Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) CHETTUR SANKARAN NAIR Category: HISTORY Context: Prime Minister Narendra Modi attacked the Congress for having “abandoned” the memory of Chettur Sankaran Nair, who resigned as the sole Indian on the Viceroy’s Executive Council after the Jallianwala Bagh massacre of 1919. Decoding the context: Chettur Sankaran Nair is the subject of an upcoming film called Kesari Chapter 2. The film is an adaptation of the 2019 book, The Case That Shook the Empire: One Man’s Fight for the Truth about the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre. Learning Corner: Chettur Sankaran Nair was a prominent Indian jurist, statesman, and nationalist leader during the British Raj, remembered for his bold criticism of British policies and his advocacy for Indian rights. Born on July 11, 1857, in Mankara village, Palakkad district, Malabar (now Kerala), into an aristocratic Chettur family following matrilineal succession. Graduated with an Arts degree (1877) from Presidency College, Madras, and earned a Law degree (1879) from Madras Law College. Served as Public Prosecutor (1899) and Advocate-General of Madras (1906–1908), a rare position for an Indian. Appointed puisne judge at the Madras High Court (1908–1915), contributing landmark judgments: Budasna v. Fatima (1914): Ruled converts to Hinduism cannot be treated as outcastes, promoting social inclusion. Upheld inter-caste and inter-religious marriages, reflecting progressive values. An early member of INC (founded 1885), Nair was elected its President in 1897 at the Amravati session, the youngest ever and the only Malayali to hold the post. Appointed to the Raleigh University Commission (1902) by Lord Curzon, influencing education policy. Viceroy’s Executive Council: Served as Education Member (1915–1919), the only Indian in the council, pushing for constitutional reforms. Supported the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1918), introducing dyarchy for greater Indian participation, though he sought more liberal provisions. Simon Commission (1928): Chaired the Indian Central Committee to cooperate with the Simon Commission, preparing a report reiterating Dominion Status. Role in Jallianwala Bagh Aftermath – Resignation in Protest: As the sole Indian in the Viceroy’s Executive Council, Nair was appalled by the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919), where British troops under Reginald Dyer killed hundreds. Resigned in July 1919, protesting the British justification of martial law in Punjab under Michael O’Dwyer, despite advice from Motilal Nehru to stay and reform from within. His resignation shocked the British, leading to the revocation of martial law and amplifying nationalist sentiments. Gandhi and Anarchy (1922): Authored the book, critiquing both Gandhi’s Non-Cooperation Movement (fearing it would lead to disorder) and British repression, especially O’Dwyer’s Punjab policies. Accused O’Dwyer of abetting the massacre, sparking a defamation lawsuit in London (1924). O’Dwyer v. Nair Trial: Sued by O’Dwyer in the King’s Bench, London, Nair faced a biased system.He Lost the case and was ordered to pay £500 in damages; he refused to apologize, choosing principle over compromise. Source : Indian Express ARTICLE 143 Category: POLITY Context: A key takeaway from the Supreme Court’s judgment in the Tamil Nadu Governor case is its observation that when a Governor reserves a Bill for the President’s assent on grounds of perceived unconstitutionality, the President ought to seek the Supreme Court’s opinion. Decoding the context: The Court noted that both the Sarkaria Commission and the Punchhi Commission categorically recommended the President to seek the opinion of this Court under Article 143 in respect of bills that may be apprehended to be patently unconstitutional. Learning Corner: Article 143 of the Indian Constitution grants the President the power to seek advisory opinions from the Supreme Court on matters of public importance. This advisory jurisdiction allows the President to consult the Supreme Court on questions of law or fact. The April 8, 2025 judgement, says that, invoking Article 143, the President “ought to” seek its opinion where the Governor has reserved the Bill for his/her consideration on the ground of “perceived unconstitutionality.” Acknowledging that it’s not mandatory for the government to accept its opinion, the SC added that the same “holds high persuasive value and should ordinarily be accepted by the legislature and the executive” and “merely because the jurisdiction under Article 143 is not binding does not undermine the principles used by this Court to determine the constitutionality of the bill.” The ruling also spoke of the manner in which the SC would exercise its power in case of such a reference.  Ruling said that the court “in such situations…has to be mindful as to whether the reference received from the President under Article 143 pertains to pure legal questions regarding interpretation of the Constitution or questions that are in the nature of a policy consideration. In case of the latter, the Supreme Court, having regard to the relevant facts and circumstances, can refuse to express its advisory opinion upon being satisfied that the questions presented to it are purely socio-economic or political questions and have no relation to the Constitution.” Source : Indian Express DR. B.R. AMBEDKAR Category: HISTORY Context: April 14 marked the birth anniversary of Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar. Decoding the context: Fondly known as Babasaheb, Ambedkar was the chief architect of the Indian Constitution and is thus also called the ‘Father of the Indian Constitution. Ambedkar was also the first Law and Justice minister of Independent India. Learning Corner: Personal Details Born: April 14, 1891, in Mhow, Central Provinces (now Madhya Pradesh). Born into a Mahar (Dalit) family, faced caste discrimination. Died: December 6, 1956, in Delhi; cremated with Buddhist rites at Chaitya Bhoomi, Mumbai. Bharat Ratna: Awarded posthumously in 1990. Education First Dalit student at Elphinstone High School, Bombay Graduation: B.A. in Economics and Political Science (1912), Elphinstone College, University of Bombay. M.A., Ph.D.: Columbia University, New York, USA (1915, 1916; thesis: National Dividend of India). D.Sc.: London School of Economics (1923; thesis: The Problem of the Rupee). Bar-at-Law: Gray’s Inn, London (1923). Scholarships: Supported by Sayajirao Gaekwad III (Baroda ruler) for foreign education. Key Movements: Mahad Satyagraha (1927): Led for Dalits’ right to access Chavdar Tank water in Mahad, Maharashtra. Kalaram Temple Entry (1930): Protest for Dalits’ temple access in Nashik. Poona Pact (1932): Agreement with Gandhi,

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) TPU, GPU AND CPU Category: SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: Google recently launched a new computer chip, called Ironwood. It is the company’s seventh-generation TPU, or tensor processing unit, which has been designed to run artificial intelligence (AI) models. Decoding the context: Processing units are essentially hardware units that are the brain of a computer. In this context, it is important to understand the difference between CPU, GPU and TPU. Learning Corner: About CPU (Central Processing Unit) Developed in the 1950s, a CPU is a general-purpose processor that can handle various tasks. A CPU has at least a single core — the processing unit within the CPU that can execute instructions. In the initial years, CPUs used to have just one core but today, they can contain from two to up to 16 cores. As each core of the CPU can handle one task at a time, the ability to multitask is determined by the number of cores in the hardware. About GPU (graphics processing unit) Unlike a CPU, a GPU is a specialised processor (it is a type of application-specific integrated circuit, or ASIC) which has been designed to perform multiple tasks concurrently rather than sequentially (like in a CPU).  Modern GPUs comprise thousands of cores which break down complex problems into thousands or millions of separate tasks and work them out in parallel, a concept known as parallel processing. This makes GPUs far more efficient than CPUs. Initially developed for graphics rendering in gaming and animation, GPUs today are far more flexible and have become the bedrock of machine learning. About TPU (Tensor Processing Unit) A TPU is also a type of ASIC, meaning it is designed to perform a narrow scope of intended tasks. First used by Google in 2015, TPUs were specially built to accelerate machine learning workloads. TPUs are engineered to handle tensor — a generic name for the data structures used for machine learning — operations. They excel in processing large volumes of data and executing complex neural networks efficiently, enabling fast training of AI models.  While AI models can take weeks to be trained with the help of GPUs, the same process can be executed within hours using TPUs. Source : Indian Express INDIAN PLATE Category: GEOGRAPHY Context: Recent findings reveal that the Indian Plate is splitting into two, a phenomenon that could reshape the region’s geological landscape.  Decoding the context:  Published in the American Geophysical Union, this groundbreaking discovery points to delamination, where the plate is peeling apart and sinking into the Earth’s mantle.  Learning Corner: The Indian Plate is a tectonic plate encompassing the Indian subcontinent, parts of the Indian Ocean, and regions of South China and western Indonesia, extending up to but excluding Ladakh, Kohistan, and Balochistan.  Originally part of the supercontinent Gondwana, it broke away approximately 100 million years ago and began its northward journey, shaping the geological features of South Asia. Boundaries: North: Convergent boundary with the Eurasian Plate, forming the Himalayas. West: Transform boundary with the Arabian Plate (Owen Fracture Zone). Southwest: Divergent boundary with the African Plate (Central Indian Ridge). Southeast: Formerly fused with the Australian Plate as the Indo-Australian Plate, but recent studies suggest separation for at least 3 million years due to differing drift velocities. Movement: Currently moves northeast at 5 cm/year, while the Eurasian Plate moves north at 2 cm/year, causing compression at 4 mm/year and deformation of the Eurasian Plate. Thickness: Estimated at 100 km, half the thickness of other Gondwana-derived plates, possibly due to mantle plume activity that melted its lower part, enabling faster movement. Historical Evolution Gondwana Breakup (140–100 Mya): The Indian Plate was part of Gondwana, alongside modern Africa, Australia, Antarctica, and Madagascar. Around 100 million years ago, it split from Madagascar, forming Insular India, an island continent. Northward Journey: Moving at up to 20 cm/year, one of the fastest plate movements recorded, it collided with the Eurasian Plate between 55–35 million years ago during the Eocene epoch, forming the Himalayas and Tibetan Plateau. Deccan Traps: As it passed over the Reunion hotspot ~65 million years ago, massive volcanic activity formed the Deccan Traps, potentially contributing to the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event. Recent studies, reveal that the Indian Plate is undergoing delamination, a process where its dense lower layer (mantle rock) peels away from the buoyant upper layer (continental crust) and sinks into the Earth’s mantle. This phenomenon, observed beneath the Tibetan Plateau, is reshaping geological understanding. Source : Science RARE EARTH MAGNETS Category: SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: China has reportedly suspended exports of vital minerals and magnets, triggering concerns of widespread disruptions for global industries ranging from automotive and aerospace to semiconductors and defense. Decoding the context: The move is seen as retaliation for escalating US tariffs. Learning Corner: Rare Earth Magnets are permanent magnets that generate a magnetic field without external power, using alloys of REEs like neodymium, praseodymium, dysprosium, and samarium, combined with metals like iron, cobalt, or boron.  They are the strongest permanent magnets available, with high magnetic strength, durability, and resistance to demagnetization. Types: Neodymium-Iron-Boron (NdFeB) Magnets: Composition: Neodymium, iron, boron. Features: Highest magnetic strength, used in electric vehicles (EVs), wind turbines, hard disk drives, and drones. Limitations: Susceptible to corrosion, lower temperature resistance (up to 230°C). Samarium-Cobalt (SmCo) Magnets: Composition: Samarium, cobalt. Features: High-temperature stability, corrosion resistance, used in aerospace, military, and medical equipment. Key REEs Used: Neodymium (Nd): Most critical for NdFeB magnets, used in EVs and wind turbines. Praseodymium (Pr): Enhances magnet performance, often used with neodymium. Dysprosium (Dy): Improves high-temperature performance, critical for heavy REE applications. Samarium (Sm): Key for SmCo magnets, vital for defense systems. Applications: Defense: Permanent magnets in missile guidance systems, radar, sonar, and underwater mine detection. Renewable Energy: NdFeB magnets in wind turbine rotors and EV motors. Consumer Electronics: Used in smartphones, hard disk drives, digital cameras, and audio equipment. Medical: SmCo magnets in MRI machines and surgical lasers. Strategic: Critical for space shuttle components, jet engines, and robotics. Source : Times of India KAVACH Category: SCIENCE

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) GUJARAT PARTICULATE MATTER (PM) EMISSION TRADING SCHEME (ETS) Category: ENVIRONMENT Context: A new study on the world’s first-ever market for trading particulate emissions, which are tiny particles that can impact human health, revealed that employing the market mechanism helped reduce pollution by 20-30 per cent in an industrial cluster in Surat. Decoding the context: Published in the Quarterly Journal of Economics, the study saw researchers compare the emissions performance of participating plants with those complying with the business-as-usual pollution standards. It covered 162 plants, predominantly in the textile sector. Learning Corner: The Gujarat Particulate Matter (PM) Emission Trading Scheme (ETS), launched in Surat in 2019, is the world’s first market-based system for trading Particulate Matter (PM) emissions, aimed at reducing industrial air pollution. Key Points on Gujarat PM ETS Initiated on June 5, 2019 (World Environment Day) by the Gujarat Pollution Control Board (GPCB) in Surat, a textile and industrial hub. World’s first ETS for PM emissions, unlike carbon or SO₂ trading systems (e.g., EU ETS, Kyoto Protocol) and India’s first for any pollutant. Developed by: Gujarat Pollution Control Board (GPCB) in collaboration with the Energy Policy Institute at the University of Chicago (EPIC), Yale University, and Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab (J-PAL). Mechanism (Cap-and-Trade): Cap: Sets a total PM emission limit (initially 280 tonnes/month, reduced to 170 tonnes by 2022) for participating industries. Permits: 80% of permits allocated free based on emission sources (boilers, heaters); 20% auctioned at ₹5-100/kg. Trading: Industries exceeding caps buy permits from those under limits via the National Commodities and Derivatives Exchange (NeML). Monitoring: Continuous Emission Monitoring Systems (CEMS) track real-time PM emissions, replacing manual inspections. Source : Indian Express ADARSH SANSKRIT VILLAGE PROGRAMME Category: GOVERNMENT SCHEMES Context: The Uttarakhand cabinet approved the Adarsh Sanskrit village programme, which aims to teach the language to one village in each district of the hill state. Decoding the context:  The move is aimed at promoting Sanskrit, the second official language of the state, and comes on the heels of other similar schemes, such as financial incentives to girls and SC/ST students who opt for Sanskrit in schools. Learning Corner: The Adarsh Sanskrit Village Programme is an initiative by the Uttarakhand government to promote Sanskrit, the state’s second official language, by integrating it into the daily life of one village in each of the state’s 13 districts.  Objectives of the Adarsh Sanskrit Village Programme Promote Sanskrit as a Living Language: Encourage villagers to use Sanskrit in daily conversations, greetings, and community activities, moving beyond its traditional confinement to academic or religious contexts. Make Sanskrit as familiar as local languages like Hindi, Garhwali, or Kumaoni. Preserve Cultural Heritage: Connect communities with Indian philosophy and knowledge systems embedded in Sanskrit texts, fostering an understanding of Dharma Shastras, epics (e.g., Mahabharata, Ramayana), and other cultural works. Counter the perception that Sanskrit is tied to specific castes or communities, promoting inclusivity across social groups, including Muslims, Dalits, and tribals. Educational and Social Development: Teach Sanskrit through structured courses, shlokas, and stories from texts like the Panchatantra and Durga Saptashati, making learning accessible and engaging. Promote social values through Sanskrit-based education. Create employment opportunities by linking Sanskrit proficiency to industry needs, supported by industry associations. Status of Sanskrit in India Sanskrit is one of the oldest known Indo-Aryan languages, forming the basis of Vedic literature, Hindu philosophy, and classical Indian sciences (Ayurveda, Astronomy, Mathematics). As per Census 2011, only about 24,821 people reported Sanskrit as their mother tongue. It is more commonly used as a second or third language, especially in religious, academic, and traditional contexts. There are a few Sanskrit-speaking villages, especially in Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, and Uttarakhand (e.g., Mattur in Karnataka, Jhiri in Madhya Pradesh) Sanskrit is one of the 22 scheduled languages listed in the Eighth Schedule, added in the original Constitution of 1950. Article 351 directs the Union to promote Hindi as a link language while enriching it with vocabulary from other Indian languages, primarily Sanskrit. Source : Indian Express COUNTERCYCLICAL CAPITAL BUFFER Category: ECONOMY Context: The Reserve Bank of India, in its review of requirement of counter-cyclical capital buffer on Tuesday said it has decided against activating countercyclical capital buffer (CCyB) as it is not needed in the present circumstances.  Decoding the context: Counter-Cyclical Capital Buffer (CCyB) is a macroprudential tool mandated under the Basel III framework to enhance the resilience of banks during economic cycles. Learning Corner: CCyB is an additional capital buffer (0-2.5% of risk-weighted assets) that banks must hold during periods of excessive credit growth to prevent systemic risks. It aims to: Strengthen banks against potential losses during economic downturns. Moderate credit booms to prevent asset bubbles. Mechanism: Activation: RBI activates CCyB when credit growth (e.g., high credit-to-GDP gap) signals systemic risk, requiring banks to build capital reserves. Deactivation: During downturns, RBI reduces or removes CCyB, freeing capital to support lending and economic recovery. Capital is held as Common Equity Tier 1 (CET1), ensuring high-quality reserves. Source : Business Standard BOMBAY STOCK EXCHANGE (BSE) Category: ECONOMY Context: The Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE), Asia’s oldest stock exchange, marked a historic milestone as it celebrated its 150th anniversary, and Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman was the chief guest at the celebration. Decoding the context: Nirmala Sitharaman lauded the Bombay Stock Exchange’s (BSE) technological advancements and its vital role in India’s economic development. Learning Corner: Founded in 1875 as the “Native Share & Stock Brokers’ Association” in Mumbai, BSE is India’s first stock exchange. BSE evolved from informal trading to a modern, technology-driven exchange, symbolizing India’s financial growth. Structure and Governance: A corporate entity since 2005, listed on the National Stock Exchange (NSE) in 2017. Regulated by the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI), ensuring transparency and investor protection. Key Functions: Facilitates trading in equities, derivatives, mutual funds, and bonds, with over 5,500 listed companies (2025). Hosts the BSE SENSEX, India’s benchmark index of 30 major companies, reflecting market trends. Processes 1,500 crore orders daily and 14 lakh orders per second, with transactions

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) FIXED-DOSE COMBINATION DRUGS Category: SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: In a major crackdown on drug safety violations, India’s Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation (CDSCO) has banned 35 fixed-dose combination (FDC) drugs. Decoding the context: The April 11 order directs an immediate halt on manufacturing, sale, and distribution of these drugs, citing that they were approved without mandatory safety and efficacy evaluations under the New Drugs and Clinical Trials (NDCT) Rules, 2019. State drug regulators had approved them without following central oversight procedures. Learning Corner: Fixed-Dose Combination (FDC) Drugs are medications that combine two or more active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) in a fixed ratio within a single dosage form (e.g., tablet, injection). FDCs classified as “New Drugs” require central approval for safety and efficacy, per NDCT Rules, 2019. Only CDSCO, not State Licensing Authorities (SLAs), can approve new FDCs. Advantages of FDCs Improved Compliance: Fewer pills mean better adherence to therapy. Synergistic Action: Combining drugs with complementary actions can enhance efficacy. Cost-Effective: Reduces overall cost of treatment by lowering packaging and distribution costs. Prevents Resistance: Especially in TB/HIV treatment, combining drugs reduces chance of microbial resistance. Concerns and Risks Irrational Combinations: Some FDCs (e.g., antibiotics + probiotics) lack scientific validation, contributing to antimicrobial resistance (AMR), a global health threat. Increased Adverse Effects: Multiple active ingredients raise the risk of drug interactions and side effects. No Individualized Dosage: Fixed ratios may not suit all patients. Regulatory Loopholes: Some manufacturers market FDCs without proper Central Drug Authority approval under state-level licenses. Source : Business Today CHIEF JUSTICE OF INDIA (CJI) Category: POLITY Context: Justice Bhushan Ramkrishna Gavai is set to become the 52nd Chief Justice of India (CJI) on May 14, 2025, succeeding Justice Sanjiv Khanna, who retires on May 13. Decoding the context:  Justice Gavai will serve until his retirement on November 23, 2025, and will be the second Dalit to hold the position after Justice K.G. Balakrishnan. Learning Corner: Article 124(2) of the Constitution empowers the President of India to appoint the CJI and other Supreme Court judges. Functions: Leads judicial proceedings, including Constitution Benches for landmark cases (e.g., Article 370 abrogation, upheld by Justice Gavai in 2023). Administers the Supreme Court, assigning cases and forming benches. Acts as the “Master of the Roster,” deciding case allocations. Advises on judicial appointments via the Collegium system Appointment Process: Memorandum of Procedure (MoP): The outgoing CJI recommends the senior-most Supreme Court judge as successor to the Union Law Ministry, followed by government approval and presidential appointment. Seniority Norm: The senior-most judge of the Supreme Court is typically appointed as the CJI. Tenure: Until retirement at age 65. Removal: As per Article 124(4), a judge, including the CJI, can be removed by the President on grounds of proved misbehavior or incapacity, following a special majority in both Houses of Parliament. Source : Hindustan Times URDU Category: ART & CULTURE Context: Upholding the use of Urdu on the signboard of a municipal council building in Maharashtra, the Supreme Court said language is culture and must not become a cause for dividing people, and Urdu “is the finest specimen of Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb, or the Hindustani tehzeeb”. Decoding the context: The court said it is a “misconception that Urdu is alien to India”, adding that “it is a language which was born in this land”. Learning Corner: Urdu, an Indo-Aryan language, evolved during medieval period from Perso-Arabic influences on Khariboli (a Prakrit-based dialect spoken in the Delhi region, which formed the grammatical base of Urdu), enriched by Persian, Arabic, and Turkic vocabulary. The name “Urdu” is derived from the Turkish word “ordu” (camp), indicating its roots in military and cultural mingling. Before it is called Urdu, it was familiar with other names including Hindustani, Hindavi, Dehlavi and Rekhta. Written in the Nastaliq script, it is known for its poetic and literary richness. Eighth Schedule: Urdu is one of the 22 scheduled languages under the Eighth Schedule, ensuring its promotion and development for education, literature, and cultural preservation. Official Language: Urdu is an official language in Jammu & Kashmir, Telangana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Delhi (National Capital Territory), alongside Hindi or regional languages, under state Official Language Acts. The National Council for Promotion of Urdu Language (NCPUL), under the Ministry of Education, funds Urdu education, literature, and digital resources. Cultural Significance: Represents India’s composite culture, blending Hindu and Muslim traditions, as seen in Urdu poetry, ghazals, and Bollywood songs. Prominent in literature (e.g., Urdu Sahitya Akademi Awards), media (e.g., Urdu newspapers like Roznama Urdu Times), and education (e.g., Maulana Azad National Urdu University, Hyderabad). Spoken by ~50 million people in India (2011 Census, 4.2% of population), primarily in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Telangana, and Delhi. Source : Indian Express VEHICLE-TO-GRID (V2G) TECHNOLOGY Category: SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: The Kerala State Electricity Board (KSEB) and the Indian Institute of Technology Bombay (IIT Bombay) have initiated a pilot project to explore the implementation of Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) technology across the State. Decoding the context: This collaboration aims to assess the feasibility of integrating Electric Vehicles (EVs) into the State’s power grid. Learning Corner: Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) technology enables electric vehicles (EVs) to act as decentralized energy storage units by supplying stored electricity back to the power grid, enhancing grid stability and renewable energy integration. V2G technology enables bidirectional energy flow—EVs not only consume power (charging) but can also supply stored power back to the grid (discharging). Key Points on V2G Technology Mechanism: V2G allows EV batteries to draw power from the grid and return it during peak demand via bi-directional chargers. Requires smart grid infrastructure and real-time grid management, to balance charging and discharging. Example: EVs charge during low-demand periods (e.g., daytime with solar surplus in Kerala) and discharge during high-demand periods (e.g., nighttime). Benefits: Grid Stability: EVs act as distributed storage, reducing grid overload and blackout risks. Renewable Energy Integration: Stores excess solar/wind energy, supporting India’s 500 GW renewable target by 2030. Emission Reduction: Promotes cleaner grids, aligning with India’s net-zero goal by 2070, reducing 1.24 million annual

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) UNESCO’S MEMORY OF THE WORLD REGISTER Category: INTERNATIONAL Context: Manuscripts of the Bhagavad Gita and Bharata’s Natyashastra are among the 74 new additions to UNESCO’s Memory of the World Register this year. Decoding the context: With the latest additions, the Register now contains 570 entries. Learning Corner: The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) launched the Memory of the World (MoW) Programme in 1992 with the aim of “guarding against the collective amnesia, calling upon the preservation of the valuable archive holdings and library collections all over the world, and ensuring their wide dissemination”. The central project of the MoW Programme was to create a compendium of documents — manuscripts, oral traditions, audio-visual materials, and library and archive holdings — which are of “world significance and outstanding universal value”. This is the MoW Register. Beginning in 1997, the Register has been biennally updated — with the exception of a lengthy gap between 2017 and 2023. In any year, at most two submissions from a country are added. The Register contains 13 submissions by India, including two joint-submissions. These range from the Rig Veda (added in 2005) and the collective works of the Shaivite philosopher Abhinavagupta (added in 2023), to the archives of the first summit meeting of the Non Aligned Movement in Belgrade in 1961 (added in 2023) and the archives of the Dutch East India Company (added in 2003). The latter two entries were joint submissions, which India made with other countries. This year’s entries champion India’s ancient literary heritage. Both are specific manuscripts — not the text in general — preserved by the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Pune. Natyashastra:  Attributed to the sage Bharata, Natyashastra is an ancient Sanskrit treatise on performing arts.  Comprising 36,000 verses, the “Naṭyashastra embodies a comprehensive set of rules that define natya (drama), abhinaya (performance), rasa (aesthetic experience), bhava (emotion), sangita (music),” the UNESCO citation says. According to the citation in the Register, it was “codified around the 2nd century BCE. Bhagavad Gita:  Attributed to the sage Vyasa, Bhagavad Gita is a Sanskrit scripture comprising 700 verses that are organised in 18 chapters, embedded in the sixth book (Bhishma Parva) of the epic poem Mahabharata. “Bhagavad Gita is a central text in the continuous, cumulative ancient intellectual Indian tradition, synthesising various thought movements such as, Vedic, Buddhist, Jain, and Charvaka,” the UNESCO citation says. Source : Indian Express KAILASH MANSAROVAR YATRA Category: NATIONAL Context: The Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) recently announced that the Kailash Mansarovar Yatra, which has not taken place since 2020, will resume this year.  Decoding the context: While the yatra had initially been suspended due to the Covid-19 pandemic, deteriorating relations between India and China meant that it did not resume even after the pandemic. Ties between the two neighbours had nosedived following a number of border skirmishes in 2020, most notably on June 15 in the Galwan Valley in Ladakh. Learning Corner: Lake Mansarovar, known locally as Mapam Yumtso, is a high altitude freshwater lake near Mount Kailash in the Ngari Prefecture of the Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR). Both the lake and the adjacent 6,638-metre high mountain, which Hindus believe is the home to Lord Shiva, are sacred in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and the Tibetan Bon religion.  Pilgrims generally trek to Lake Manasarovar, and then circumambulate the nearby Mount Kailash. There are two primary routes to reach Lake Mansarovar from India. Lipulekh Pass Route: Lipulekh pass lies at an altitude of 5,115 metres, on the border between Uttarakhand and TAR, near the trijunction with Nepal. It is an ancient passageway between the Indian subcontinent and the Tibetan Plateau. While the Lipulekh pass route is the most direct way to get to Mansarovar from India — the lake is roughly 50 km from the border — the terrain makes the journey very challenging. Currently, this route entails roughly 200 km of hard trekking. Nathu La Pass Route: Nathu La pass lies at an altitude of 4,310 metres on the border between Sikkim and TAR. It is one of two mountain passes in the region — the other being Jelep La — that have connected Sikkim and Tibet since ancient times. The route to Mansarovar from Nathu La is much longer in terms of distance — close to 1,500 km. But it is fully motorable, meaning pilgrims can make it all the way to the lake without any trekking. (They would only need to trekk 35-40 km for the circumambulation of Mount Kailash). Nepal Route: No private operators function on the two official routes. There is, however, a third route through Nepal in which private companies do operate. In theory, this route has been accessible to Indians since 2023, when China reopened its border with Nepal. But visa and permit requirements, as well as high costs due to China-imposed fees, have meant that few have likely availed this option. Source : Indian Express ARTICLE 142 Category: POLITY Context: Vice President Jagdeep Dhankhar criticised the Supreme Court for a judgement setting a timeline for the President to sign the bills passed by the states. VP was referring to the April 8 judgement in the state of Tamil Nadu versus the governor case, which was seen as a win for the states across India. Decoding the context: Questioning the judgement for setting a timeline for the President of India to sign bills passed by the states, Dhankhar called for accountability by the judiciary. He also described Article 142 of the Indian Constitution as, “nuclear missile against democratic forces available to the judiciary 24×7”. Learning Corner: Constitutional Provision: Article 142(1): The Supreme Court in the exercise of its jurisdiction may pass such decree or make such order as is necessary for doing complete justice in any cause or matter pending before it, and any decree so passed or order so made shall be enforceable throughout the territory of India. Article 142(2): Grants the Supreme Court powers to secure attendance, evidence, or enforce decrees, subject to law. Scope and Powers: Provides the Supreme Court with extraordinary powers to issue orders beyond existing laws if required for justice, making it a unique judicial tool. Used in diverse cases: environmental protection,

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) EUROPE IS WARMING FASTER Category: ENVIRONMENT Context: While global temperatures have been rising rapidly, not every region has been warming at the same rate. Europe, for example, has warmed about twice as much as the world as a whole, as highlighted by the 2024 European State of the Climate Report. Decoding the context: The European State of Climate Report — an annual publication of Copernicus Climate Change Service, which is part of the European Commission — captures climate trends in Europe, and is published in collaboration with the World Meteorological Organisation. Learning Corner: The new edition of the report has said that the year 2024, which was the warmest ever for the planet, was the warmest for Europe as well, though there was a distinct East-West contrast within the continent. Eastern Europe was sunny and warm, while the western part was cloudier and wetter. The planet as a whole has seen its annual average temperature rise by about 1.3 degree Celsius from the pre-industrial baseline (the average of 1850-1900), though the year 2024 breached the 1.5 degree Celsius warming for the first time. Europe, however, has seen its average annual temperature rise by about 2.4 degree Celsius compared with pre-industrial times. Factors Contributing to Greater Warming in Europe Arctic effect: A substantial part of Europe lies in the Arctic region. In fact, Europe has the largest inhabited landmass in the polar region. And the warming around the poles, particularly the North Pole, is much more pronounced. The reason for greater warming in the Arctic is the albedo effect. Melting Arctic ice exposes darker surfaces (land/water), which absorb more solar radiation than reflective ice. The melting of ice sheets is a little less in Antarctica, because of which warming in Antarctica is less pronounced than that in the Arctic. Warming is not uniform over the entire planet. Land areas have warmed more than the oceans, and higher-latitude areas have warmed more than tropical areas. Reduction in aerosols: Another factor contributing to higher warming rate in Europe is the reduction in aerosols emissions, the State of Climate report said. This is ironic since reduction in aerosols points to reduced air pollution and cleaner air to breathe. Aerosols are able to scatter sunlight back so that there is less absorption of solar radiation by the Earth’s surface. Aerosols also help in cloud formation and clouds, in turn, have an impact on how much sunlight is reflected or absorbed. Europe having relatively cleaner air and less emission of aerosols contributes to a faster warming. Source : Indian Express TARDIGRADES Category: SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: The Axiom Mission 4 will see India, Poland, and Hungary’s first government-sponsored human spaceflight in more than 40 years next month. Decoding the context: Among the studies set to be carried out in the mission is ISRO’s Voyager Tardigrades project, which will investigate the revival, survival, and reproduction of tardigrades – creatures that have long fascinated scientists. Learning Corner: Water Bears Or Tardigrades Tardigrades are microscopic, eight-legged animals measuring 0.1 to 0.5 millimetres, found across terrestrial, marine, and freshwater environments worldwide, and are renowned for surviving extreme conditions—from arid deserts to the heights of the Himalayas. They can also go without food or water for up to years, although their average lifespan is not more than a decade. Remarkable resilience has enabled tardigrades to survive on Earth for approximately 600 million years and makes them likely to endure significant climatic changes in the foreseeable future. Survival Mechanism – Cryptobiosis: Enter a hibernation-like state by curling into a ball called a tun. They retract legs and head into their cuticle (exoskeleton) and shut down almost all body processes. Resume normal activity when favorable conditions return. Why is ISRO taking Tardigrades to space? Tardigrades are the only known animals capable of surviving even in the cold vacuum of Space.  In 2007, a crewless Russian capsule on a European Space Agency (ESA) mission exposed some 3,000 tardigrades to the vacuum of space for 10 days, and they were left out there in low-Earth orbit. Over two-thirds of the animals survived the mission and even gave birth to offspring upon returning to Earth. The ISRO project will examine the revival of dormant tardigrades, count the number of eggs laid and hatched during a mission, and compare the gene expression patterns of spaceflown vs. ground control populations.  The research seeks to identify molecular mechanisms of resilience, potentially furthering understanding about the limits of life in extreme environments. Source : Indian Express UN SECURITY COUNCIL REFORMS Category: INTERNATIONAL Context: India has called out attempts to introduce new parameters such as religion and faith as the basis for representation in a reformed UN Security Council, asserting that this runs completely counter to the accepted basis of regional representation. Decoding the context: India asserted that a consolidated model that does not cover expansion in both the permanent and non-permanent categories, would not achieve the purpose of reform. Learning Corner: Establishment and Legal Basis: Created under the UN Charter (1945), Chapter V (Articles 23-32) outlines the UNSC’s composition, powers, and procedures. Article 23: Establishes the UNSC with 15 members—5 permanent (P5: USA, Russia, China, UK, France) and 10 non-permanent, elected for 2-year terms. Article 24: Confers primary responsibility for peace and security, with decisions binding on all UN members. Article 27: Grants veto power to P5 on substantive issues, requiring 9/15 votes for decisions. Composition and Functions: Permanent Members (P5): China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Hold veto power, reflecting post-WWII geopolitical realities. Non-Permanent Members: 10 (elected by the UN General Assembly for a two-year term based on regional representation, not eligible for immediate re-election). Functions: Authorize peacekeeping missions, sanctions, and military actions. Address threats to peace. Approve the admission of new UN members (on recommendation from the General Assembly). Recommend appointment of the UN Secretary-General. India’s Engagement: Non-Permanent Member: Served 8 terms (most recently 2021-2022), advocating for reforms and counter-terrorism measures. G4 Advocacy: India, with Brazil, Germany, and Japan, seeks

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) ARSENIC POLLUTION Category: ENVIRONMENT Context: Climate change could be resulting in higher levels of arsenic in rice, potentially increasing lifetime cancer and health risks for people in Asian countries by 2050, according to a new study published in The Lancet Planetary Health journal. Decoding the context: The presence of arsenic in rice has long been known as a problem. Almost all rice contains arsenic. The harmful, naturally occurring chemical can accumulate in the soil of paddy fields, leaching into the grains of rice grown there. But the amounts found can vary considerably from well below the recommended limits set by regulatory bodies to several times higher. Learning Corner: Arsenic (As) is a naturally occurring, odorless, tasteless metalloid found in the earth’s crust, soil, water, and air. Arsenic can be found in various forms, including organic and inorganic. Inorganic arsenic is generally considered more toxic than organic arsenic.  Sources of Arsenic Pollution Natural Sources Weathering of arsenic-rich rocks (e.g., Ganga-Brahmaputra basin) Volcanic eruptions and geothermal activity. Anthropogenic (Human-Induced) Sources Use of arsenical pesticides and herbicides. Mining and smelting of arsenic-containing ores. Burning of fossil fuels, especially coal. Industrial effluents and waste disposal. According to new study, rising temperatures and CO2 alter soil chemistry, increasing arsenic absorption in rice, posing higher health risks in rice-dependent Asian countries by 2050 Another concern is arsenic in Groundwater – Arsenic contamination in groundwater is a public health emergency in parts of Eastern India, particularly in: West Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Assam, Jharkhand, Punjab (recent studies). Often caused by the leaching of arsenic from sediments in the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna (GBM) plain due to overextraction of groundwater. Health Effects of Arsenic Exposure Short-term: Vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea. Long-term (chronic exposure): Skin lesions, hyperpigmentation, Arsenicosis (chronic arsenic poisoning), Cancer, Cardiovascular diseases, Neurotoxicity and developmental effects in children. Source : The Hindu LIQUIDITY COVERAGE RATIO Category: ECONOMY Context: The Reserve Bank of India announced amendments to the Liquidity Coverage Ratio (LCR) framework. Decoding the context:  Reserve Bank of India has allowed banks to set aside a lower stock of liquid assets against deposits raised through digital channels in the new guidelines. Learning Corner: The Liquidity Coverage Ratio (LCR) is a Basel III requirement that ensures that a bank has sufficient high-quality liquid assets (HQLAs) to survive a 30-day period of significant financial stress. It aims to improve short-term resilience of banks. The ratio should be ≥ 100%, meaning a bank should have liquid assets equal to or more than the net cash outflows expected during a stress period of 30 days. High-Quality Liquid Assets (HQLAs) Include: Cash, Central bank reserves, Government securities (like G-Secs), High rated Corporate bonds (in some cases, with haircuts). High-Quality Liquid Assets (HQLAs) are those which are easily and immediately convertible into cash with minimal loss. Purpose of LCR: Prevents bank failures due to liquidity crunch. Promotes banking system stability. Ensures confidence during financial stress scenarios. Implementation in India: Implemented by RBI in a phased manner starting 2015, fully in effect by January 1, 2019. Source : Livemint NITROGEN Category: ENVIRONMENT Context: India, the world’s second-largest emitter of nitrous oxide (N₂O) after China, faces significant climate risks, as N₂O has a global warming potential nearly 300 times greater than that of carbon dioxide (CO₂). Decoding the context: Nitrogen is the fifth-most abundant element in the universe and the most prevalent gas in the Earth’s atmosphere, comprising approximately 78% of the air—nearly three times more than oxygen. Although it accounts for only about 3% of human body weight, nitrogen is essential for life, playing a critical role in the structure of amino acids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Learning Corner: Major Nitrogen Compounds Relevant to Global Warming: Nitrous Oxide (N₂O) A potent greenhouse gas. Global warming potential (GWP) is about 298 times that of CO₂ over a 100-year period. Third most significant greenhouse gas after CO₂ and methane (CH₄), contributing ~6% to global radiative forcing. Has a long atmospheric lifetime: ~114 years. Also contributes to stratospheric ozone depletion. Ammonia (NH₃) Indirectly affects global warming by contributing to aerosol formation. Not a direct GHG, but affects air quality and ecosystem health. Sources of Nitrogen Emissions: Natural Sources: Microbial activity in soils and oceans, Forest fires. Anthropogenic (Human-Induced) Sources: Agriculture: Use of synthetic fertilizers, animal manure → microbial processes in soil release N₂O. Biomass burning. Wastewater treatment. Fossil fuel combustion. Industrial processes (e.g., nitric acid production). Environmental Impact of Nitrogen Emissions: Enhances global warming due to high GWP of N₂O. Depletes stratospheric ozone, worsening UV exposure risks. Causes eutrophication of water bodies. Leads to acid rain formation (via NOx). Climate feedback: Warmer soils enhance microbial N₂O production, amplifying emissions. Source : The Hindu ARTICLE 355 Category: POLITY Context: The Supreme Court today declined to pass any directions on a plea seeking deployment of paramilitary forces in West Bengal in light of the violence that broke out in Murshidabad over the Waqf (Amendment) Act. Decoding the context: The petitioner sought for immediate deployment of paramilitary forces and the implementation of Article 355 of the Constitution. Learning Corner: Text of Article 355: “It shall be the duty of the Union to protect every State against external aggression and internal disturbance and to ensure that the Government of every State is carried on in accordance with the provisions of this Constitution.” Key Features: Duty of the Union (Central Government): To protect states from: External aggression (e.g., foreign invasion). Internal disturbance (e.g., riots, insurgency, terrorism). To ensure the constitutional machinery in the state functions properly. Part of Emergency Provisions: Included in Part XVIII of the Constitution (Articles 352–360). It acts as a justification or pre-condition for the imposition of President’s Rule (Article 356). Not self-executing: Article 355 does not automatically confer powers; it imposes a duty. Constitutional Context: Often read in conjunction with Article 356, which allows for President’s Rule if a state government fails to comply with constitutional provisions. Source : News On AIR ARYABHATTA Category: SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: Half a century has passed since India successfully launched Aryabhata, its first satellite, on April 19, 1975.  Decoding

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) SUNRISE SECTORS Category: ECONOMY Context: Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman said India plans to increase the share of the manufacturing sector from 12% to 23% over the next two decades, aiming to create jobs and drive economic growth. Decoding the context: India is focussing on 14 identified sunrise sectors like semiconductors, renewable energy components, medical devices, batteries and labour intensive industries, including leather and textile, to enhance the share of manufacturing in GDP, she said while speaking at Hoover Institution at Stanford University California. Learning Corner: Sunrise sectors refer to newly emerging industries that show rapid growth potential, driven by technological innovation, increasing consumer demand, policy support, or global trends. These sectors are typically in early stages but are expected to be major contributors to economic growth and employment in the future. Importance in Indian Context: Critical for economic diversification Promote Atmanirbhar Bharat (Self-reliant India) Attract foreign direct investment (FDI) Drive green growth and innovation Enable India’s leadership in global value chains (GVCs) Key Sunrise Sectors (14 Identified by Government) Semiconductors: Chip manufacturing, assembly, and testing (e.g., Tata’s Gujarat, Assam plants). Renewable Energy Components: Solar panels, wind turbines, green hydrogen Medical Devices: Diagnostic equipment, implants, and wearables. Batteries: Lithium-ion, advanced chemistry cells for EVs and energy storage. Labour-Intensive Industries: Textiles, leather, footwear, and apparel. Others: Electronics, electric vehicles (EVs), aerospace, space technology, biotech, agri-tech, drones, and green hydrogen. Source : The Hindu CLOUDBURST Category: GEOGRAPHY Context: Three people were killed and several residential and commercial structures collapsed after a cloudburst led to torrential rain, wind and hail across Ramban tehsil of Jammu and Kashmir. Decoding the context: The extreme weather also led to the closure of the Jammu – Srinagar National Highway (NH-44), the only all-weather road connecting the Kashmir Valley to the rest of the country. Learning Corner: A cloudburst is a sudden and very intense rainfall event over a small geographical area, typically less than 20–30 square kilometers, which can result in flash floods, landslides, and heavy destruction, especially in mountainous and hilly regions. Rainfall intensity: More than 100 mm (10 cm) per hour. Duration: Typically lasts 15 minutes to a few hours. Most common in Himalayan and Western Ghats regions. Scientific Explanation (Causes): Formed when warm moist air rapidly rises, cools and condenses at high altitudes. Sudden release of water due to condensation of large moisture-laden clouds. Often linked with orographic lift – where moist air is forced upwards by mountain slopes. Absence of upper-level winds fails to disperse the cloud mass. Sometimes associated with localized convection and thunderstorm activity. Vulnerable Areas in India: Himalayan Region: Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand North-Eastern Hills: Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh Western Ghats: Kerala, Karnataka during monsoon Impacts: Sudden flash floods and mudslides Loss of life and property Destruction of roads, bridges, and infrastructure Disruption of communication and power supply Can worsen glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) in high-altitude regions Key Points: Cloudbursts are not classified as cyclonic rainfall, but convectional. Forecasting is difficult due to very small area and short duration. IMD uses Doppler Radar to monitor and warn of cloudburst-prone conditions. Often occurs in monsoon season (July–September). Source : Times of India NON-NUCLEAR HYDROGEN BOMB Category: SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: In a significant advancement in weapon technology, China has successfully detonated a new hydrogen-based explosive device. This breakthrough, developed by the China State Shipbuilding Corporation (CSSC), marks a step forward in China’s military capabilities. Decoding the context: Unlike traditional hydrogen bombs, which rely on nuclear fusion, this device uses a chemical reaction involving magnesium hydride. The result is a powerful fireball capable of producing sustained heat, with no nuclear materials involved. Learning Corner: Hydrogen Bomb Definition: A thermonuclear weapon that uses nuclear fusion of hydrogen isotopes (deuterium, tritium) to release massive energy, triggered by a fission-based atomic bomb. Mechanism: Fission (splitting atomic nuclei) initiates fusion (combining hydrogen nuclei), releasing energy far greater than atomic bombs. Key Features: Explosive yield: Megatons (millions of tons of TNT equivalent). Causes widespread destruction via blast, heat, and radioactive fallout. Non-Nuclear Hydrogen Bomb Definition: A novel explosive device using chemical reactions with magnesium hydride (MgH₂) to release hydrogen gas, creating a sustained fireball without nuclear materials. Mechanism: Conventional explosive fractures magnesium hydride into micron-scale particles. Thermal decomposition releases hydrogen gas, which ignites with air, producing a fireball >1,000°C lasting over 2 seconds (15x longer than TNT). Self-sustaining combustion loop enhances thermal damage Source : The Hindu STANDING DEPOSIT FACILITY (SDF) Category: ECONOMY Context: As the banking system liquidity moves into surplus and with limited credit offtake at the start of the financial year 2025-26 (FY26), commercial banks parked ₹4.13 trillion with the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) under the Standing Deposit Facility (SDF).  Decoding the context: This marked the highest amount banks have parked in the SDF since its introduction in April 2022. Learning Corner: The standing deposit facility is a collateral-free liquidity absorption mechanism implemented by the RBI with the intention of transferring liquidity out of the commercial banking sector and into the RBI. It enables the RBI to take liquidity (deposits) from commercial banks without having to compensate them with government securities. Replaces the reverse repo rate as the floor of the Liquidity Adjustment Facility (LAF) corridor. Key Features Purpose: Absorbs excess liquidity from the banking system to control inflation and stabilize money supply. Rate: Set at 25 basis points below the repo rate (e.g., 6.25% if repo is 6.50%). Eligibility: Scheduled commercial banks and small finance banks. Operation: Overnight facility; banks deposit funds at the end of the day. No Collateral: Unlike reverse repo, SDF does not require government securities. Limit: No cap on deposit amount, enhancing flexibility. Significance Strengthens RBI’s monetary policy transmission by efficiently managing liquidity. Reduces dependence on government securities for liquidity absorption. Supports financial stability amid surplus liquidity scenarios. Aligns with global best practices for central bank liquidity management. Source : Business Standard DAVIS STRAIT PROTO MICROCONTINENT Category: GEOGRAPHY Context: Researchers have discovered a previously unknown proto-microcontinent, the Davis Strait Proto Microcontinent, beneath the Davis strait

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) MUZIRIS PORT Category: HISTORY Context: Historian M.G.S. Narayanan who played a pivotal role in shaping the Muziris Heritage Project, passed away recently. Decoding the context: A towering figure in Indian academic history, MGS Narayanan undertook a historical enquiry into Kerala’s historical past and debunked several historical myths. He  was the former chairperson of the Indian Council of Historical Research (ICHR). Learning Corner: Muziris Port is an ancient port on Kerala’s Malabar Coast (near Kodungallur, Thrissur), active from 3rd century BCE to 4th century CE, known as a hub of the historic spice route. Location: North Paravur-Kodungallur-Mathilakam area (Ernakulam-Thrissur border). Trade: Exported spices (black pepper, cinnamon), pearls, ivory, semi-precious stones; imported gold, wine, olive oil from Romans, Greeks, Persians, and Arabs. Cultural Significance: A cosmopolitan center hosting Christianity (St. Thomas, 52 CE), Judaism, Islam (Cheraman Juma Masjid, 629 CE), and Jainism (Tamil-Brahmi script evidence). Decline: Muziris likely declined due to a massive flood in 1341 CE, which altered the course of the Periyar River, leading to the silting up of the port and the rise of Cochin (Kochi) as a new harbor. Muziris Heritage Project (MHP): Launched in 2009 by Kerala Tourism to conserve 3,000-year-old heritage across 150 sq km. Includes 25+ museums, restored monuments (Paliam Palace, Paravur Synagogue, Cheraman Juma Masjid), and Pattanam excavations. Important Contemporary Ports in India (3rd Century BCE–4th Century CE) Tamralipti (Tamluk, West Bengal): Major eastern port under Mauryas, Guptas; linked to Southeast Asia, China. Traded rice, textiles, spices; mentioned in Buddhist texts (Jatakas). Connected to Ganga River trade routes. Bharukaccha (Bharuch, Gujarat): Western port under Satavahanas, Western Kshatrapas; traded with Rome, Persia. Exported cotton, agate, beads; imported wine, metals. Arikamedu (Puducherry): Southern port near Chola capital; active 2nd century BCE–2nd century CE. Traded beads, pottery, textiles with Romans (evidenced by Roman ceramics). Archaeological finds confirm Mediterranean trade links. Poompuhar (Kaveripattinam, Tamil Nadu): Chola dynasty’s primary port; mentioned in Sangam literature (Silappathikaram). Traded pearls, spices, silk with Southeast Asia, Rome. Source : The Hindu RABIES Category: SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: The number of rabies deaths has been increasing in Kerala reportedly at an alarming rate over the past four-five years.  Decoding the context: According to the Health department, in 2021, the number of deaths was 11. There were 15 deaths in 2022, 17 in 2023, and 22 in 2024. This year, there has been 12 deaths so far. Learning Corner: Rabies is a  viral zoonotic disease caused by the rabies virus (genus Lyssavirus), affecting the central nervous system. Transmitted primarily through bites or scratches from infected animals (e.g., dogs, bats, cats). Fatal once clinical symptoms appear; 100% preventable with timely vaccination. Causes and Transmission Primary Source: Dog bites (99% of cases globally); other sources include bats, wild cats, mongooses. Mechanism: Rabies spreads to people and animals via saliva, usually through bites, scratches, or direct contact with mucosa (e.g. eyes, mouth, or open wounds). Once clinical symptoms appear, rabies is virtually 100% fatal. Incubation Period: 2 weeks to 6 years (average 1-3 months), depending on bite location and severity. Symptoms Early: Fever, headache, itching at bite site. Advanced: Hydrophobia, agitation, paralysis, coma; death within days due to respiratory failure. Prevention and Control Rabies is almost entirely preventable with timely post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP), which involves washing wounds with soap and water, administering anti-rabies vaccine (ARV), and in high-risk exposures, using rabies immunoglobulin (RIG).  Animal Control: Animal Birth Control (ABC) program, vaccination of stray dogs, public awareness. Challenges: Vaccine shortages, delayed treatment, inadequate wound care, rising stray dog population. Source : The Hindu ALFALFA Category: ENVIRONMENT Context: With the US pushing India to reduce import duty on alfalfa (lucerne) fodder seed, the government is preparing the ground for restricting the genetically modified (GM) version of the crop from entering the country.  Decoding the context: The Americans grow both GM and non-GM varieties of alfalfa, which derives its name from the Arabic world al-fasfasa that means the best forage. Learning Corner: Alfalfa, also known as Lucerne, is a perennial flowering legume. Native to South-Central Asia, now cultivated globally. Known for its high nutritional value and soil-enriching properties. Agricultural Importance: Used primarily as fodder crop for livestock (rich in protein, vitamins, and minerals). Can be harvested multiple times a year due to rapid regrowth. Cultivated in temperate and subtropical regions, including parts of Punjab, Haryana, and Maharashtra in India. Environmental & Ecological Role: Nitrogen-fixing plant (symbiotic relationship with Rhizobium bacteria). Improves soil fertility and reduces dependence on synthetic fertilizers. Helps in crop rotation and sustainable agriculture. Deep roots reduce soil erosion and improve water infiltration. Climate & Soil: Prefers well-drained loamy soils, neutral to slightly alkaline pH. Requires cool temperatures for germination and warm conditions for growth. Needs moderate irrigation – drought-tolerant once established. Fodder Use: High crude protein (15–20%) and digestibility. Used in dairy and meat industries for feeding cattle, sheep, goats, and horses. Nutritional/Health Use (Human Consumption – Limited): Young alfalfa sprouts are consumed in salads. Known for antioxidant, cholesterol-lowering, and anti-inflammatory properties. Used in Ayurveda and herbal medicine. Source : Hindu Businessline AGENTIC AI Category: SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: India is grappling with a critical shortage of agentic AI professionals as demand surges. Decoding the context: The current talent pool of under 100,000 is struggling to meet the projected need of 200,000 by 2026, leading to soaring salaries and intense competition among GCCs, IT firms and startups. Learning Corner: Agentic AI refers to artificial intelligence systems that can autonomously plan, make decisions, and take actions to achieve goals without step-by-step human instructions. These systems act as “agents” – they exhibit initiative, autonomy, and goal-directed behavior. Key Features: Autonomy: Can operate independently of direct human control. Proactivity: Not just reactive; initiates actions to meet objectives. Planning & Reasoning: Can break down complex tasks, plan steps, and revise plans dynamically. Memory and Learning: Retains past experience to improve future decisions. Interaction: May collaborate with humans or other AI agents (multi-agent systems). Examples: AI Personal Assistants that manage schedules, book tickets, and handle emails autonomously. Robotic agents performing

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) THE CASTE CENSUS Category: POLITY Context: The government has decided to hold a caste census along with the upcoming Census. Decoding the context: The 2021 Census was delayed by the Covid-19 pandemic, and has been on hold ever since. The exercise is understood to be imminent, but there are no dates for it as yet Learning Corner: The data collected in Censuses since 1951 include the numbers of individuals belonging to the Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs), and of various religious denominations. But the members of caste groups other than SCs and STs have not been counted. The most recent caste data available is from the Census of 1931. The 1941 Census, carried out during the War, collected data on caste, but they were never released. Ahead of the first Census of independent India, the government chose to avoid the question of caste. Thereafter, demands for a caste census were repeatedly raised, especially by parties who had a base among Other Backward Classes (OBCs), primarily farming communities and artisans. But no Indian government ever carried out a full count of caste memberships. From Census to SECC In 2010, Law Minister M. Veerappa Moily proposed including caste/community data in Census 2011. The Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India (RGI) rejected the proposal citing logistical difficulties. Objections Raised: Census involves enumeration (observational, non-verification based). Enumerators (mainly school teachers) are not trained to verify caste claims. Difficulties in accuracy, analysis, and data verification. Political Response: Due to pressure from UPA allies (e.g., RJD, DMK, JDU) and OBC MPs, a Group of Ministers (GoM) was formed under Finance Minister Pranab Mukherjee. Decision – In September 2010, the Union Cabinet approved a separate exercise: Socio-Economic and Caste Census (SECC) to be conducted after Census 2011. Timeline: SECC conducted: June–September 2011 Population enumeration (Census): February–March 2011 The data were published by the Ministries of Rural Development and Urban Development in 2016, but the caste data were excluded. The raw caste data was handed over to the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, which formed an Expert Group under then NITI Aayog Vice Chairperson Arvind Panagariya for classification and categorisation. The data are yet to be made public. Recent developments Of late, several state governments have sought to implement “quota within quota” by subcategorising OBCs based on their own caste censuses, calling them “surveys” because the Census is technically part of the constitutional mandate of the Centre. Earlier, on April 1, 2021, the constitutional body National Commission for Backward Classes had urged the government to collect data on the population of OBCs “as part of Census of India 2021 exercise”. Source : Indian Express BRAIN-COMPUTER INTERFACE Category: SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Category: SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: Researchers at the University of California, San Francisco (UCSF) have achieved a significant breakthrough in assistive technology for individuals with paralysis. Decoding the context:  They have developed a brain-computer interface (BCI) that allows a paralysed man to control a robotic arm simply by imagining the movements he wishes to execute. Learning Corner: A Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) is a technology that enables direct communication between the human brain and an external device (such as a computer or prosthetic limb), bypassing traditional neural pathways. How It Works: Neural signals (electrical activity in the brain) are detected using electrodes or implants. Signals are decoded using algorithms and converted into commands. These commands control external devices or software (e.g., moving a robotic arm, cursor movement). Types of BCI: Invasive: Electrodes implanted directly into the brain (e.g., Neuralink). Semi-invasive: Electrodes placed on the surface of the brain. Non-invasive: EEG (Electroencephalography) caps worn on the scalp. Applications: Medical: Restoring mobility in paralysis, aiding speech in locked-in syndrome. Military: Human-enhancement and drone control. Neuroprosthetics: Controlling robotic limbs, exoskeletons. Gaming & Communication: Mind-controlled interfaces. Source : The Hindu STOCKHOLM CONVENTION ON PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS Category: ENVIRONMENT Context: India has reportedly opposed the inclusion of a hazardous insecticide under the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, an international environmental treaty to protect human health and the environment. Decoding the context: The insecticide, Chlorpyrifos, is a chemical linked to adverse effects on neurodevelopment, reduced birth size, lung and prostate cancer upon chronic exposure. Chlorpyrifos has been registered in India under the Insecticides Act since 1977. In 2016-17, chlorpyrifos was the most frequently used pesticide in India, accounting for 9.4 per cent of the total insecticide consumption, according to a report by the International Pollutants Elimination Network (IPEN). Learning Corner: An international environmental treaty adopted in 2001, entered into force in 2004. Aims to eliminate or restrict the production and use of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) — toxic chemicals that persist, bioaccumulate, and cause adverse effects to human health and the environment. Objectives: Protect human health and the environment from harmful POPs. Eliminate or restrict production and use of intentionally produced POPs. Reduce or eliminate releases from unintentional production. Ensure safe disposal and handling of POP waste. POPs are toxic chemical substances that: Persist in the environment for long periods. Bioaccumulate through the food web. POPs are lipophilic, which means that they accumulate in the fatty tissue of living animals and human beings. Travel long distances via air and water. Cause serious health issues — cancers, birth defects, immune & reproductive disorders. Key Provisions: The Stockholm Convention lists chemicals in three annexes: Annex A lists chemicals to be eliminated; Annex B lists chemicals to be restricted; and Annex C calls for minimizing unintentional production and release of listed chemicals. Governance: Overseen by the Conference of the Parties (COP), with the Persistent Organic Pollutants Review Committee (POPRC) assessing new chemicals. The list is updated regularly (now includes 30+ chemicals). Parties must develop National Implementation Plans (NIPs). India and the Convention: India ratified the Convention in 2006. In 2022, India banned the use of several additional POPs under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. National Centre for Sustainable Coastal Management (NCSCM) and Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) are involved in implementation. Additional information –  The “Dirty Dozen” refers to the initial 12 persistent