Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) POPULISM AND GOOD GOVERNANCE Syllabus: Prelims – GS 2 Context: The Vice-President of India, Shri Jagdeep Dhankhar, called for a national debate on the shift from democracy to Emocracy, saying, “National debate is required so that we take note of shift from Democracy to Emocracy. Emotion-driven policies, emotion-driven debates, discourses threaten good governance.” Background: – “Historically, populism is bad economics. And once a leader gets attached to populism it is difficult to get out of the crisis. The central factor must be the good of the people, the largest good of the people, the lasting good of the people”, V P said. Relationship between populism and good governance The relationship between populism and good governance is complex, with both positive and negative implications. Understanding Populism :A political ideology that seeks to represent the interests of the common people against a perceived elite. Characteristics: Direct appeal to the masses Charismatic leadership Anti-establishment rhetoric Simplified solutions to complex problems Types of Populism: Left-Wing Populism: Advocates wealth redistribution and state intervention (e.g., Latin American leaders like Hugo Chávez). Right-Wing Populism: Focuses on nationalism, cultural identity, and anti-immigration policies (e.g., Donald Trump, European right-wing parties). Understanding Good Governance: Governance that ensures efficient, accountable, participatory, and transparent administration. Key Features (As per UNDP): Transparency: Open decision-making and information availability. Accountability: Responsibility of public institutions towards citizens. Rule of Law: Fair legal framework enforced impartially. Inclusiveness: Equal participation of all groups in governance. Effectiveness and Efficiency: Best use of resources for public welfare. Populism vs. Good Governance: Conflict and Challenges Short-Term Popularity vs. Long-Term Institutional Strengthening: Populist leaders may focus on immediate benefits rather than sustainable policies. Erosion of Institutional Autonomy: Populists may undermine democratic institutions and weaken democratic Norms. Fiscal Populism: Excessive subsidies, loan waivers, and unsustainable welfare schemes burden the economy. Undermining Expertise and Bureaucracy: Populists often bypass expert opinions, leading to flawed policy decisions. Positive Aspects of Populism in Governance Increased Political Participation: Populist leaders mobilize the masses, bringing political awareness. Focus on Marginalized Groups: Populist movements often highlight the concerns of the underprivileged. Policy Innovation: Pressure from populist movements can lead to new welfare policies. Way Forward Institutional Checks and Balances: Strengthening judiciary and autonomous bodies to prevent executive overreach. Evidence-Based Policymaking: Ensuring policy decisions are backed by data rather than populist rhetoric. Strengthening Democratic Norms: Promoting media freedom, civil society participation, and deliberative democracy. Fiscal Responsibility: Ensuring populist welfare policies are financially sustainable. Public Awareness: Educating citizens about the long-term impacts of populist policies. Source: PIB AIKOSHA Syllabus: Prelims  – CURRENT EVENT Context: Union Minister for Electronics & Information Technology, Railways, and Information & Broadcasting, Shri Ashwini Vaishnaw marked a major milestone in India’s AI journey with the launch of several key initiatives under the IndiaAI Mission during its anniversary celebration. Key among the newly introduced initiatives is AIKosha: IndiaAI Datasets Platform. Background: – The launch of AIKosha signifies a major step in democratizing AI access, enabling research-driven innovation, and strengthening India’s global AI leadership. Key takeaways AIKosha, launched by India’s Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY), is a comprehensive platform designed to streamline access to high-quality, non-personal datasets, AI models, and development tools, thereby fostering AI innovation across the nation. Key Features of AIKosha: Extensive Repository: The platform hosts over 300 datasets and more than 80 AI models from 12 organizations, providing a rich resource for model builders and developers to create India-centric AI solutions.  AI Sandbox Capabilities: AIKosha offers integrated development environments equipped with tools and tutorials, enabling users to experiment, develop, and refine AI applications effectively.  Secure and Accessible: The platform ensures data security through features like data encryption (both at rest and in motion), secure APIs, and firewalls for real-time threat filtering. It also emphasizes content discoverability and AI readiness scoring of datasets to assist users in selecting appropriate resources.  Objective and Impact: By providing a unified portal for seamless access to datasets, models, and tools, AIKosha aims to democratize AI development in India. It supports students, startups, researchers, academia, and government departments in building AI applications tailored to India’s diverse linguistic and cultural landscape.  This initiative is part of the broader IndiaAI Mission, which seeks to establish a comprehensive ecosystem catalyzing AI innovation through public-private partnerships. Source: PIB REAL ESTATE REGULATORY AUTHORITY (RERA) Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: The Supreme Court criticised the functioning of the Real Estate Regulatory Authority (RERA) and termed it as “disappointing”. Background: This isn’t the first time the court has criticised RERA’s performance. In September 2024, the Supreme Court described RERA as a “rehabilitation centre for former bureaucrats,” accusing it of undermining the Act’s purpose.  Key takeaways The Real Estate Regulatory Authority (RERA) was established under the Real Estate (Regulation and Development) Act, 2016 to regulate and promote transparency in the real estate sector. RERA is applicable to residential and commercial real estate projects, including plotted developments. Objectives of RERA Regulate the real estate sector and improve accountability. Ensure timely completion of projects and prevent delays. Promote transparency in property transactions. Protect buyers’ rights by setting grievance redressal mechanisms. Encourage investment by creating a reliable framework. Key Provisions of the RERA Act, 2016 Establishment of RERA States and Union Territories must establish a Real Estate Regulatory Authority for grievance redressal. Functions include project registration, dispute resolution, and policy implementation. Mandatory Project Registration : Developers must register real estate projects (above 500 sq. m. or 8 apartments) before advertising or selling. Projects without RERA registration are illegal. Escrow Account Requirement : Builders must deposit 70% of funds collected from buyers into a separate escrow account to ensure funds are used for the same project. Timely Completion & Compensation : Developers must complete projects on time, failing which they face penalties or compensation liabilities. Consumer Protection & Rights Buyers have the right to full project details, possession timeline, and compensation for delays. False advertising by developers can lead to refunds or penalties. Establishment of Real Estate Appellate Tribunal : If dissatisfied with RERA decisions,

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) WOMEN’S DAY 2025 Syllabus: Prelims  & Mains – HISTORY Context: International Women’s Day (IWD) is celebrated globally on March 8 each year to recognize women’s achievements, promote gender equality, and advocate for women’s rights. Background: – The occasion offers an opportunity to recall the struggle of female revolutionaries for the cause of women’s education in India.  Pre Independence Women Activists  In the pre-independent times, several female revolutionaries struggled hard for the cause of women’s education, including Savitribai Phule, Fatima Sheikh, Pandita Ramabai, Chandraprabha Saikiani, Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain, Sarala Ray, Anasuya Sarabhai, and Abala Bose.  Savitribai Phule Savitribai Phule was a Dalit woman who challenged the upper caste hegemony of education.  She opened India’s first school for girls in Vishrambag Wada, Pune, Maharashtra in 1848 along with her husband Jyotirao Phule. Her school was open to all castes.  Savitribai Phule not only promoted education for girls but also stood in opposition to existing social evils like untouchability and prohibition on widow remarriage. Fatima Sheikh and Pandita Ramabai Another notable figure, Fatima Sheikh, widely celebrated as India’s first Muslim woman educator, was an associate of Jyotirao and Savitribai Phule in Pune. Unfortunately, not a lot is known about her. Pandita Ramabai, from Mangalore (then Madras presidency but now part of Karnataka), challenged the caste system by marrying a man from the lower caste.  She was also a staunch advocate for women’s education and actively spoke out against the plight of widows, especially child widows, and child marriage.  Ramabai founded the Arya Mahila Samaj in 1882 to promote women’s education, which was seen as instrumental in eradicating child marriage.  Chandraprabha Saikiani Chandraprabha Saikiani was a social reformer and active proponent of women’s education from Assam. Saikiani demonstrated her commitment to the cause by starting a school for girls at the young age of 13, where she imparted whatever knowledge she had to other girls.  Her activism extended beyond education. At a large public gathering, she called for a ban on opium – an unusual act for a woman in that era when women speaking in public gatherings was unconventional.  In 1926, Saikiani founded the Assam Pradeshik Mahila Samiti and dedicatedly worked for women’s education. Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain and Sarala Ray Begum Rokeya, born in Pairaband, Rangpur, Bengal (part of Bangladesh now), advocated for Muslim women’s education through her visionary women-centric writings.  Her most famous short story, Sultana’s Dream, imagines a gender-reversed society where women run the world and men are confined indoors. Having never been allowed to earn a formal education, she started schools for Muslim girls in Bhagalpur (1909) and Kolkata (1911).  Sarala Ray, an educator from Bengal, founded the Gokhale Memorial Girls’ School in 1920 in Kolkata, where all girls were encouraged to learn three languages – Hindi, Bengali and English – as part of the school’s innovative curriculum.  Later, she extended her efforts towards women’s higher education and established the Gokhale Memorial Girls’ College in 1938.  Source: Indian Express WORLD SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT SUMMIT 2025 Syllabus: Prelims  – CURRENT EVENT Context: Union Minister for Environment, Forest, and Climate Change, Bhupender Yadav, inaugurated the World Sustainable Development Summit (WSDS) 2025 in New Delhi on Wednesday.  Background: – Union Minister stressed that under the leadership of Prime Minister Modi, India has taken transformative steps with initiatives like the International Solar Alliance (ISA), the Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI), and Mission Lifestyle for Environment (LiFE). Key takeaways The World Sustainable Development Summit (WSDS) is an annual event organized by The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), serving as a global platform to discuss and advance sustainable development and climate solutions.  Established in 2001 as the Delhi Sustainable Development Summit (DSDS), it was rebranded to WSDS to reflect its broader international scope. WSDS 2025 Theme: ‘Partnerships for Accelerating Sustainable Development and Climate Solutions’ This 24th edition emphasizes the critical role of collaborations among governments, businesses, civil society, and other stakeholders in driving meaningful progress toward sustainability goals. Key Components of WSDS: Sustainable Development Leadership Award (SDLA): Since 2005, this award has honored global leaders for their contributions to sustainable development. Ministerial and High-Level Sessions: Panels featuring policymakers, business leaders, and academics discussing pressing environmental issues. Thematic Tracks: Focused discussions on specific sustainability challenges, engaging domain experts to propose actionable solutions. CEO Forum: A platform for industry leaders to brainstorm sustainable business practices. Youth Connect: Initiatives to engage young students in sustainability dialogues, fostering awareness and involvement. Source: DD News CONVENTION ON CLUSTER MUNITIONS Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: Lithuania quit an international convention banning cluster bombs, citing security concerns over neighbouring Russia in a move that has drawn criticism from human rights groups. Background: NATO member Lithuania has said it wants to strengthen its defences following Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, fearing it could be next if Moscow succeeds. Key takeaways The Convention on Cluster Munitions (CCM) is an international treaty that prohibits the use, production, transfer, and stockpiling of cluster bombs, which pose severe risks to civilians. Key Features of the Convention Adoption: 30 May 2008 in Dublin, Ireland. Entry into Force: 1 August 2010 (after 30 countries ratified it). Signatories: 123 countries (as of 2023), but major powers like the USA, Russia, China, and India have not signed. Main Provisions: Total Ban on cluster munitions. Stockpile Destruction within 8 years. Clearance of Affected Areas within 10 years. Assistance to Victims (healthcare, rehabilitation, and reintegration). Why Cluster Munitions are Controversial? Wide Area Effect: Cluster bombs release multiple submunitions over large areas, causing indiscriminate damage. Failure Rate: Unexploded bomblets become de facto landmines, harming civilians for decades. Humanitarian Crisis: Countries like Laos, Vietnam, Syria, and Ukraine suffer from past cluster munition use. India’s Stand on CCM Not a Signatory: India has not signed or ratified the CCM. Reasons for Non-Signature: Believes in the legitimate defense use of cluster munitions. Calls for a balance between security and humanitarian concerns. Reluctant to accept legally binding disarmament treaties without universal participation (as major powers like the USA and Russia are not part of it). Source: The Hindu BANGUS

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) INDIA-MAURITIUS RELATIONS Syllabus: Mains – GS2 Context: Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s visit to Mauritius (March 11-12), will be a celebration of the deep and long-standing ties between the two countries. Background: – Newly elected Prime Minister Navinchandra Ramgoolam (Labour Party) shares a historic connection with India. His father, Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam, led Mauritius to independence and worked with Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose. Key takeaways People to people ties Nearly 70% of Mauritius population is of Indian origin, mainly descendants of indentured laborers brought by colonial rulers. About 50% trace their ancestry to Bihar and Uttar Pradesh and still speak the Bhojpuri dialect.  There are smaller communities of Tamil, Telugu-, and Marathi-speaking communities. In 1976, India inaugurated the Mahatma Gandhi Institute as a premier institution for promoting Indian languages and culture.  The Indian Cultural Centre in Mauritius is the largest of anywhere in the world. The island hosts the World Hindi Secretariat that is supported by India. Economic and Trade Cooperation Bilateral trade reached $554 million in 2022-23. Mauritius serves as a business gateway to Africa, being part of the African Union. Due to a favourable Double Taxation Avoidance Agreement (DTAA) with India, Mauritius is also a major channel for foreign investment into India.  Mauritius has emerged as a successful international financial centre. Maritime Security Cooperation Mauritius is strategically located in the western Indian Ocean. The Colombo Security Conclave brings together India, Sri Lanka, the Maldives, Mauritius and Bangladesh to ensure regional maritime security.  Mauritius has a vast EEZ of 2.3 million sq. km, making surveillance vital. India has set up a chain of coastal radar stations, redeveloped the Mauritian island of Agaléga to serve as a joint surveillance facility and given Mauritius access to the Information Fusion Centre for the Indian Ocean Region (IFC-IOR) in Gurugram, to significantly advance domain awareness in its vast EEZ.  India’s oceanographic survey ship, INS Sarvekshak, has completed the survey of 25,000 sq.km of Mauritius’ ocean territory.  At a time when China’s footprint in the Indian Ocean is expanding, India-Mauritius maritime security cooperation has assumed special importance. Source: The Hindu MADHAV NATIONAL PARK Syllabus: Prelims  – ENVIRONMENT Context: The Centre declared the Madhav National Park in Madhya Pradesh as the country’s 58th tiger reserve on Sunday (March 9, 2025). Background: – Three tigers, including two females, were introduced to the Madhav National Park in 2023 as part of the tiger reintroduction project in the State.  Madhav National Park is country’s 58th tiger reserve and also the ninth from the State of Madhya Pradesh. Notably, on December 2, 2024 India got its 57th tiger reserve in the Ratapani Wildlife Sanctuary of Madhya Pradesh. Key takeaways Madhav National Park is a protected area located in the Shivpuri district of Madhya Pradesh, India.  Established in 1959, Madhav National Park was originally a hunting ground for the erstwhile Scindia royal family. the park was named after Madho Rao Scindia, the Maharaja of Gwalior. Madhav National Park is situated in the northern part of Madhya Pradesh. It lies on the northern fringe of the Central Highlands of India, forming part of the Upper Vindhyan Hills intermixed with plateaus and valley sections. Notable lakes within the park include Sakhya Sagar and Madhav Sagar, both created by damming the Manihar River. Fauna: Madhav National Park hosts a variety of wildlife, including: Mammals: Species such as the Indian gazelle (Chinkara), Chital (Spotted deer), Nilgai (Blue bull), Sambar deer, Four-horned antelope (Chousingha), Sloth bear, Leopard, Indian wolf, Jackal, Bengal fox, Dhole (Wild dog), Wild boar, and Porcupine.  Reptiles: The park is home to reptiles like the Mugger crocodile, various turtle species, and snakes.  Birds: The lakes attract numerous migratory birds during winter, including species of geese, ducks, and waders. Historical Significance: George Castle: At the park’s highest point (484 meters), George Castle was built in 1911 by Madho Rao Scindia for an anticipated visit by King George V, although the king never stayed there. Conservation Efforts: Ramsar Site: In January 2022, a 248-hectare area around Sakhya Sagar Lake within the park was designated as a Ramsar site, recognizing its importance as a wetland of international significance.  Source: The Hindu INDIA’S SEMICONDUCTOR MANUFACTURING Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: India is set to roll out its first domestically manufactured semiconductor chip in 2025. Background: This initiative aims to reduce India’s dependency on semiconductor imports, which have risen significantly over the past decade. Key takeaways Semicon India Programme The Semicon India Programme, launched in 2021, aims to develop the semiconductor and display manufacturing ecosystem. Key Initiatives: Five manufacturing facilities are under construction for the manufacturing and assembly of semiconductor chips, backed by the Semicon India Programme. Notable projects: Tata Semiconductor Assembly and Test Facility – Morigaon, Assam. Dholera Semiconductor Fabrication (Fab) Facility – Tata Electronics in collaboration with Taiwan’s Powerchip Semiconductor Manufacturing Corporation. However, the actual spending under the Semicon India Programme has consistently fallen short of budgeted allocations. India’s Semiconductor Import Dependency India heavily relies on semiconductor imports, with key imports including: Monolithic Integrated Circuits (ICs) – Used in CPUs, smartphones, automobiles, medical devices, and industrial automation. Memory Chips – Includes volatile (RAM) and non-volatile (NAND flash). Amplifiers – Used in wireless communication and audio equipment. Import trends (FY16-FY24): Monolithic IC imports increased by 2,000%. Memory chip imports surged by 4,500%. Amplifier imports rose by 4,800%. Semiconductor imports now constitute a higher share of total imports, with monolithic ICs forming 2.09% of total imports in FY25, up from 0.19% in FY16. Major Semiconductor Suppliers to India Top Supplier: China (except FY19). Other key sources: Hong Kong, Japan, South Korea, Singapore, and Taiwan. Challenges in India’s Semiconductor Ecosystem With the new facilities, India will be able to add value in the assembly, testing, and packaging, and fab segments of the global value chain for semiconductors, but it is yet to make major strides in –  EDA (Electronic Design Automation) software – Critical for chip design. Core IP (Intellectual Property) – Patents for semiconductor technology. Wafers – Key raw material for chip fabrication.

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT (ICC) Syllabus: Prelims – CURRENT EVENT Context: Former Philippine President Rodrigo Duterte was arrested on March 10th on a warrant issued by the International Criminal Court (ICC), which was investigating allegations that “crimes against humanity” had been committed during his so-called “war on drugs”. Background: – During his six-year term, 6,000 suspects were gunned down as part of his “war on drugs” campaign. A UN report subsequently revealed that most of the victims were young, poor urban males, and that “the police who do not need search or arrest warrants to conduct house raids, systematically forced suspects to make self-incriminating statements or risk facing lethal force,”. Key takeaways The International Criminal Court (ICC) is a permanent international tribunal established to prosecute individuals for serious crimes like genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity, and aggression. The Rome Statute, the treaty that established the ICC, was adopted on 17 July 1998 and entered into force on 1 July 2002 after being ratified by 60 countries. As of January 2025, 125 countries are party to the Rome Statute, including Britain, Japan, Afghanistan, and Germany. India, China, and the United States are not members. So far, 32 cases have come before the ICC, which is composed of 18 judges who are elected by the member states and serve 9-year, nonrenewable terms.  The ICC is composed of four main organs: The Presidency: Responsible for the administration of the Court, except for the Office of the Prosecutor. Judicial Divisions: Pre-Trial Division: Handles preliminary examinations, investigations, and issuance of arrest warrants. Trial Division: Conducts trials and issues verdicts. Appeals Division: Reviews appeals against decisions made by the Trial Division. Office of the Prosecutor (OTP): Responsible for conducting investigations and prosecutions. Registry: Provides administrative and operational support to the Court, including victim and witness protection, legal aid, and public outreach. The ICC has jurisdiction over the following crimes: Genocide: Acts committed with the intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnic, racial, or religious group. Crimes Against Humanity: Widespread or systematic attacks directed against civilians, including murder, enslavement, torture, and sexual violence. War Crimes: Serious violations of international humanitarian law during armed conflicts, such as targeting civilians, using child soldiers, and destroying property. Crime of Aggression: The use of armed force by a state against the sovereignty, territorial integrity, or political independence of another state. Key Principles Complementarity: The ICC acts as a court of last resort, intervening only when national courts are unwilling or unable to prosecute. Individual Criminal Responsibility: The ICC prosecutes individuals, not states or organizations. Non-Retroactivity: The Court can only prosecute crimes committed after the Rome Statute entered into force (1 July 2002). Jurisdiction: The ICC can exercise jurisdiction if the crimes were committed by a State Party national, or in the territory of a State Party, or in a State that has accepted the jurisdiction of the Court; or the crimes were referred to the ICC Prosecutor by the United Nations Security Council (UNSC). Source: Indian Express THE DANDI MARCH AND BEYOND Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – HISTORY Context: Today (12 March) marks the 95th anniversary of the historic salt march led by Mahatma Gandhi from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi in Gujarat. The 24-day march from  ended with the defiance of the law after he made salt at Dandi marking the inauguration of the civil disobedience movement. Background: – The 1882 Salt Act gave the British a monopoly in the manufacture and sale of salt. Even though salt was freely available on the coasts, Indians were forced to buy it from the colonisers. Gandhi decided that if there was any one product through which civil disobedience could be inaugurated, then it was salt. Key takeaways On 6 April 1930, Gandhi along with his followers defiantly broke the salt law by manufacturing salt from the sea. With this, the movement spread throughout the countryside. The British government declared the Indian National Congress as illegal. Gandhi informed the Viceroy that he was going to raid the government salt works at Dharasana. Before he could proceed, he was arrested and sent to Yeravda Central Jail. After Gandhi’s arrest, Mr. Abbas Tyabji, took over the march to Dharsana but he was also arrested. Sarojini Naidu succeeded Abbas Tyabji who led the march but was met with police brutality.  Several Colonial laws were broken along with a boycott of foreign cloth and liquor.  In Bengal, volunteers led by Satish Chandra Dasgupta walked from Sodepur Ashram to the village of Mahisbathan to make salt. K.F Nariman in Bombay led another group of marchers to Haji Ali Point where they prepared salt at a nearby park. The anti-chowkidari (village police) tax along with non-payment of rent was followed in the raiyatwadi areas. There were many violent confrontations with the police and massive tribal invasions of forests in Central Provinces, Maharashtra, and Karnataka. In the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP), Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, popularly known as the Frontier Gandhi, raised a band of non-violent volunteers known as the Khudai Khidmatgars (Red Shirts), who played an active role in the movement. In Chittagong, revolutionaries headed by Surjaya Sen launched a campaign against the British. They seized the local armoury and an Independence Proclamation was made in the name of the ‘Independent Republican Army’ and fought a pitched battle on the Jalalabad hill leading to the death of several revolutionaries. C. Rajagopalachari led the Civil Disobedience movement in Tamil Nadu. He organised a march from Trichinopoly to Vedaranniyam on the Tanjore coast to break the salt law in April 1930. In Malabar, Congress leader, Kelappan, organised the salt march.  Similarly, in Orissa, the Civil Disobedience movement was carried out under the leadership of Gopabandhu Chaudhary. In Bihar, leaders like Ram Briksha Benipuri, Prof Abdul Bari and Acharya Kripalani led the movement. Source: Indian Express DELHI’S AIR WORST AMONG CAPITALS Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – ENVIRONMENT Context: According to the World Air Quality Report 2024 by Swiss air quality monitoring company IQAir, Delhi has been ranked as the world’s most polluted national capital for the sixth consecutive year. The report also highlights that 13 of the 20 most

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) THE STORY OF CHAGOS Syllabus: Prelims – CURRENT EVENT Context: Ahead of Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s two-day visit to Mauritius this week, India affirmed its support for the island country’s claim over the Chagos archipelago. Background: – Chagos has long been the subject of a dispute between Mauritius and the UK, which held on to these islands for decades after granting independence to Mauritius in 1968. Key takeaways The Chagos archipelago comprises more than 60 low-lying islands in the Indian Ocean roughly 1,600 km to the northeast of the main island of Mauritius. Diego Garcia is the largest island of the Chagos Archipelago. Chagos was uninhabited for most of its history. The Portuguese used the Chagos islands as a stopover in voyages around the Cape of Good Hope to India. But it was only in the 18th century that the first permanent settlements emerged. France became the first power to officially plant its flag on Chagos. The French had earlier set up Indian Ocean colonies in Île Bourbon (now Réunion) in 1665, Isle de France (now Mauritius) in 1715, and the Seychelles in 1744. By 1786, a number of fishing settlements and coconut plantations was established. The labour for these enterprises was supplied by slaves from Mauritius, the Seychelles, Madagascar, and East Africa. In 1814, after the fall of the Napoleonic Empire, France formally ceded Mauritius, including Chagos, and the Seychelles to Britain. After Britain abolished slavery in its colonies in 1833, indentured labour from India and Malaya was brought to the plantations. The Chagossian population today traces its origins to freed African slaves, and the Indian and Malayan labourers who arrived in the 18th and 19th centuries. Under international law, they are the indigenous people of the Chagos archipelago. British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT) & Diego Garcia base Mauritius became independent on March 12, 1968. But Britain kept control of Chagos.  In 1965, the UK had created a new administrative entity — the British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT) — which included the Chagos islands from Mauritius, and the islands of Aldabra, Farquhar, and Desroches from the Seychelles (these were restored to the Seychelles when the country received its independence in 1976). In 1966, the UK and the US signed a secret agreement to establish a military base in Diego Garcia. In 1971, when the US began to construct the Diego Garcia base, islanders were forcibly deported to Mauritius and the Seychelles. The roughly 2,000-strong native population was expelled. The 2024 agreement In 2017, the UN General Assembly voted to ask the International Court of Justice to examine the legal status of the archipelago. The ICJ concluded that the UK is under an obligation to bring to an end its administration of the Chagos Archipelago. A deal was struck between the UK and Mauritius in 2024. Britain recognised Mauritius’ claim over all of Chagos, including Diego Garcia — however, the deal said that the UK would, for a 99-year initial period, exercise “the sovereign rights [over Diego Garcia] and authorities of Mauritius are required to ensure the continued operation of the base well into the next century”. Source: Indian Express NATIONAL BOARD FOR WILDLIFE Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – ENVIRONMENT Context: More than 10 years after assuming office, Prime Minister Narendra Modi chaired his first-ever meeting of the National Board for Wildlife (NBWL) last week. Background: – The last full-body NBWL meeting was held on September 5, 2012, chaired by then PM Manmohan Singh. The PM is the ex officio chairman of the NBWL. Key takeaways The present-day National Board for Wildlife was created in 2003 after amending The Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972. The NBWL is the country’s apex body on matters of framing wildlife policy, conservation of wildlife and forests, and on giving recommendations to set up new national parks and sanctuaries. The NBWL consists of 47 members with the Prime Minister as its chairperson and the Union environment minister its vice-chairperson. The NBWL has a standing committee, to which are delegated key tasks such as appraising projects situated on forest lands inside and around national parks and sanctuaries as well as projects within 10-km of protected areas.  The standing committee’s decisions are recommendatory, which the environment ministry can overrule. Why has the board recently faced criticism? Over the past decade, the NBWL has cleared several controversial projects in and around wildlife habitats. These include the Ken Betwa river linking project’s Daudhan Dam, which will submerge nearly 100 sqkm of Panna Tiger Reserve, and an oil exploration project of Vedanta in the eco-sensitive zone of the Hollongapar Gibbon sanctuary, home to the endangered Hoolock Gibbon, India’s only ape species. Also, in 2021, the Galathea Bay Sanctuary in Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a nesting site of leatherback sea turtles, was denotified. After the BJP came to power in 2014, the NBWL was reconstituted. The move faced allegations of dilution of powers, as only three non-governmental members were appointed. The last standing committee of the UPA era had seven members not linked to the government — four conservation experts, and three representing non-governmental organisations. Source: Indian Express RECESSION Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – ECONOMY Context: US stocks have plunged, the constant talk of tariffs has caused uncertainty, and a survey has shown that mood among American consumers is pessimistic, even as an economic adviser to President Donald Trump has dismissed talks of a recession in the US economy. Background: At its simplest, in any economy, a recessionary phase is the counterpart of an expansionary phase. Key takeaways When the overall output of goods and services — typically measured by the GDP — increases from one quarter (or month) to another, the economy is said to be in an expansionary phase. And when the GDP contracts from one quarter to another, the economy is said to be in a recessionary phase. Together, these two phases create what is called a “business cycle” in any economy. A full business cycle could last anywhere between one year and a decade. When a recessionary phase sustains for long enough, it

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) POLICIES OF DONALD TRUMP Syllabus: Mains – GS 2 Context: During his campaign, Donald Trump promised a new era of prosperity. Now, two months into his presidency, he cautions that lowering prices will be challenging and warns of short-term disruptions before restoring wealth to the U.S. Background: – A chorus of economic analysts have warned in recent days that the risks of recession due to Trump’s policies are rising. Key takeaways Threatening/imposing import tariffs Trump has threatened import tariffs on all countries. Tariffs will most likely raise prices that US consumers pay. This will both raise inflation (the rate at which the general price level rises over the past year) and hit affordability (which takes into account the cumulative effect of all past inflations). Tariffs will also hit US firms as their import costs will go up, meaning they will not be able to produce in a cost-effective manner. Canada, the European Union, and China all are retaliating with their own tariffs. This will also hit the demand for US goods, and thus ultimately harm US producers. Threatening to expand us territory Trump has repeatedly threatened to expand American territory by including sovereign countries as new “states” in the union. For example, Canada and Greenland. Such rhetoric has made all countries aware of an imperialist US. This extinguishes co-operation and trust built over decades, and blows away the US reputation as the global protector of national sovereignty and democratic values. Backtracking on security guarantees The White House’s backtracking on US security guarantees to allies — through NATO and other ways — has alarmed many. Trump’s treatment of Ukraine President and his decision to withhold military intelligence in the middle of a war with Russia was unprecedented. The bottom line is that Trump’s stance has made the United States’ long-standing allies reconsider if Washington can be trusted anymore. Cutting government spending Trump aims to reduce the federal workforce and cut government spending by eliminating programs and even entire departments. A big reason for American exceptionalism, especially after the Global Crisis of 2008 and the Covid, has been the big spending by US governments, fuelled by a loose monetary policy where the US printed money to fuel demand. (The US could do so because the US dollar is trusted and used the world over.) The government used this money to expand its welfare programmes. Thus, a sudden and sharp cut in government spending could take away the impetus it was providing to domestic demand and growth. Deporting illegal immigrants Donald Trump has amped up action against illegal immigrants, deporting thousands. If millions are pulled out of the workforce over a short period, it can raise labour constraints. US producers may find that wages costs have risen far in excess of their ability to pass on the cost to their buyers. Cutting taxes, initiating deregulation Trump is in favour of cutting taxes, as well initiating massive deregulation. The fact is that the fiscal room for providing tax relief can only happen when the existing spending comes down sharply, otherwise the deficit will continue to balloon. Over the decades, the US had built up regulations that aimed at providing safeguards for consumers and establishing guardrails against corporate malfeasance. Deregulation can then also lead to adverse impacts on the average consumer. Source: Indian Express GREAT NICOBAR ISLAND PROJECT Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: During the ongoing Rajya Sabha session Union Tribal Affairs Minister Jual Oram said that the government has not received any information about objections to the Great Nicobar Infrastructure project. Background: – The Great Nicobar Island (GNI) infrastructure project was conceived by NITI Aayog and launched in 2021. Key takeaways The Great Nicobar Island Development Project is a significant infrastructure initiative by the Government of India, aiming to transform the southern tip of Great Nicobar Island into a strategic hub for commerce, tourism, and defense. Key plans in the project include the construction of an International Container Transshipment Terminal (ICTT), a greenfield international airport with a peak hour capacity to handle 4,000 passengers, a township, and a gas and solar-based power plant. The project is being implemented by the Andaman and Nicobar Islands Integrated Development Corporation (ANIIDCO).  It aligns with India’s Maritime Vision 2030 and is one of the key projects under the Amrit Kaal Vision 2047.  It also gives an opportunity to leverage the strategic location of the island, which is roughly equidistant from Colombo in Sri Lanka to the southwest and Port Klang (Malaysia) and Singapore to the southeast. Additional Information – About Andaman & Nicobar The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are a cluster of 836 islands, split into two groups — the Andaman Islands to the north and the Nicobar Islands to the south — by the 150-km wide Ten Degree Channel. Great Nicobar is the southernmost and largest of the Nicobar Islands, a sparsely inhabited 910-sq-km patch of mainly tropical rainforest in the southeastern Bay of Bengal. Indira Point on the island, India’s southernmost point, is only 90 nautical miles (less than 170 km) from Sabang at the northern tip of Sumatra, the largest island of the Indonesian archipelago. Great Nicobar has two national parks (Campbell Bay National Park and Galathea National Park), a biosphere reserve (Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve ), small populations of the Shompen and Nicobarese tribal peoples, and a few thousand non-tribal settlers. Source: Indian Express INDIAS CHOICE BETWEEN PROGRESS AND PAROCHIALISM Syllabus: Mains – GS 2 Context: India stands at a critical juncture, caught between the anvil of technological disruption and the hammer of cultural nationalism. While the Union government champions economic independence and global technological leadership – its linguistic policies risk undermining these ambitions. Background: The call by the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) chief recently to reject English, western attire, and customs – echoed by Maharashtra’s push for Marathi use/promotion to be mandatory in government offices – reveals a deepening crisis. Key takeaways English, one of India’s official languages, and also the de-facto medium of higher education, remains accessible to just 10% of Indians. This staggering disparity is not incidental but also a product of political choices,

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) LAWS GOVERNING IMPORT OF GOLD Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: A Special Court of Economic Offences in Bengaluru rejected the bail plea of Kannada actor Ranya Rao, who was arrested for allegedly smuggling over 14 kilograms of gold on a flight from Dubai to Bengaluru. Background: – Directorate of Revenue Intelligence (DRI) officials called it one of the biggest seizures of gold at Bengaluru airport in recent times. Key takeaways Until its repeal in 1990, the Gold (Control) Act, 1968, curbed gold imports and placed heavy restrictions on the acquisition, possession, and disposal of gold in India. However, with liberalisation in 1990s, the government modified its approach, imposing an import duty on gold. Now, gold imports are largely governed under the Customs Act, 1962, and by the Central Board of Indirect Taxes and Customs (CBIC).  The customs duty for gold may differ depending on the amount of gold carried by a passenger and the duration spent abroad before traveling back to India, as per the Baggage Rules, 2016 (issued under the Customs Act). Under these rules, a man residing abroad for over a year may carry up to 20 grams of jewellery duty free (with a value cap of Rs 50,000) and a woman may similarly carry up to 40 grams (with a cap of Rs 1 lakh).  The CBIC also has specific guidelines for Indian passengers returning from Dubai after residing there for over six months, allowing them to carry up to 1 kg of gold as long as the applicable customs duty is paid. In 2003, the Supreme Court held that any article imported without complying with the relevant conditions or restrictions must be considered a “prohibited good”. Such goods are liable to be confiscated under Section 111 and punished under Section 112 of the Customs Act.  The punishment may include a fine of up to the value of the goods. Section 135 provides a punishment of up to 7 years imprisonment if the market price of the smuggled goods exceeds Rs. 1 lakh. Smuggling is also punishable under Section 111 (Organised Crime) of the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023, which punishes “trafficking in illicit goods” with imprisonment of at least five years, extendable to life imprisonment.  The UAPA also carries the same punishment for smuggling as a “terrorist act” under Section 15 if it causes “damage to the monetary stability of India”. Source: Indian Express DIFFERENT TYPES OF BONDS Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – ECONOMY Context: The Sovereign Green Bonds (SGrBs) in India has received a luke response. The two new SGrBs worth Rs 10,000 crore auctioned in November and January faced muted response as bonds valued at Rs 7,443 crore remained unsold. This came despite a rule change allowing NRIs and foreign portfolio investors to participate without restrictions. Background: – The government’s inability to raise adequate proceeds through bonds increases fiscal constraints. Key takeaways A bond is an instrument to borrow money. A bond could be floated/issued by a country’s government or by a company to raise funds.  Since government bonds (referred to as G-secs in India, Treasury in the US, and Gilts in the UK) come with the sovereign’s guarantee, they are considered one of the safest investments. As a result, they also give the lowest returns on investment (or yield). The yield of a bond is the effective rate of return that it earns. But the rate of return is not fixed — it changes with the price of the bond. Sovereign Green Bonds Sovereign green bonds (SGrBs) are those that are issued by sovereign entities, like the Government of India, which formulated a framework for issuing such bonds in 2022.  The framework defines “green projects” as those that encourage energy efficiency in resource utilisation, reduce carbon emissions, promote climate resilience, and improve natural ecosystems. Masala Bonds Masala Bonds are rupee-denominated bonds i.e. the funds would be raised from the overseas market in Indian rupees.  According to RBI, any corporate, body corporate, and Indian bank is eligible to issue rupee-denominated bonds overseas. Advantages of Masala Bonds : Lower Cost of Borrowing: Interest rates may be lower compared to domestic borrowing. Diversification of Funding Sources: Enables Indian companies to access global capital markets. Boosts Rupee Internationalization: Encourages wider acceptance of the Indian rupee in global finance. Foreign Investors Bear Currency Risk: If the rupee depreciates, investors receive fewer dollars upon conversion, making it riskier for them. Social Impact Bonds Social Impact Bonds (SIBs) are innovative financial instruments designed to fund social programs through a results-based approach.  Unlike traditional bonds, SIBs do not provide fixed returns to investors. Instead, returns are linked to the achievement of predefined social outcomes (e.g., reducing unemployment, improving public health, or enhancing education). How SIBs Work? Government/Authority Identifies a Social Issue: A government or public sector entity defines a social problem that needs intervention. Investors Provide Upfront Capital: Private investors or philanthropic organizations fund the project. Service Providers Implement the Program: Non-profits or social enterprises execute interventions to achieve the desired impact. Independent Evaluation: Third-party assessors measure the project’s success based on pre-agreed metrics. Outcome-Based Repayment: If the project meets its goals, the government repays investors with a return. If the project fails, investors may lose part or all of their investment. Key Features Pay-for-Success Model: Government pays only if the intervention achieves measurable results. Risk Transfer: Shifts financial risk from the public sector to private investors. Encourages Innovation: Service providers have flexibility in implementing evidence-based solutions. Examples of Social Impact Bonds : India’s Educate Girls Development Impact Bond (2015): Focused on improving girls’ education in Rajasthan. Source: Indian Express CORONAL MASS EJECTIONS (CMES) Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: Scientists from the Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA) have reported observations of a flareless coronal mass ejection (CME) from the solar atmosphere with the Visible Emission Line Coronagraph (VELC) instrument onboard Aditya-L1 mission. Background: The Aditya-L1 mission is India’s first scientific mission dedicated to studying the sun. Key takeaways Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs) are massive bursts of solar plasma and

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) HEATWAVE Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: According to the India Meteorological Department (IMD), there is a high probability of heatwave conditions in isolated places in Odisha during March 13-17; Jharkhand during March 14-17, and Gangetic West Bengal on March 15-17. Background: – A heatwave is basically a period of unusually high temperatures over a place. Thus, the threshold to declare a heatwave depends on the temperatures normally seen in that area in that time of the year. So what is considered a heatwave in Kerala will not be called that in Odisha. Key takeaways The India Meteorological Department (IMD) declares a heat wave based on the following temperature thresholds and deviations: Based on Absolute Temperature (Plains & Hilly Areas) Heat Wave: When the maximum temperature reaches ≥ 40°C in the plains or ≥ 30°C in hilly areas. Severe Heat Wave: When the maximum temperature reaches ≥ 47°C in the plains. Based on Temperature Departure from Normal Heat Wave: If the maximum temperature is 4.5°C to 6.4°C above the normal temperature for a given location. Severe Heat Wave: If the maximum temperature is ≥ 6.5°C above normal. For Coastal Regions A heat wave is declared when the maximum temperature reaches ≥ 37°C and is 4.5°C or more above normal. Duration Requirement : A location must experience these criteria for at least two consecutive days for IMD to declare a heat wave. Heatwaves in India occur mainly from March to June and in some cases, July. Source: Indian Express ASSAM RIFLES Syllabus: Prelims – CURRENT EVENT Context: In a development towards addressing a long-standing issue, a ceremonial transfer of land between Assam Rifles and Mizoram government took place to mark the relocation of paramilitary force from areas in the heart of Aizawl to Zokhawsang, 15 km away from the city. Background: – Assam Rifles will give 106.853 acres of land in Aizawl, while the Mizoram government has given 1305.15 acres on lease to the Assam Rifles in Zokhawsang. Mizoram CM said the transfer, “will greatly facilitate the process, freeing up valuable space and resources, that can be redirected towards the development of our city and improving the quality of life for our citizens”. Key takeaways The Assam Rifles (AR) is one of the six central armed police forces (CAPFs). The AR is tasked with maintaining law and order in the Northeast along with the Indian Army. It also guards the Indo-Myanmar border. It is the only paramilitary force with a dual control structure. While the administrative control of the force is with the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA), its operational control is with the Indian Army, which is under the Ministry of Defence (MoD). Due to the dual control structure, salaries and infrastructure for the force is provided by the MHA, but the deployment, posting, transfer and deputation of the personnel is decided by the Army. All its senior ranks, from DG to IG and sector headquarters, are manned by officers from the Army. The Force is commanded by an officer of the rank of Lieutenant General of the Army. The highest HQ of the force known as the HQ Directorate General of Assam Rifles is located at Shillong.  Assam Rifles is a region specific force with its operational role in the North East and therefore the HQ DGAR is also located in the East. The HQs of all other Central Para Military Forces are located at Delhi. Its recruitment, perks, promotion of its personnel and retirement policies are governed according to the rules framed by the MHA for CAPFs. Historical Evolution According to the official website of Assam Rifles, the AR came into being in 1835, as a militia called the ‘Cachar Levy’. This Force was formed to primarily protect British Tea estates and their settlements against tribal raids. 1917 – Renamed Assam Rifles in recognition of its role in World War I. World War II – Played a critical role against the Japanese advance. The post-independence role of the Assam Rifles continued to evolve, ranging from a conventional combat role during the Sino-India War in 1962, operating in foreign land as part of the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) to Sri Lanka in 1987 (Op Pawan), to a peacekeeping role in the northeastern areas of India. It remains the most awarded paramilitary force in both pre- and post-Independence India, having won a very large number of Shaurya Chakras, Kirti Chakras, Vir Chakras, Ashok Chakras, and Sena Medals. Source: Indian Express CAR T-CELL THERAPY Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: The clinical trial results of India’s first CAR T-cell therapy, published in The Lancet, show that it worked for nearly 73 per cent of patients. These results come from the Phase I and II trials of the therapy, where researchers assess its safety and effectiveness against a given condition.  Background: This is the first clinical trial of a CAR T-cell therapy from India to be published in an international journal. The treatment developed in India is meant for patients with two types of blood cancers that affect the B cells — acute lymphoblastic leukemia and large B cell lymphomas. Key takeaways  CAR T-cell therapy, or chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy, trains the body’s own immune cells to identify and destroy cancer cells. This treatment is designed for specific types of blood cancer and is given to patients whose cancer has either relapsed or not responded to first-line treatment. India’s drug regulator had granted approval for this therapy in 2023. It is now available at several hospitals across India, including Apollo, Fortis, Amrita and Max, among others. Given that the treatment is novel and intended for cancer patients with no other options, the regulator allowed the company — a start-up incubated in IIT Bombay called ImmunoAct — to forgo a large Phase III clinical trial to demonstrate its efficacy in a broader population. However, the company must follow up with all patients who receive the therapy for 15 years. While the response rate was

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) BODO ACCORD Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: Union Home Minister Amit Shah said the Union and state governments had implemented “82%” of the conditions in the 2020 Bodo Accord and would implement the remainder in the next two years. Background: – The Bodo issue in Assam is rooted in the ethnic and political aspirations of the Bodo community, demanding a separate state called Bodoland. The movement has witnessed violent insurgency, peace accords, and formation of autonomous councils. The 2020 Bodo Accord is the third such agreement aimed at resolving the Bodo issue. Key takeaways Who are the Bodos? Bodos are the largest tribal community in Assam, constituting about 5-6% of the state’s population. Historically, Bodos ruled vast parts of Assam before losing their dominance. Timeline of the Bodo Movement Phase 1: Initial Demand for Separate State (1966-67) The demand for Bodoland was first raised by the Plains Tribals Council of Assam (PTCA). PTCA demanded a separate state for Bodos and other plains tribals. Phase 2: Rise of ABSU & Armed Struggle (1987) In 1987, the All Bodo Students’ Union (ABSU) renewed the demand, raising the slogan, “Divide Assam Fifty-Fifty”. Rise of armed insurgency groups, mainly the Bodo Liberation Tigers (BLT) and the National Democratic Front of Bodoland (NDFB). Phase 3: First Bodo Accord (1993) Signed between the Government of India, Government of Assam, and ABSU. Led to the creation of the Bodoland Autonomous Council (BAC). However, BAC failed due to lack of constitutional protection and administrative powers. Phase 4: Second Bodo Accord (2003) Signed between the Government of India, Government of Assam, and Bodo Liberation Tigers Force (BLTF). Led to the creation of the Bodoland Territorial Council (BTC) under the Sixth Schedule of the Constitution. BTC governed four districts – Kokrajhar, Baksa, Chirang, Udalguri (Bodoland Territorial Area Districts – BTAD). However, factions of NDFB continued insurgency, demanding full statehood. Phase 5: Third Bodo Accord (2020) – Signed between Government of India, Assam Government, and four factions of NDFB. Key Provisions: BTAD will be renamed as Bodoland Territorial Region (BTR). No separate state but more autonomy to BTC with increased legislative, administrative, and financial powers. Withdrawal of cases against Bodo militants and rehabilitation of cadres. Establishment of Bodo-Kachari Welfare Council The Government of Assam will notify Bodo language in Devanagri script as the associate official language in the state. Source: Indian Express MENHIR Syllabus: Prelims – CURRENT EVENT Context: The Mudumal megalithic menhirs in Telangana’s Narayanpet district will soon be the second UNESCO World Heritage Site in the state, after being one of the six Indian sites to be added to the tentative list by the World Heritage Centre in 2025. Background: – The menhir’s in Mudumal, dated to roughly 3,500 to 4,000 before present (BP), are the oldest known menhirs in India. Key takeaways A menhir is a standing or an upright stone, which is usually tapered at the top. It is man-made, in that it is sculpted and placed by humans, and usually quite large. How old are menhirs? Why were they erected? The ones in Europe were originally associated with the Beaker culture who lived during the late Neolithic and early Bronze Age — roughly 4,800 to 3,800 before present (BP). But the oldest European menhirs are today dated to as early as 7,000 BP. Menhirs can either be found alone, or as a part of a larger complex of prehistoric megaliths, simply, large stone structures.  While the exact purpose is debated, they likely served ceremonial functions. Some were markers of graves, while others might have served some astronomical purposes. The Mudumal site has been described as a “megalithic astronomical observatory” by the UNESCO dossier. “Some menhirs are aligned with the rising and setting sun during the summer and winter solstices, suggesting their use as an ancient observatory,” the dossier says. Today, the Mudumal menhirs are closely associated with local legend, with “one particular menhir being worshipped as Goddess Yellamma”. Why Menhirs deserve UNESCO recognition? First, they give us insight into the ingenuity of early humans. Not only do these tonnes-heavy stones need a solid understanding of physics to be sculpted and move to precise locations, the precision of their placement itself tells us how much our ancestors knew about astronomy and solstices. Second, they give us insight into how the cultures who built them saw and understood the world. The effort taken to build these megalithic structures tells us that they were undoubtedly meaningful to the people who built them. This in turn can help us better understand these cultures who have left no written material for the historical record. Source: Indian Express COMPTROLLER AND AUDITOR GENERAL OF INDIA Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – POLITY Context: The Supreme Court decided to examine a plea challenging the sole prerogative of the Centre, acting through the President, to appoint the Comptroller and Auditor General of India. Background: The petitioner, Centre for Public Interest Litigation, referred to recent “deviations” in the CAG’s work, including reports on the “pause” in Maharashtra audits, a steady decline on audits on the Union government, the shelving of the performance audit on ‘debt sustainability’, allegations of corruption in recruitment to several vacancies in the CAG, among others. Key takeaways The Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) of India is the supreme audit authority of the country. CAG acts as the guardian of public finances and ensures transparency in government spending. It is an independent constitutional authority, established under Article 148 of the Indian Constitution. Appointment & Tenure Appointed by the President of India. Holds office for 6 years or until the age of 65, whichever is earlier. Removal process similar to that of a Supreme Court judge (cannot be removed except on grounds of proven misbehavior or incapacity, requiring a special majority in Parliament). The CAG performs the following key functions: Auditing Audit of Union Government: Examines the accounts of the central government. Audit of State Governments: Audits the accounts of state governments. Audit of Public Sector Undertakings (PSUs): Reviews the

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) INDIA AND NEW ZEALAND SIGN DEFENCE PACT Syllabus: Mains – GS 2 Context: India signed a defence cooperation pact with New Zealand and agreed to step up dialogue to enhance maritime safety after Prime Minister Narendra Modi met the visiting Prime Minister of New Zealand, Christopher Luxon. Background: – The recent developments mark a new phase in India-New Zealand relations, characterized by stronger defence partnerships, economic cooperation, and strategic alignment in the Indo-Pacific. Key takeaways Defence and Security Cooperation India and New Zealand signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) for Defence Cooperation, aiming to institutionalize and strengthen defence and security collaboration. Both sides emphasized maritime security and the safety of sea lanes of communication, given the strategic significance of the Indo-Pacific. India raised concerns about pro-Khalistan activities in New Zealand, with assurances of cooperation from the New Zealand government. Geopolitical Outlook Prime Minister Modi stated that India believes in development, not expansionism, indirectly addressing China’s assertive regional policies. PM Luxon emphasized New Zealand’s cooperation with like-minded countries in countering regional threats but clarified that New Zealand has no intention of joining the Quad (India, US, Australia, Japan). Economic and Trade Relations India and New Zealand agreed to launch negotiations on a mutually beneficial Free Trade Agreement (FTA). Total bilateral trade stood at US$ 1.75 billion in 2023-24, with India importing wool, iron & steel, fruits, and aluminium while exporting pharmaceuticals, machinery, textiles, and precious stones. Both countries aim to increase investment and cooperation in dairy, food processing, and pharmaceuticals. People-to-People Ties and Diplomatic Expansion New Zealand announced a 60% increase in its diplomatic presence in India, signaling stronger engagement. The Indian community is the third-largest ethnic group in New Zealand, contributing significantly to the country’s workforce, especially in skilled migration and education. In 2026, India and New Zealand will celebrate 100 years of sporting relations, recognizing the significance of cricket and other sports in fostering cultural ties. Source: The Hindu IUCN GREEN LIST Syllabus: Prelims – ENVIRONMENT Context: The IUCN Green List is seeing growth with the addition of four new listings from West Asia, marking a positive trend toward effective and equitable area-based conservation. Background: – Four new sites included are Sharaan Nature Reserve and King Abdulaziz Royal Nature Reserve of Saudi Arabia, Aqaba Marine Reserve of Jordan and Sir Bu Nair Protected Area from UAE. Key takeaways The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Green List of Protected and Conserved Areas is a global initiative aimed at recognizing and promoting effective, equitable, and successful management of protected and conserved areas worldwide.  It serves as a benchmark for quality in nature conservation, ensuring that these areas deliver tangible benefits for both people and nature. Objectives of the IUCN Green List: Enhance Conservation Outcomes: Increase the number of protected and conserved areas that achieve successful conservation results through effective management and governance.  Provide a Global Benchmark: Offer a globally consistent standard to measure and improve the performance of protected and conserved areas.  The IUCN Green List Standard is structured around four key components, each encompassing specific criteria: Good Governance: Ensures that the area is managed transparently, inclusively, and accountably, respecting the rights of stakeholders and indigenous communities.  Sound Design and Planning: Focuses on clear, long-term conservation goals based on a comprehensive understanding of the area’s natural, cultural, and socio-economic values.  Effective Management: Involves implementing strategies and actions that are efficient, adaptive, and based on the best available knowledge to maintain or enhance the area’s values.  Successful Conservation Outcomes: Measures the achievement of tangible and positive results in conserving the area’s values, contributing to biodiversity and ecosystem health.  The path to Green List certification involves several stages: Application Phase: Protected areas submit an application and provide initial documentation demonstrating commitment to the Green List indicators.  Candidate Phase: Upon acceptance, the site undergoes a thorough evaluation against all criteria, including stakeholder consultations and site visits.  Green List Phase: Successful sites are awarded Green List status, recognized for their excellence in conservation, and are subject to periodic reviews to ensure ongoing compliance.  There are no Indian sites listed on the IUCN Green List Source: IUCN FIVE EYES ALLIANCE Syllabus: Prelims – CURRENT EVENT Context: In a major step for cooperation on global security, intelligence chiefs and national security advisers of several countries including three members of the Five Eyes alliance have gathered in New Delhi. Besides key meetings, the intel chiefs will attend The Raisina Dialogue – a multilateral conference organised by the Observer Research Foundation and India’s Ministry of External Affairs. Background: Once a covert intelligence-sharing network, Five Eyes has evolved into an expansive global surveillance apparatus, operating with little accountability. While some nations have challenged its overreach, the dominance of the US and UK has ensured that, in most cases, its actions remain shielded from meaningful consequences. Key takeaways The Five Eyes (FVEY) is an intelligence-sharing alliance comprising five English-speaking countries: United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand. Origins and Evolution The alliance originated during World War II with the UKUSA Agreement (1946) between the United States and the United Kingdom, later expanding to include Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. It was initially focused on signals intelligence (SIGINT), particularly intercepting Soviet communications during the Cold War. Over time, the alliance has expanded its scope to counterterrorism, cyber threats, and geopolitical intelligence sharing. Significance and Role The Five Eyes countries share classified intelligence, gathered through various means, including electronic surveillance, cybersecurity monitoring, and human intelligence. It is one of the most comprehensive intelligence alliances in the world, with vast capabilities in surveillance, counterespionage, and cybersecurity. The alliance also cooperates on emerging threats like China’s growing technological influence, Russian cyber activities, and terrorism networks. Source: Indian Express WHITE HYDROGEN Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: France has discovered a massive 46-million-ton white hydrogen reserve in the Moselle region, valued at $92 trillion. Background: – Hydrogen is considered the future of clean energy. Unlike solar or wind energy, it produces only water when burned.