus) Nobel Peace Prize 2025 Category: Miscellaneous Context: Venezuela’s Opposition leader María Machado won the Nobel Peace Prize for ‘promoting democracy.’     About Nobel Peace Prize 2025: Awardee: Venezuelan Opposition leader María Corina Machado won the Nobel Peace Prize 2025. Reason for the award: The Nobel Peace Prize 2025 has been awarded to María Corina Machado “for her tireless work promoting democratic rights for the people of Venezuela and for her struggle to achieve a just and peaceful transition from dictatorship to democracy.” Significance: She won the Nobel Peace Prize for her struggle to achieve a democratic transition in the South American nation, winning recognition as a woman “who keeps the flame of democracy burning amid a growing darkness.” About Nobel Peace Prize: Nature: It is one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the will of Swedish industrialist, inventor, and armaments manufacturer Alfred Nobel, along with the prizes in Chemistry, Physics, Physiology or Medicine, and Literature. Background: In 1895, Alfred Nobel’s will specified a prize for those promoting fraternity between nations, reducing standing armies, or supporting peace congresses. Establishment of the award: The Nobel Peace Prize was established in 1901 by Alfred Nobel, and it recognizes individuals or organisations promoting peace, disarmament, and global harmony. Inspiration: Alfred Nobel was inspired by Bertha von Suttner, a peace activist, to include the peace category. Awarding Body: The prize is administered by the Norwegian Nobel Committee, elected by Norway’s Parliament (Stortinget). First recipient: The first Nobel Peace Prize was awarded in 1901 and was shared by two recipients: Swiss humanitarian Jean Henry Dunant and French pacifist Frédéric Passy. Source: The Hindu Census 2027 Category: Polity and Governance Context: A four-day training to conduct the pre-test exercise for the first phase of the Population Census 2027 has started, the Registrar General and Census Commissioner (RG & CCI) said. About Census: Feature: The Indian Census is the largest source of demographic and socio-economic data on the country’s population. First census: India’s first synchronised census occurred in 1881 under W.C. Plowden, the then Census Commissioner of India.  Decennial in nature: It has consistently provided detailed statistical information every 10 years, starting in 1872, when the first non-synchronous census was conducted across different regions of India. Legal framework: The Census Act of 1948 was enacted to create a legal framework for census operations and to define the roles of census officers. While the Act provides the legal framework, it does not mandate a specific frequency, making the decennial pattern a convention, not a constitutional requirement. Ministry: In May 1949, the Government of India established a permanent Census organization under the Ministry of Home Affairs to systematize the collection of population and demographic data.  Implementing authority: The Office of the Registrar General was later tasked with implementing the Registration of Births and Deaths Act, 1969, further expanding its role in maintaining vital statistics. About Census 2027: The central government has officially notified the conduct of the next decennial census in 2027, exercising its authority under Section 3 of the Census Act, 1948. The Census will have a reference date of 1st March, 2027, for most parts of the country. Source: The Hindu Sawalkote Hydroelectric Project Category: Geography Context: An apex committee of the Environment Ministry has accorded a fresh environmental clearance to the Sawalkote hydroelectric project.     About Sawalkote Hydroelectric Project: Location: It is a 1,856 MW run-of-the-river (uses the natural flow of a river with little or no water storage) hydroelectric project located on the Chenab River (a western river under Indus Water Treaty) in Ramban, J&K. Gravity dam: The project was initiated in 1984 and has faced multiple delays over the years. Declared as a project of national importance, it involves the construction of a concrete gravity dam with a reservoir. Electricity production: Once operational, Sawalkote is expected to generate over 7,000 million units of electricity annually, making it one of the largest hydroelectric projects in India. Significance: With the Indus Water Treaty (IWT) in abeyance, the project is considered crucial for harnessing Chenab River’s hydropower potential and enhancing India’s control over western rivers of IWT. About Chenab River: Origin: It is formed by the confluence of two streams, Chandra and Bhaga, in the Lahaul and Spiti Districts of Himachal Pradesh. It is a tributary of the Indus River. In its upper reaches, it is also known as the Chandrabhaga. Course: It flows through Jammu and Kashmir union territory, Himachal Pradesh and after receiving the Jhelum River near Trimmu, the Chenab empties into the Sutlej River. Major Tributaries: Left Bank:  Niru, Tawi, Neeru, and Liddrari Right Bank: Ans, Bhut Nalla, Bichleri, Kalnai Marusudar and Miyar Nalla. Major projects on Chenab river: The Chenab River hosts the 390-MW Dulhasti project at Kishtwar, the 890-MW Baglihar project at Ramban, and the 690-MW Salal project at Reasi. These projects significantly contribute to the region’s energy supply. Source: The Hindu Rare Earth Elements Category: Economy Context: US President said that China had sent letters to countries detailing export controls on “each and every element of production having to do with Rare Earths, and virtually anything else they can think of, even if it’s not manufactured in China.” About Rare Earth Elements: Nature: Rare Earth Elements (REEs) are important components in over 200 products, spanning applications in consumer electronics, electric vehicles, defence systems, and many more. Types of Rare Earth Elements: Based on the atomic weight, Rare Earth Elements are divided into two groups – light REEs, those with atomic numbers from 57 to 63 (La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm and Eu) and heavy REEs, those with atomic numbers from 64 to 71 (Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb and Lu). Characteristics: REEs are characterised by high density, high melting point, high conductivity and high thermal conductance. Rare Earth Elements share a trivalent charge (+3) and similar ionic radii, hence similar properties. Sources: The principal sources of REE are bastnaesite (a fluorocarbonate which occurs in carbonatites and related igneous rocks), xenotime (yttrium phosphate) commonly found in mineral