Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) GAZA CEASEFIRE DEAL TAKES EFFECT Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: After 15 months of devastating war between Israel and Hamas, a ceasefire took effect on Sunday. Background: – The ceasefire deal, brokered by Qatar, the US, and Egypt, promises to pause fighting for 42 days and includes the release of hostages held in Gaza in exchange for Palestinian prisoners in Israeli jails.   Key takeaways During a 42-day first phase beginning Sunday, Hamas will release 33 hostages and Israel will release between 900 and 1,650 Palestinian detainees, including all of those detained since October 7, 2023. The IDF will withdraw from central Gaza and the Netzarim Corridor — a 2-4-km-wide security clearing that it has created, cutting Gaza in half up to the Mediterranean — and eventually from the Philadelphi Corridor, the buffer zone along the Gaza-Egypt border. Negotiations for a second phase will begin on the 16th day after the ceasefire comes into effect, and is expected to produce almost a full Israeli withdrawal from the Strip, and the release of all remaining hostages by Hamas in return for a yet-to-be-decided number of Palestinian detainees. War that reshaped the Middle East The war has rippled across the Middle East, triggering conflict with Hezbollah in Lebanon and drawing Israel into direct confrontation with Iran.  Despite billions spent by Iran in building up a network of militants around Israel, its influence in the region has taken a significant hit. Hezbollah’s formidable missile arsenal has been largely destroyed, and much of its leadership has been killed. In Syria, the collapse of the Assad regime has further weakened Iran’s position in the region, leaving Israel militarily unchallenged but diplomatically isolated. Even as Israel emerges from the conflict militarily dominant, its international standing has suffered. Outrage over the humanitarian toll in Gaza has mounted, with Netanyahu now facing allegations of war crimes at the International Criminal Court (ICC) and accusations of genocide at the International Court of Justice (ICJ). Source: Indian Express MAHA KUMBH: A CONFLUENCE OF FAITH AND CULTURE Syllabus: Prelims – ART & CULTURE Context: Maha Kumbh is progressing in Prayagraj. Kumbh mela is listed as the largest peaceful congregation of pilgrims on earth by UNESCO. Background: – It is expected to have a footfall of 450 million this year, nearly twice the population of Uttar Pradesh, India’s most populous State. Key takeaways Kumbh, derived from a Sanskrit word which means a pitcher, is rotationally held every three years at the four riverside cities of Prayagraj, Haridwar, Ujjain and Nasik. Its schedule is based on the planetary alignments, mainly of that of Sun and Jupiter. The Ardh (half) Kumbh is held every six years at Haridwar and Prayagraj while the Purna (complete) Kumbh takes place in all four cities, every 12 years. The Maha Kumbh happens after 12 Purna Kumbhs in Prayagraj, once in 144 years and is considered the most auspicious. The mythological beliefs say that drops of Amrit (essence of immortality) were spilled at these sites from an urn which came out during the Samudra Mantha (churning of the ocean) done by the gods and demons. The central ritual of the fair remains bathing in waters of the sacred rivers where millions immerse themselves with the belief that the act will cleanse them of their sins and liberate them from the cycle of birth and death. A gathering of ascetics Religious texts also link Kumbh Mela’s origins to the 8th-century philosopher, Adi Shankaracharya, who established this practice of gatherings of ascetics from across the country, for discussion on religion. It was Shankaracharya who instituted the monastery system and the 13 Akharas (warrior-saint sects) — Nirvani, Atal, Niranjani, Anand, Juna, Awahan and Agni, Nirmohi, Digambar Ani and Nirvani Ani, the two Udasin Akharas (Naya and Bada) and the Nirmala Akhara. The saints from these sects are the main attraction at the Kumbh. The latest in the line of Akharas is the Kinnar (transgender) Akhara, established in 2015 by transgender rights activist Laxmi Narayan Tripathi. Source: The Hindu COMBATING SPAM Syllabus: Mains – GS 3 Context: The Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) will be using distributed ledger technology (DLT) to register spam preferences from customers, TRAI chairman said. Background: The TRAI regulates the telecom industry, and its main role is in regulating Unsolicited Commercial Communications (UCC), the official name for spam. Key takeaways Starting in 2007, TRAI implemented a do-not-disturb (DND) registry. If a telecom customer signs up to the DND registry, they are not supposed to get any spam calls or SMS messages. Under the Telecom Commercial Communication Customer Preference Regulation (TCCCPR), 2018, telemarketers who called or sent messages to DND-registered customers would receive warnings, and if enough warnings accumulate, they would be blacklisted from sending messages to telecom operators. In 2024, TRAI mandated that DND reporting be made available on every telecom provider’s app. What role does blockchain play? In order to fight the deluge of spam messages, TRAI mandated in the TCCCPR that telcos use a blockchain ledger, also known as a distributed ledger, in order to store a constantly-updated list of approved senders of SMS messages. Telcos would also be required to approve specific formats of messages. For instance, an OTP message that goes, “Your OTP is 433212,” would be stored in the blockchain as “Your OTP is …” with space for a variable. These messages have been required to be sent from sender IDs, and not phone numbers. This has been one of the most stringent rules that have been issued to fight SMS spam. In 2024, the regulations were tightened to ensure “traceability” of messages. This was aimed at plugging a crucial flaw in the system that would allow anyone to register on the blockchain solutions implemented by telecom operators and send out fraudulent or spam messages. Have these measures been effective? For those who have registered their DND preferences, communications from legitimate businesses that follow the rules have reduced. However, spam is constantly changing. Fraudulent calls have emerged, with frauds seeking to ensnare Indians in scams. Many of these operations

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) AFTER ELECTORAL BOND BAN, FUNDING THROUGH TRUST ROUTE UP Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – POLITY Context: After the Supreme Court’s decision to scrap electoral bonds last year, donations to political parties significantly increased through electoral trusts, as indicated by the electoral trust contribution reports released by the Election Commission of India (ECI) for the previous financial year. Background: – Nearly three-fourths of the donations to the Prudent Electoral Trust, which has received the highest contribution, were made after the Supreme Court’s decision on February 15. Key takeaways An Electoral Trust is a non-profit organization established in India to facilitate transparent funding to political parties. On 31st January, 2013, through ‘The Electoral Trusts Scheme, 2013’, the Central government specified the eligibility and procedure for registration of Electoral Trusts. Key Features of Electoral Trusts Purpose: To collect voluntary contributions from individuals, companies, and institutions. To distribute these funds to registered olitical parties. Legal Framework: Governed under Section 25 of the Companies Act, 1956 (as a non-profit). Electoral trust can receive contribution only from permitted people/ entities as given below An ET must distribute up to 95% of the voluntary contributions collected, with the surplus brought forward from the earlier year, to eligible political parties only. The remaining 5%, with a cap of ₹3 lakh, may be used for managing its own affairs. These trusts are not allowed to use any contribution for the direct or indirect benefit of its members or contributors.  Eligibility Criteria for Donations: Only registered political parties under Section 29A of the Representation of the People Act, 1951, are eligible to receive funds. Donations cannot be made to independent candidates or unregistered parties. Transparency and Reporting: Trusts must file an annual contribution report with the Election Commission of India (ECI). The accounts of any ET must be audited and the report must be furnished to the Commissioner of Income Tax, including the list of contributors, list of parties that funds were distributed to, and the amounts disbursed. Tax Benefits: Donors receive tax benefits under Section 80GGB and Section 80GGC of the Income Tax Act, 1961. Electoral trusts themselves are exempt from income tax on their income. Source: Indian Express ECONOMIC SLOWDOWN Syllabus: Mains – GS 3 Context: India’s Real Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is seen growing at a four-year low of 6.4 per cent in the current financial year 2024-25, the first advance estimates for FY25 released by the National Statistics Office (NSO) showed. Background: – The government seems to have placed the blame for what it believes to be a cyclical slowdown largely at the door of the RBI. While the RBI’s tight monetary policy and interference with the rupee’s value have hindered export competitiveness, the issues are deeper and structural, not resolvable through interest rate cuts alone. Key takeaways The high growth rates seen in the aftermath of the pandemic were driven in large part by the surge in services exports, specifically, the boom in Global Capability Centres (GCC).  However, this growth structure is biased in favour of the highly skilled who account for a very small section. With not many moving up the income ladder, the overall consumption base hasn’t been growing. Limited upward mobility has, however, been a feature of the Indian economy, reflecting the inability to generate productive forms of employment for the majority. But mobility seems to have become more restricted since the pandemic. Arguably, the clearest evidence of this can be found in the car market, specifically, the low-priced, small car market. Take the sub Rs 10 lakh segment. Cars in this segment are bought by first-time users or those upgrading from two-wheelers or used cars. In 2014-15, this category accounted for 73 per cent of all cars sold in the country. By 2024-25, the category accounted for just 46 per cent of all cars sold. The labour market is just not providing enough productive employment opportunities nor are real wages growing at a fast clip. While millions more have joined the workforce, more are now self-employed, either as unpaid help in household establishments or in one-man roadside shops or in agriculture. Informal establishments and employment continue to witness a expansion, indicating the absence of alternatives.  Formal employment, as per the EPFO payroll data shows, remains driven by expert services, which are nothing but manpower suppliers, normal contractors, and security services — segments that don’t require high-skill levels. The fallout of limited job creation and muted wage growth can be seen in the greater recourse to debt. Household debt had risen to 43 per cent by June 2024. But even this debt surge has failed to boost overall consumption significantly. With little demand visibility and uncertainty over government policy, investment activity continues to remain subdued. New project announcements have slowed down as per CMIE. Source: Indian Express OLIVE RIDLEY TURTLES Syllabus: Prelims – ENVIRONMENT Context: Over the past two weeks, numerous dead olive ridley turtles have washed ashore in Tamil Nadu, particularly in Chennai. Background: Olive ridley turtles arrive near the Tamil Nadu coast around September-October to breed. Their nesting season begins in late November and ends in March. Although deaths during nesting season are not unusual, the large number of turtle carcasses found this early in the nesting period has sparked concerns. Key takeaways Olive Ridley Sea Turtles (Lepidochelys olivacea) are one of the smallest and most abundant of all sea turtles found globally. Physical Characteristics: Size: Around 60–70 cm in length and 35–50 kg in weight. Shell: Olive-colored, heart-shaped, and flattened. Habitat: Found in warm waters of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans. Prefer coastal and shallow marine environments but occasionally venture into open seas. Diet: Omnivorous; feed on algae, fish, shrimp, crabs, and jellyfish. Lifespan: Typically live for 50–60 years. These turtles are known for their unique mass nesting events called “arribadas,” where thousands of females gather on the same beach to lay eggs. Significant nesting sites include the coasts of India, Mexico, and Costa Rica. Olive ridley turtles lay eggs across several coastal states

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) EXCAVATION IN RATNAGIRI Syllabus: Prelims – ART & CULTURE, HISTORY Context: The Archaeological Survey of India recently resumed excavations at Odisha’s Ratnagiri Buddhist complex, uncovering a colossal Buddha head, a massive palm, an ancient wall, and inscribed relics from the 8th-9th Century AD. Background: – The discoveries are significant, especially given Odisha’s historical relationship with Buddhism beginning with Mauryan Emperor Ashoka (304-232 BCE), one of Buddhism’s greatest patrons whose invasion of the kingdom of Kalinga – the ancient name for Odisha – led to him embracing the religion. Key takeaways  Ratnagiri — the centre of ancient Buddhist learning Located 100 km northeast of Bhubaneswar and part of the famous Diamond Triangle of Odisha along with Udaygiri and Lalitgiri, Ratnagiri – translated as the ‘Hills of Jewels’ – was first documented as a historical site in 1905. The last excavations carried out between 1958 and 1961 led to the discovery of many remains — including a brick stupa, three monastic complexes and over hundreds of votive and commemorative stupas. However, with the ASI eventually shifting focus on sites such as Lalitgiri, where the oldest Buddhist monastery in the state was found, the Ratnagiri excavation was put on the backburner. Experts date Ratnagiri to the 5th and 13th Century, although the peak period of construction is dated between the 7th and 10th centuries. Ratnagiri rivalled Nalanda as a learning centre. There are some studies that suggest that the renowned Chinese Buddhist monk and traveller, Hiuen Tsang, who visited Odisha, during 638-639 AD, might have visited Ratnagiri. Odisha, Southeast Asia and Buddhism Odisha has long enjoyed maritime and trade links with Southeast Asian countries: pepper, cinnamon, cardamom, silk, camphor, gold, and jewellery were popular items of trade between the ancient kingdom of Kalinga and Southeast Asia. Even though there was no evidence of Buddha visiting Odisha during his lifetime, Kalinga played a great role in popularising Buddhism, especially in Southeast Asia, because of its trade link: experts believe that Tapassu and Bhallika, the two merchant brothers who became the first disciples of Lord Buddha, having their origins from Utkala, another ancient name of Odisha. Mauryan Emperor Ashoka is believed to have invaded Kalinga in 261 BC but, deeply moved by the bloodshed, he embraced Buddhism, which he eventually helped spread not only to his own empire but also to Sri Lanka, and Central and Southeast Asia. In Odisha, Buddhism is stated to have particularly flourished under the Bhaumakara dynasty, which ruled parts of the state in between the 8th and 10th Century. Odisha annually holds Baliyatra, literally ‘voyage to Bali’ – a seven-day festival to commemorate the 2,000-year-old maritime and cultural links between Kalinga and Bali and other South and Southeast Asian regions such as Java, Sumatra, Borneo, Burma (Myanmar) and Ceylon (Sri Lanka). Source: Indian Express DEATH PENALTY Syllabus: Mains – GS 2 & GS 4 Context: A sessions court in Kolkata sentenced Sanjoy Roy, convicted of the rape and murder of a doctor at RG Kar Medical College, to life imprisonment. The CBI had argued strongly for the death penalty in the case that shook West Bengal and triggered several weeks of protests. Background: – The Supreme Court has held that a sentence of death should be passed only in the “rarest of rare” cases, after the court has considered possible “aggravating” and “mitigating” circumstances (Bachan Singh v. State of Punjab, 1980). Key takeaways In Bachan Singh, the SC considered a challenge to the constitutionality of the death penalty. It upheld the death penalty, but said it should be imposed only in the “rarest of rare” cases where there is no possibility of reformation. The five-judge Constitution Bench did not specify the standards to determine whether the death penalty should be imposed, but laid down non-exhaustive lists of “aggravating” and “mitigating” circumstances for courts to consider while making the decision. Aggravating circumstances, which could tilt the court’s decision towards the death penalty: If the murder is pre-planned, calculated, and involves extreme brutality; If the murder involves “exceptional depravity”; If the accused has been found guilty of murdering a public servant, police officer or a member of the armed forces while on duty, or because of anything they may have lawfully done while discharging their duty. Mitigating circumstances, which could tilt a case away from the death penalty: Whether the accused was “under the influence of extreme mental or emotional disturbance” at the time of the offence; Age of the accused; they would not be given death if they are very young or very old; Probability of the accused posing a continued threat to society; Probability of reforming the accused; If the accused was acting on the directions of another person; If the accused believed their actions were morally justified; If the accused suffers mentally and is unable to appreciate the criminality of their actions. The understanding of mitigating and aggravating circumstances has evolved over the years, and new factors have been added through several decisions.  In Machhi Singh v. State of Punjab (1983), the SC held that death could be given in cases where the “collective conscience” of society is so shocked that the judiciary is expected to impose the death penalty. In Santosh Bariyar v. State of Maharashtra (2009), the SC said “the court will have to provide clear evidence as to why the convict is not fit for any kind of reformatory and rehabilitation scheme”. The Law Commission of India noted in its 262nd Report (2015), The Death Penalty, age as a mitigating factor has been used very inconsistently. The Law Commission Report said the requirement for evidence was held as essential in Bariyar for introducing an element of objectivity into the sentencing process. When should the court consider these circumstances? In Bachan Singh, the SC said courts must conduct a separate trial after convicting, so that judges can be persuaded why the death sentence should not be imposed. In Dattaraya v. State of Maharashtra (2020), the court held that such a hearing did not take place, and that

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) NETAJI SUBHASH CHANDRA BOSE Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – HISTORY Context: Since 2021, January 23, Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose’s birth anniversary, has been observed as “Parakram Diwas,” or the Day of Valour. This year marks Netaji’s 128th birth anniversary. Background: – The government decided to celebrate Parakram Diwas to inspire the people of the country, especially the youth, to act with fortitude in the face of adversity as Netaji did and to infuse them with a spirit of patriotic fervour. Key takeaways  Born to an upper-class Bengali family in 1897 in Cuttack. Attended Presidency College and Scottish Church College in Kolkata. Cleared the Indian Civil Services (ICS) examination in 1920 but resigned in 1921. In 1938, he was elected Congress president in the Haripura session, where he tried to push for swaraj as a “National Demand” and opposed the idea of an Indian federation under British rule. He stood for re-election in 1939 and defeated Dr Pattabhi Sitaramayya, the Gandhi-backed candidate. Bose tried to set up another working committee, but after being unable to do so, was forced to resign and was replaced by Rajendra Prasad. Within a week, he proposed the creation of the “Forward Bloc” within the Congress Party, in order to bring the radical-left elements of the party together. He was arrested in 1940 before he could launch a campaign to remove the monument dedicated to the victims of the Black Hole of Calcutta, an incident when a number of European soldiers died while imprisoned in 1756. Gandhi and Bose Gandhi was willing to wait a long time for Independence, Bose wanted immediate action, if not immediate results. Gandhi was anti-materialistic and hostile to modern technology, Bose saw technology and mass production as essential. Gandhi wanted a decentralized society and disliked the modern state; Bose wanted a strong central government and saw the modern state as the only solution to India’s problems. And finally, Bose did not share Gandhi’s dedication to non-violence. Bose was well aware of the significance of Gandhi. He was the first to call him the “father of the nation” during an address from the Azad Hind Radio from Singapore in July 1944. The INA and Bose The INA was formed on February 17, 1942, two days after the British surrendered to Japanese forces in Singapore. It mostly comprised Indian prisoners of war (PoWs) captured by the Japanese during their Southeast Asia campaign. Bose arrived in Singapore in July 1943 and took charge of INA on July 4. He gave the call of “Delhi Chalo” to INA to march on Delhi and liberate India. The INA crossed the Indo-Burma border and marched towards Imphal and Kohima in March 1944. The Chalo Delhi campaign ended at Imphal. By 1945, the British had launched their own campaign to retake Burma, and the INA once again found itself in retreat. After the atomic bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945, the war came to an end. Bose wanted to stay with his troops for the surrender but was persuaded to leave by his subordinates. He died in a plane crash three days later. Source: Indian Express TRUMP TO END BIRTHRIGHT CITIZENSHIP Syllabus: Mains – GS 2 Context: Starting his second term with a flurry of executive orders, US President Donald Trump has sought to revoke birthright citizenship – automatic citizenship of children born in the US to non-citizen parents. Background: – The Indian-American community, which is one of the fastest-growing immigrant populations in the US, will be profoundly impacted by this change as and when it comes through. Key takeaways Under birthright citizenship, anyone born on American soil is automatically granted US citizenship, regardless of the citizenship or immigration status of the parents. This provision was enacted in 1868.  Trump’s new order would deny US citizenship, including passports, to those children born in the US starting 30 days from now, if at least one parent isn’t an American citizen. Children born to Indian nationals who are on temporary work visas (like the H-1B visa) or waiting for the Green Card would no longer automatically acquire US citizenship. Children born to Indian students on non-immigrant visas would face challenges in securing US citizenship, at a time when Indian students make up one of the largest groups of international students in the US. Such a move would discourage many Indian professionals & students from seeking opportunities in the US, opting for more immigration-friendly countries like Canada or Australia instead. It could also affect the US economy, as the Indian community significantly contributes to the tech industry, healthcare and education. US-born children could no longer petition to bring their parents to the US after turning 21 if they do not get birthright citizenship. The policy will also curb “birth tourism” from countries like India and Mexico, a practice of women travelling to the US specifically to give birth, so their children can claim citizenship. Source: Indian Express INDUS WATER TREATY Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: The Neutral Expert (NE) appointed under terms of the Indus Water Treaty (IWT), 1960, decided that he was “competent” to decide on differences between India and Pakistan on the design of hydroelectric projects built on the Indus Treaty-rivers. Background: The dispute resolution mechanism laid out under the terms of the IWT says that disputes must first attempt to be resolved by the Permanent Indus Commission  (PIC). If they do not succeed, the matter would be weighed by the World Bank-appointed Neutral Expert. If this fails too, the matter would be decided by a Court of Arbitration. Key takeaways  The Indus Water Treaty (IWT) is a landmark water-sharing agreement between India and Pakistan, brokered by the World Bank.  Negotiations, mediated by the World Bank, began in the 1950s and culminated in the signing of the Indus Water Treaty in Karachi on September 19, 1960 by Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and Pakistani President Ayub Khan. It governs the use and distribution of the waters of the Indus River and its tributaries. Rivers Covered: Western Rivers (allocated to Pakistan): Indus, Jhelum, Chenab. Eastern Rivers (allocated to India): Ravi, Beas, Sutlej. Water Allocation:

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) SCHEMES RELATED TO GIRL CHILD Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: National Girl Child Day, an initiative of the Ministry of Women and Child Development, is celebrated every year on January 24. Background: – The day is aimed at promoting awareness about the rights of the girl child and to increase awareness on the importance of girls’ education, their health and nutrition. It also aims at promoting the position of girls in the society to make their living better. Key schemes for girl child NPS Vatsalya Scheme The scheme was launched in 2024. It is a new pension scheme for children in the age group of 0 to 18 years.  A parent can deposit a minimum of 1000 per month and a maximum with no limit. This account will be operated by the parents until the child turns 18, after which the account will be in the name of the children.  Once the child turns 18, the account can be seamlessly converted into a regular NPS account or a non-NPS scheme. It is regulated and administered by the Pension Fund Regulatory Authority of India (PFRDA). Beti Padhao, Beti Bachao:  On January 22, the BBBP scheme completed 10 years since its launch in 2015. The Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao Scheme, launched to address the decline in Child Sex Ratio and related issues of empowerment of girls, is implemented by states with 100% central assistance.  It set several targets concerning the nutritional status of girls, their attendance in schools, the provision of adequate infrastructure in schools and so on. Sukanya Samriddhi Yojana:  Launched in 2015 as part of the Indian government’s ‘Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao’ campaign, Sukanya Samriddhi Yojana is a small savings scheme designed to help parents of girl children accumulate a corpus for their daughter’s education and marriage. Parents of a girl child aged 10 years or younger can invest in this scheme. The scheme allows for a minimum and maximum annual deposit of Rs.250 and Rs.1.5 lakh, respectively.  Deposits to the account can be made for 15 years from the account opening date. The account, however, has a lock-in period of 21 years, implying that deposits mature after 21 years. CBSE Udaan Scheme:  Launched in 2014 by Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) under the guidance of the Ministry of Education aims to address low enrollment of women in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics), specifically in the Indian engineering colleges.  The CBSE provides free tutorials for students of class 11 and class 12 to crack engineering entrance exams including the Joint Entrance Exam (JEE). Source: Indian Express PREAMBLE Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – POLITY Context: As India prepares to celebrate its 76th Republic Day under the theme “Swarnim Bharat: Virasat aur Vikas” (Golden India: Legacy and Progress), the day also marks a historic moment to reflect on the core values of the Indian Constitution as reflected in the preamble. Background: – The idea of “constitutional patriotism,” first introduced by German social theorist Jürgen Habermas in the 1990s within a primarily European context, has taken on a unique and dynamic character in India. The Preamble, embodying the nation’s core values of justice, liberty, equality, and fraternity, holds a deeply symbolic and aspirational status, making constitutional patriotism in India a spirited and vibrant expression of loyalty to democratic principles. Key takeaways The preamble begins with the words, “We, the people of India”. This invocation is significant as it stands in sharp contrast to the often unchecked and emotional invocation of “the people” by populist movements.  The people invoked in the Preamble are presented with a sense of sobriety, as a constitutionally mediated entity, which prevents any possibility of such populist invocation of the people from easily descending into tyranny. Sovereign: The term refers to three aspects:  first, sovereignty connotes a supremacy of power that the state claims and tolerates no power above it;  second, there is no possibility or threat of insubordination below the state that could threaten its integrity;  and third, this sovereignty is crystallised in the form of popular representation in Parliament, which represents the will of the people through universal adult franchise. Socialist:  The term was not present in the original version. It was introduced into the Preamble in 1976 through the 42nd constitutional amendment along with the term “secular”.  There has been controversy around the term socialist being part of the Preamble. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar was against the inclusion as he felt that its presence would unfairly constrain future governments.  Secular:  The word secular does not imply a lack or negation of religion. Instead, it simply means that in the interests of maintaining religious harmony among India’s numerous religions and belief systems, the state shall maintain a secular stance. Republic:  The term republic in the Preamble of the Constitution connotes that the head of the state has to be an elected figure and not a hereditary monarch, which continues to be the case to this day in the United Kingdom. The landmark Keshavananda Bharati case (1973) ruled that the Preamble is a part of the Constitution. The Keshavananda Bharati judgement is particularly significant as it gave rise to the “basic structure” doctrine of the Constitution and included the Preamble in it.  This judgement marked a departure from an earlier judgement in the Berubari Union Case (1960) that did not view the Preamble as part of the Constitution. Source: Indian Express GLOBAL PLASTIC ACTION PARTNERSHIP (GPAP) Syllabus: Prelims – CURRENT EVENT Context: The Global Plastic Action Partnership (GPAP) has recently reached a significant milestone by expanding its network to include 25 countries. Background: With a combined population of over 1.5 billion people, the expansion highlights a growing global effort to address the urgent issue of plastic pollution. Seven new countries — Angola, Bangladesh, Gabon, Guatemala, Kenya, Senegal, and Tanzania — have joined this collaborative effort. Key takeaways The Global Plastic Action Partnership (GPAP) is a multistakeholder platform launched by the World Economic Forum in 2019.  Its primary goal is to accelerate the transition to a circular economy for plastics and tackle plastic pollution

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) NATIONAL VOTERS’ DAY Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: January 25 is celebrated annually as National Voters’ Day to mark the foundation day of the Election Commission of India (ECI), which was founded on January 25, 1950. Background: – This year we are celebrating the 15th National Voters’ Day with the theme “Nothing Like Voting, I Vote for Sure” emphasising the importance of participation in the electoral process, and encouraging voters to take pride in exercising their franchise. Key things to know about elections In democracies, voting is seen as a basic exercise that shows people’s faith in the political process. Voting is a crucial part of exercising one’s citizenship. In 2013, the Indian Supreme Court allowed for the option ‘None of the Above’ to be introduced in Lok Sabha and state Legislative Assembly elections to allow such views to be expressed. “Not allowing a person to cast a vote negatively defeats the very freedom of expression and the right ensured in Article 21, i.e. the right to liberty… a provision of negative voting would be in the interest of promoting democracy as it would send clear signals to political parties and their candidates as to what the electorate think about them. The mechanism of negative voting, thus, serves a very fundamental and essential part of a vibrant democracy,” the court said at the time. Postal Ballots ‘Postal ballot’ allows voters who cannot be physically present in polling stations to vote remotely, as specified in Section 60 of the RPA. As per Rule 18 of The Conduct of Election Rules, 1961, the following classes of persons are entitled to vote by postal ballot: Special voters: Individuals holding declared office under Section 20(4) of RPA, including the President, Vice President, Governors, Cabinet Ministers, other high-ranking dignitaries, etc. and their spouses. Service voters: Members of the Indian armed forces, paramilitary forces, an armed state police member serving outside their state, or a government employee stationed abroad and their spouses residing with them. Voters on election duty: This includes all Commission’s observers, presiding officers, polling officers and agents, police personnel, and public servants assigned official tasks on polling day. Private individuals and non-government staff, such as videographers, control room staff, drivers, conductors, cleaners, helpline staff, etc., are also covered. Electors subjected to preventive detention Absentee voters under Section 60 (c) of RPA, 1951: In 2019, the Election Commission created the ‘Absentee Voters’ category. This includes senior citizens aged 85+, persons with disabilities having at least 40% disability, Covid-19 suspect or affected persons, and persons employed in essential services. Source: Indian Express ESSENTIAL RELIGIOUS PRACTICES DOCTRINE Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – POLITY Context: Observing that use of loudspeakers is not essential part of any religion, the Bombay High Court directed the Maharashtra government to have an in-built mechanism to control decibel levels in loudspeakers, public address system (PAS) or any other sound-emitting gadgets used at places of worship, or institutions, irrespective of religion. Background: – The court passed these directives on a plea alleging failure to take action against use of loudspeakers and amplifiers by religious places beyond prohibited hours and permissible decibel limits. Key takeaways The court referred to the 2016 HC judgement that issued several directives for the strict implementation of Noise Pollution (Regulations and Control) Rules, 2000.  The HC in 2016 observed that “use of loudspeakers is not an essential part of any religion and therefore protection under Article 25 (freedom of religion) of constitution is not available” to violating institutions. The doctrine of “essentiality” was invented by a seven-judge Bench of the Supreme Court in the ‘Shirur Mutt’ case in 1954. The court held that the term “religion” will cover all rituals and practices “integral” to a religion, and took upon itself the responsibility of determining the essential and non-essential practices of a religion. The ‘essentiality doctrine’ of the Supreme Court has been criticised by several constitutional experts. Scholars of constitutional law have argued that the essentiality/integrality doctrine has tended to lead the court into an area that is beyond its competence, and given judges the power to decide purely religious questions. As a result, over the years, courts have been inconsistent on this question — in some cases they have relied on religious texts to determine essentiality, in others on the empirical behaviour of followers, and in yet others, based on whether the practice existed at the time the religion originated. Freedom of religion was meant to guarantee freedom to practice one’s beliefs based on the concept of “inward association” of man with God. The apex court in ‘Ratilal Panachand Gandhi vs The State of Bombay and Ors’ (March 18, 1954) acknowledged that “every person has a fundamental right to entertain such religious beliefs as may be approved by his judgment or conscience”. Scholars have argued that the essentiality test impinges on this autonomy. The apex court has itself emphasised autonomy and choice in its Privacy (2017), 377 (2018), and Adultery (2018) judgments. Source: Indian Express AD HOC JUDGES IN HIGH COURTS Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – POLITY Context: Recently, the Supreme Court suggested temporarily appointing retired judges on an ad hoc (as required) basis to address the growing backlog of pending criminal cases before several High Courts. Background: In 2021, the SC noted there have only been three recorded instances of ad hoc judges being appointed under Article 224A, calling it a “dormant provision”. Key takeaways Article 224A of the Indian Constitution allows the Chief Justice of a High Court to request retired HC judges to perform the duties of a judge again, with the permission of the President of India.  Such appointees are entitled to allowances as determined by the President’s order and have all the jurisdiction, powers and privileges of a Judge of that High Court. However, they cannot be “deemed” as such. Further, both the retired judge and the President of India are required to consent to the appointment. The detailed procedure can be found in the 1998 Memorandum of Procedure (MOP) for the appointment of High Court judges, prepared following

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) FISCAL HEALTH INDEX Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – ECONOMY Context: The Chairman of the 16th Finance Commission, Dr. Arvind Panagariya, launched the inaugural issue of NITI Aayog’s report titled “Fiscal Health Index (FHI) 2025”. Background: – The FHI aims to throw light on the fiscal status at the sub-national level and guide policy reforms for sustainable and resilient economic growth Key things to know about elections The report ranks 18 major States on the basis of composite fiscal index, which is based on five major sub-indices –  Quality of Expenditure: Assesses how effectively states allocate their expenditures. Revenue Mobilisation: Evaluates the ability of states to generate revenue. Fiscal Prudence: Measures the fiscal discipline of states in managing their finances. Debt Index: Assesses the debt burden and sustainability of states. Debt Sustainability: Evaluates the long-term sustainability of state debt. With a cumulative score of 67.8, Odisha tops the ranking in fiscal health among 18 major States, followed by Chhattisgarh and Goa with scores of 55.2 and 53.6, respectively. Goa, Telangana and Odisha are leading in revenue mobilization and fiscal prudence.  It was observed that Odisha, Jharkhand, Goa, and Chhattisgarh have effectively mobilised non-tax sources, with Odisha relying heavily on mining-linked premiums and Chhattisgarh benefitting from coal block auctions. Punjab emerged as the biggest laggard, followed by Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Kerala, and Haryana.  Kerala and Punjab struggle with low quality of expenditure and debt sustainability, while West Bengal faces revenue mobilization and debt index issues. Andhra Pradesh has high fiscal deficits, and Haryana has a poor debt profile. Source: PIB IRON AGE Syllabus: Prelims – ANCIENT HISTORY Context: In an announcement that challenges long-held assumptions about the origins of the Iron Age, a new study has found evidence that the use of iron in the area that is now Tamil Nadu dates back to the first quarter of the 4th millennium BCE. Background: – Globally, the Iron Age has long been attributed to the Hittite Empire in Anatolia, where iron technology is believed to have emerged around 1300 BCE. However, the Tamil Nadu findings challenge this and positions the region as a pioneering hub of early metallurgy, surpassing global timelines by nearly two millennia. Key takeaways The new findings, which provide evidence that iron technology in Tamil Nadu dates as far back as 3345 BCE, are supported by Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) and Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) analyses conducted on samples from sites such as Sivagalai, Adichanallur, Mayiladumparai, and Kilnamandi. Until recently, the Iron Age in India was believed to have emerged between 1500 and 2000 BCE, closely following the Indus Valley Civilisation. However, new data pushes this timeline back.  A paddy sample from a burial urn in Sivagalai was dated to 1155 BCE, while charcoal and potsherds (broken pieces of ceramic material) from the same site provided dates ranging from 2953 BCE to 3345 BCE, making it the earliest recorded evidence of iron technology globally. At Mayiladumparai, samples were dated to 2172 BCE, surpassing earlier benchmarks of iron usage in the region. Kilnamandi, meanwhile, yielded a sarcophagus burial dated to 1692 BCE, marking a significant milestone as the earliest-dated burial of its kind in Tamil Nadu. Study establishes that Tamil Nadu was not merely a participant in the evolution of metallurgy but an innovator, as the smelted iron findings have been dated to the middle of the third millennium BCE for the first time in the world. When cultural zones located north of Vindhyas experienced the Copper Age, the region south of Vindhyas might have entered into the Iron Age due to the limited availability of commercially exploitable copper ore. Thus, the Copper Age of North India and the Iron Age of South India are probably contemporary.  Archaeological sites in Tamil Nadu also revealed varied metallurgical techniques. Three types of iron-smelting furnaces were identified, showcasing early innovations in extracting iron. Circular furnaces in Kodumanal, for instance, reached temperatures of 1,300°C, sufficient to produce sponge iron. The study explains that the people in the area mastered the complex technology of smelting iron, which requires temperatures between 1,200°C and 1,400°C, as far back as 5,300 years ago. Source: Indian Express INLAND WATERWAYS AUTHORITY OF INDIA (IWAI) Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: For effective implementation of Inland Water Transport activities in National Waterway-1 (NW-1), River Ganga, the Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI) has upgraded its existing sub-office at Varanasi to a full-fledged Regional Office.  Background: IWAI, presently has five regional offices in Guwahati (Assam), Patna (Bihar), Kochi (Kerala), Bhubaneswar (Odisha) and Kolkata (West Bengal). It will now have its sixth regional office in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. Key takeaways The Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI) is the statutory body responsible for the development, maintenance, and regulation of inland waterways for shipping and navigation across the country.  Established on October 27, 1986, under the IWAI Act of 1985, it operates under the Ministry of Ports, Shipping and Waterways.  The headquarters of IWAI is located in Noida, Uttar Pradesh. Key Functions of IWAI: Infrastructure Development: IWAI is tasked with building and enhancing infrastructure on national waterways, including the construction of terminals, jetties, and navigational aids to facilitate smooth and efficient water transport. Regulation and Maintenance: The authority ensures the maintenance of navigable channels, conducts dredging operations, and implements measures to maintain desired depth and width for safe vessel movement. Project Feasibility Studies: IWAI conducts economic feasibility studies for new projects, assessing the potential and viability of developing additional waterways to expand the inland water transport network. National Waterways in India: To promote and develop inland water transport, several waterways have been designated as National Waterways (NWs). Some of the prominent NWs include: National Waterway 1 (NW-1): Extending from Prayagraj to Haldia over a length of 1,620 kilometers along the Ganges-Bhagirathi-Hooghly river system. National Waterway 2 (NW-2): Covering an 891-kilometer stretch from Sadiya to Dhubri on the Brahmaputra River. National Waterway 3 (NW-3): A 205-kilometer route from Kollam to Kottapuram in Kerala, encompassing the West Coast Canal along with Champakara and Udyogmandal canals.

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) DEEPSEEK Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: Chinese startup DeepSeek’s launch of its latest AI models, which it says are on a par or better than industry-leading models in the United States at a fraction of the cost, is threatening to upset the technology world order.  Background: – DeepSeek is a Hangzhou-based startup whose controlling shareholder is Liang Wenfeng, co-founder of quantitative hedge fund High-Flyer, based on Chinese corporate records. What sets DeepSeek models apart is their performance and open-sourced nature with open weights, which essentially allows anyone to build on top of them. Key takeaways The release of OpenAI’s ChatGPT in late 2022 caused a scramble among Chinese tech firms, who rushed to create their own chatbots powered by artificial intelligence. But after the release of the first Chinese ChatGPT equivalent, made by search engine giant Baidu, there was widespread disappointment in China at the gap in AI capabilities between U.S. and Chinese firms. The quality and cost efficiency of DeepSeek’s models have flipped this narrative on its head. The two models, DeepSeek-V3 and DeepSeek-R1, are on par with OpenAI and Meta’s most advanced models. They are also cheaper to use. DeepSeek-V3 stands out because of its architecture, known as Mixture-of-Experts (MOE). The MOE models are like a team of specialist models working together to answer a question, instead of a single big model managing everything. The DeepSeek-V3 has been trained on a meager $5 million, which is a fraction of the hundreds of millions pumped in by OpenAI, Meta, Google, etc., into their frontier models. DeepSeek developed its AI models amidst US sanctions on China for Nvidia chips, which were intended to restrict the country’s ability to develop advanced AI systems. Source: The Hindu GUILLAIN-BARRE SYNDROME Syllabus: Prelims – CURRENT EVENT Context: Pune on January 27 reported nine more suspected cases of Guillain-Barré Syndrome (GBS), taking the tally in Maharashtra’s second largest city to 110. Background: – Earlier, a man suspected to have contracted Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS)died in Maharashtra’s Solapur district. The 40-year-old, a native of Solapur, had come to Pune, where he is believed to have contracted the disease. This is possibly the first death in Maharashtra suspected to have been caused by GBS. Key takeaways Guillain-Barré Syndrome (GBS) is a rare autoimmune disorder where the body’s immune system mistakenly attacks the peripheral nerves. Cause: GBS is often triggered by an infection, such as respiratory or gastrointestinal infections, including Campylobacter jejuni, influenza, and Zika virus. Symptoms: The syndrome typically starts with tingling and weakness in the feet and legs, which can spread to the upper body. Severe cases can lead to paralysis. Onset: Symptoms usually develop rapidly over days to weeks. Symptoms Initial Symptoms: Tingling and weakness in the extremities, often starting in the feet and legs. Progression: Weakness can spread to the upper body, leading to difficulty walking, climbing stairs, or performing daily activities. Severe Symptoms: In severe cases, GBS can cause paralysis, difficulty breathing, and changes in heart rate and blood pressure. Diagnosis Clinical Evaluation: Diagnosis is based on symptoms, medical history, and physical examination. Tests: Nerve conduction studies and examination of cerebrospinal fluid can help confirm the diagnosis. Treatment Supportive Care: Treatment focuses on managing symptoms and preventing complications. Immunotherapy: Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) and plasmapheresis are used to reduce the severity and duration of GBS. Recovery: Most people recover fully, but recovery can take weeks to years, and some may have lasting effects such as weakness or fatigue. Prevention Infection Control: Preventing infections that can trigger GBS is crucial. This includes practicing good hygiene, safe food handling, and staying up-to-date with vaccinations. Source: The Hindu WETLAND ACCREDITED CITIES Syllabus: Prelims – ENVIRONMENT Context: Indore and Udaipur have become the first two Indian cities to join the global list of accredited wetland cities under the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands. Background: Indore, known for its cleanliness and innovative policies, is home to Sirpur Lake, a Ramsar site. Udaipur, renowned for its picturesque lakes, has five major wetlands: Pichola, Fateh Sagar, Rang Sagar, Swaroop Sagar, and Doodh Talai. Key takeaways The Wetland City Accreditation (WCA) is a voluntary scheme established by the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands in 2015.  It aims to recognize cities that have a positive relationship with wetlands, promoting their conservation and wise use. This accreditation encourages urban areas to integrate wetlands into their planning and decision-making processes, highlighting the benefits these ecosystems provide to urban communities. Eligibility Criteria: To be formally accredited, a candidate for the Wetland City Accreditation of the Ramsar Convention should satisfy the standards used to implement each of the following international criteria: It has one or more Ramsar Sites, or other wetland conservation sites fully or partly situated within its jurisdiction, which provide(s) a range of ecosystem services to the city;  It has adopted measures for conservation of wetlands and their ecosystem services;  It has implemented wetland restoration and/or management measures;  It considers the challenges and opportunities of integrated spatial/land-use planning for wetlands under its jurisdiction;  It has raised public awareness about the values of wetlands by delivering locally adapted information, and enabled participation of local stakeholders in decisionmaking processes;  It has established a local committee with appropriate knowledge and experience on wetlands and representation of and engagement with stakeholders to support the preparation work to apply for the Wetland City Accreditation and the implementation of proper measures to maintain the city’s qualifications for the accreditation. Benefits of Accreditation: International Recognition: Accredited cities gain global acknowledgment for their sustainable practices concerning wetlands. Enhanced Public Awareness: The accreditation promotes increased awareness among residents about the importance of wetlands. Tourism and Economic Opportunities: Recognition can boost eco-tourism and related economic activities. Source: Times of India NAMDAPHA NATIONAL PARK AND TIGER RESERVE Syllabus: Prelims – ENVIRONMENT Context: An elephant has been camera-trapped in India’s easternmost tiger reserve after 12 years, fuelling conservation hopes. Background: – According to the Arunachal Pradesh Forest Department, elephants have traditionally migrated between the Namsai area of the State and Myanmar through the Namdapha National Park

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) PROMISE OF NUCLEAR FUSION Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: An experimental nuclear fusion reactor in China triggered a lot of excitement by keeping its operational state maintained for more than 1,000 seconds, or over 17 minutes, which is a new record. Background: – Nuclear fusion is what produces the energy in the Sun, or any other star. Scientists across the world have been trying to recreate this process to produce electricity. The technology can eliminate the world’s energy crisis, and the problem of climate change, but it has not been mastered yet. Key takeaways Nuclear fusion is a process where two light atomic nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus, releasing a tremendous amount of energy. This is the same process that powers the Sun and other stars. How Does It Work? Fusion Fuel: The most common fusion reaction involves hydrogen isotopes: Deuterium (²H) and Tritium (³H) When these isotopes fuse under extremely high temperature and pressure, they form helium (⁴He) and release a neutron along with a vast amount of energy. Conditions for Fusion – To achieve fusion, the following conditions are required: High Temperature: Atomic nuclei are positively charged, so they naturally repel each other due to the electrostatic force. To overcome this repulsion, extremely high temperatures (millions of degrees Celsius) and pressures are required. High Pressure: The plasma must be confined at high density to increase the likelihood of collisions. Confinement Time: The plasma must be held together long enough for fusion reactions to occur. Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak (EAST) reactor The Chinese reactor did not produce electricity or carry out a fusion reaction. However, the reactor managed to maintain plasma in a steady state of confinement for a long time, longer than it had previously been possible. Fusion require very high temperatures. At such temperatures, matter exists only in the plasma state. But such hot plasma cannot be handled by or contained in any material. Within the reactor, this plasma needs to be kept suspended in a confined space, surrounded by very strong magnetic fields acting as walls. Charged particles respond to magnetic fields, and this property is used to guide the flow of plasma within an enclosed space, separated from any matter. This condition, necessary for facilitating fusion reactions, is extremely delicate. Scientists have not been able to maintain these conditions for longer than a few seconds. Real-life electricity-generating reactors would require this state to be maintained for hours, even days, at a stretch. Advantages of Fusion The fusion process produces far greater amounts of energy than any other source — one gram of fuel can yield as much energy as burning about eight tonnes of coal.  It uses cheap input materials, available in almost limitless supply (deuterium and tritium, two heavier isotopes of hydrogen that are used as fuel, are easily available in nature), has a zero emission footprint.  Unlike the fission process, it does not leave dangerous nuclear waste. International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) The largest fusion reactor, an international collaborative project called ITER, is coming up in southern France.  More than 30 countries are participating with India being one of the seven member countries contributing to the reactor’s construction and research. According to its current timeline, it would begin deuterium-tritium fusion reactions by 2039, producing 500 MW of fusion power. Source: Indian Express FEMINISATION OF AGRICULTURE Syllabus: Mains – GS 2 & GS 3 Context: Women contribute around 63 per cent of the agricultural labour force in India, yet they lack access to key resources such as land ownership, finance, and advanced farming technologies. Background: – Women’s involvement in agriculture does not necessarily equate to empowerment.  Key takeaways The female workforce participation rate in India reached its peak at 40.8 % in 2004-05 but has declined since. However, since 2017, the female labour force participation rate (FLPR) has seen a rising trend after years of decline.   The rural FLPR increased from 41.5% in 2022-23 to 47.6% in 2023-24, while the urban FLPR increased from 25.4% to 28% over the same time period. This growth in FLPR could be attributed to the economic recovery following covid, which prompted many women who were previously not part of the labour force to seek employment. In addition, the sudden rise in FLPR in the last few years has also been linked to economic distress. The rise in FLPR is largely driven by the rise in self-employment among women, especially in agriculture. This highlights the lack of non-farm job opportunities for women, with most employment opportunities for rural women remaining confined to agriculture. This leads to feminisation of agriculture.  Feminisation of agriculture can be interpreted  in two ways.  First, it refers to an increase in the proportion of farm related work undertaken by women, including their responsibilities as smallholder cultivators or casual agricultural wage workers.  Second, feminisation of agriculture can also imply an understanding of women’s control, ownership, and participation in agricultural resources and social processes. This includes women’s ownership of farmland, land rights, and decision-making powers. Factors such as declining production and productivity, increasing cost of inputs, higher risks of crop damage due to climate change and the growing aspirations of youth in rural areas have fueled male migration out of rural areas. As a result, women who are left behind take on farm work. Gender disparity in land ownership The Agriculture Census of 2015-16 reported that while 73% of rural women workers are engaged in agriculture, only about 11.72% of the total operated area in the country is managed by female operational holders. Additionally, women’s landholdings are predominantly small and marginal. In India, women can acquire land through inheritance, gift, purchase, or government transfers. However, these systems are often skewed. For instance, women are more likely to be financially constrained than men to purchase land, making inheritance the major means of ownership. Yet, social biases make it difficult for women to inherit. Towards gender equity in agriculture Women’s participation in paid work should not be confused with their empowerment. Women often face a

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) TRUMP AND GREENLAND Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: US President-elect Donald Trump has once again expressed interest in buying Greenland, and Greenland has again stated it is not for sale. Background: – Greenland, though geographically part of North America, has been under Denmark’s control—located nearly 3,000 km (1,860 miles) away—for around 300 years. Why Greenland matters to US? Greenland’s strategic importance rose during the Cold War, and the US has an air base there, the Pituffik Space Base, earlier the Thule Air Base. From Greenland, the US can monitor and prevent any missile coming towards it from Russia, China, or even North Korea. Similarly, it can launch missiles and ships towards Asia or Europe more easily from Greenland. Second, Greenland is rich in rare earth minerals. At present, China is a major supplier of these minerals. Third, as global warming leads to melting of ice, new waterways can open in the Arctic region, and all major powers are keen to boost their presence here. The US would want to pre-empt a larger Russian or Chinese role in Greenland and its neighbourhood. US bought territories In 1803, the US bought more than 2 million sq km of land from France in what is known as the Louisiana Purchase. US paid $ 15 million for the deal. Another example is Alaska, which the Russian empire transferred to the US in 1867, for $7.2 million. In 1917, the US bought the Danish West Indies, a group of islands in the Caribbean, and called them the US Virgin Islands. About Greenland Greenland, the largest island on Earth, is situated in the Arctic and is the most sparsely populated territory in the world. It is home to approximately 56,000 residents, primarily indigenous Inuit people. Around 80% of Greenland is covered by ice, with most of its population concentrated along the south-western coast near the capital, Nuuk. As an autonomous territory of Denmark, Greenland hosts both Danish and U.S. military bases. Its economy relies heavily on fishing, while substantial subsidies from the Danish government contribute about 20% of its GDP. Source: Indian Express ALGAL BLOOM Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – ENVIRONMENT Context: A groundbreaking study, spearheaded by director of the Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS), identified nine key algal bloom hotspots along India’s east and west coasts. Background: – The research, done using cutting-edge satellite data and field reports, showed that factors driving these algal blooms range from nutrient flux during monsoons to coastal upwelling (cooler and nutrient-rich water rising to the ocean surface). Key takeaways India’s coastline, rich in biodiversity, is grappling with a growing phenomenon of algal blooms. These events, caused by a sudden surge in phytoplankton biomass, are becoming more frequent and intense owing to environmental and human factors. Causes of Algal Blooms Nutrient Pollution: Excessive nutrients, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus, from agricultural runoff, wastewater, and industrial discharges, fuel the growth of algae. This process is called eutrophication. Warm Water Temperatures: Algal blooms are more common in warm water, which is why they often occur in summer or in regions with higher temperatures. Stagnant Water: Slow-moving or stagnant water bodies, such as lakes or ponds, are more prone to algal blooms because nutrients accumulate and are not flushed out. Climate Change: Rising global temperatures and changes in precipitation patterns can exacerbate the conditions that lead to algal blooms. Human Activities: Urbanization, deforestation, and agricultural practices contribute to nutrient runoff, increasing the likelihood of blooms. Types of Algal Blooms Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs): These blooms produce toxins that can harm aquatic life, humans, and animals. Examples include cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) blooms, which produce toxins like microcystins and anatoxins. Non-Toxic Blooms: Some algal blooms are not harmful but can still disrupt ecosystems by depleting oxygen levels in the water when the algae die and decompose. Examples of Harmful Algal Blooms Red Tide: Caused by dinoflagellates (a type of algae) in marine environments, leading to fish kills and respiratory issues in humans. Common in coastal areas like the Gulf of Mexico. Cyanobacteria Blooms: Often occur in freshwater lakes and ponds, producing toxins that can harm humans and animals. Source: The Hindu ANNUAL STATUS OF EDUCATION REPORT (ASER) Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: The Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) 2024 was released, revealing improvements in basic reading and arithmetic among students of classes 3 and 5 in rural areas reverting back from the post-pandemic damage. Background: Unlike most other large-scale learning assessments, ASER is a household-based rather than school-based survey. This design enables all children to be included – those who have never been to school or have dropped out; those who are in government schools, private schools, religious or other types of schools; as well as those who are absent from school on the day of the assessment. Key takeaways The Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) is a nationwide household survey conducted by Pratham Foundation, an NGO, to assess the status of children’s enrollment and learning outcomes in rural India. The ‘basic’ ASER survey tracks enrollment for children aged 3-16 and assesses basic reading and arithmetic of children aged 5-16. It was conducted every year from 2005 to 2014 in almost all rural districts of India.  Beginning in 2016, an alternate-year model was introduced, where the ‘basic’ ASER survey is conducted in alternate years and in the gap years, a different lens is employed to examine different age groups and/or new aspects of children’s learning. Key findings from ASER 2024 Significant improvement in learning levels: The proportion of Class III students in government schools who can read a Class II textbook rose to 23.4 per cent in 2024, up from 16.3 per cent in 2022. Basic arithmetic levels among Class III students improved to 33.7 per cent in 2024, from 28.1 per cent in 2018, across both government and private schools. Enrolment trends: Government school enrolment, which surged during the pandemic, is now returning to pre-pandemic levels. It rose to 72.9 per cent in 2022, from 65.6