July 2025

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) Ceasefire agreement Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and M23 rebels Category: INTERNATIONAL Context:  A ceasefire agreement in Doha, Qatar, between the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and the Rwanda-backed M23 rebels Both sides committed to a “permanent ceasefire” and pledged to engage in dialogue, including the voluntary return of refugees and displaced persons. This deal follows years of intense conflict, especially after a renewed M23 offensive seized key cities like Goma and Bukavu in early 2025. Despite the breakthrough, the ceasefire is considered fragile due to several factors: Lack of International Support: Analysts warn that without strong international backing, the peace process could falter, as previous mediation attempts failed until Qatar’s surprise intervention. Ground Realities: Violence and mistrust persist, with the M23 threatening to resume fighting unless certain conditions are met, and some rebels have stated they will not retreat from their positions. Control and Administration: The M23 and its allies control vast territories in North and South Kivu provinces, raising concerns about security and the government’s ability to protect civilians. Deep-rooted Grievances: The conflict stems from overlapping ethnic, political, and economic issues, with external actors accused of supporting armed groups for their own interests. Key questions on disarmament and reintegration remain unresolved. Humanitarian Crisis: The long-running conflict has caused widespread displacement, leaving thousands in dire conditions. Learning Corner: Rebel Group Country/Region M23 (March 23 Movement) Democratic Republic of Congo TPLF (Tigray People’s Liberation Front) Ethiopia Taliban Afghanistan Houthis (Ansar Allah) Yemen PKK/YPG/Kurdish Groups Turkey, Syria, Iraq, Iran FARC (Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia) Colombia ISIS (Islamic State) Iraq, Syria, Global Source: THE HINDU Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) Category: GEOGRAPHY Context: India’s preparation against Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) events A recent GLOF event in Nepal caused significant damage and led to the destruction of the Seti River’s bridge, emphasizing the rising risk of GLOF events in the Himalayas. India, particularly in the Himalayan region, is working to mitigate these risks through measures like improving early warning systems, monitoring glacial lakes, and strengthening infrastructure to resist such disasters. The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) is focused on enhancing mitigation efforts using scientific tools, including satellite technology and remote sensing data to predict GLOF events. Moreover, transboundary cooperation between India and Nepal is emphasized, given the shared watersheds and increasing risks from glacial lakes. Both countries have faced catastrophic GLOF events, and regional collaboration is critical for developing solutions to manage such risks effectively. India’s efforts include research on glacial lakes and climate patterns, community involvement in preparedness programs, and using advanced technologies like SAR interferometry for better risk assessment. However, the effectiveness of these strategies will depend on the continuous monitoring and collaboration between neighboring nations. Learning Corner: Natural Disasters in the Himalayan Region Type Description Examples Earthquakes Due to tectonic collision between Indian and Eurasian plates; region is seismically active 2015 Nepal Earthquake, 2005 Kashmir Earthquake Landslides Triggered by intense rainfall, deforestation, or seismic activity; frequent in steep terrains Kedarnath disaster (2013), frequent in Uttarakhand & Sikkim Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs) Sudden release of water from glacial lakes due to moraine breach or heat Chamoli disaster (2021), Lhonak Lake threat in Sikkim Flash Floods Caused by cloudbursts or sudden glacial melt Leh flash floods (2010), Himachal flash floods (2023) Avalanches Sudden snow slides, especially in higher altitude regions during winters 2022 Gulmarg Avalanche, 2023 Siachen Avalanche Cloudbursts Intense, localized rainfall (>100 mm/hr) causing devastating floods and landslides Kedarnath (2013), Kinnaur (2021), Amarnath (2022) Source:  THE HINDU Brownian motion Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Context : Scientists at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) have developed a groundbreaking microscope technique that enables real-time observation of molecular motion down to tens of angstroms Instead of imaging individual molecules directly, this new method detects them indirectly by analyzing how they interact with light and leveraging Brownian motion—the random jittering caused by molecular collisions. Key components of the method include: Use of a streak camera to track nanoscale dynamics with picosecond-level speed. Observation of an ensemble of molecules (hundreds of billions at once), with enough precision to infer individual molecular motion. A non-intrusive, label-free, and fast imaging process, making it suitable for applications in biomedical research, disease diagnostics, and nanomaterial fabrication. The technique involves directing a laser through a sample, then capturing the scattered light using a system that includes a digital micromirror device (DMD) and the streak camera. The interaction patterns and fluctuations in light provide information about molecular size and movement. This is now the world’s fastest single-molecule imaging technique, offering new possibilities in visualizing molecular behavior at unprecedented speeds and precision, without the need for fluorescent labels or direct visual observation. Learning Corner: Brownian Motion Brownian motion refers to the random, irregular movement of microscopic particles suspended in a fluid (liquid or gas), resulting from collisions with the fast-moving molecules of the fluid. Key Features: Discovered by: Robert Brown (1827), who observed pollen grains in water moving randomly under a microscope. Explained by: Albert Einstein (1905), who mathematically modeled it and linked it to molecular theory. Confirmed by: Jean Perrin, whose experimental work validated Einstein’s equations and helped establish the existence of atoms. Scientific Significance: Evidence of molecular motion: Brownian motion provided strong proof for the kinetic theory of matter, supporting the atomic nature of substances. Statistical mechanics: It is a cornerstone concept in the development of modern statistical and quantum physics. Mathematical modeling: Brownian motion forms the basis of stochastic processes, including Wiener processes in probability theory. Applications: Colloidal stability analysis Stock market modeling (in financial mathematics) Diffusion studies in chemistry and biology Source :  THE HINDU Chola dynasty Category: HISTORY Context Prime Minister Narendra Modi, during the Aadi Thiruvathirai festival at Gangaikonda Cholapuram, described the Chola dynasty as an “ancient roadmap” for realizing the vision of a developed India (Viksit Bharat). Military and Naval Strength: Highlighted the Cholas’ powerful navy and called for strengthening India’s maritime and defense capabilities. Cultural Unity: Praised the Cholas for fostering cultural integration, linking it to current initiatives like

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) E3 Group Category: INTERNATIONAL Context:  Iran held nuclear talks in Istanbul with diplomats from Britain, France, and Germany (E3 countries) to resolve the deadlock over its nuclear programme. The meeting ended with an agreement to continue discussions. The focus was on whether to reimpose UN sanctions on Iran using the “snapback” mechanism, especially if progress isn’t made by August. The E3 had warned of sanctions if Iran fails to meet its nuclear obligations. While Iran remains skeptical of Western intentions, European leaders are concerned about Iran’s lack of transparency. Both sides agreed to meet again, but tensions remain over trust and commitment. Learning Corner: E3 Group: The E3 refers to a group of three major European countries: France, Germany, and the United Kingdom. They often coordinate on foreign policy, especially on global security and non-proliferation issues. Origin: The E3 format emerged during negotiations with Iran over its nuclear program in the early 2000s, even before the broader P5+1 (which includes the US, China, and Russia). Role: They act together to uphold the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA), also known as the Iran nuclear deal. Focus: Nuclear non-proliferation, diplomacy, sanctions enforcement, and maintaining international agreements. Current Relevance: The E3 continues to engage Iran diplomatically to prevent nuclear escalation and uphold UN resolutions. Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS Delimitation Category: POLITY Context: The Supreme Court of India has rejected a plea seeking the start of the delimitation process for constituencies in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana A bench of Justices Surya Kant and N.K. Sinha ruled that the delimitation carried out in Jammu & Kashmir under a special provision cannot be used as a precedent for Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, as J&K is a Union Territory governed by a distinct constitutional framework. The Court emphasized: Article 170 (which governs State Assemblies) does not apply to Union Territories like J&K. Section 26 of the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014 already provides for delimitation, but only after the first census post-2026. The existing notifications are not arbitrary and do not violate Article 14 (Right to Equality). Learning Corner: Delimitation in India  Delimitation refers to the act of redrawing the boundaries of electoral constituencies to ensure fair representation based on population changes. Constitutional Basis: Article 82: Empowers the Parliament to enact a Delimitation Act after every census. Article 170: Deals with the composition of State Legislative Assemblies and requires delimitation of constituencies based on population. Delimitation Commission Act: Based on this Act, the Delimitation Commission is constituted to carry out the delimitation process. Article 329(a): Bars courts from questioning the validity of delimitation once finalized by the Commission. Key Points: The last delimitation was based on the 2001 Census; future delimitation is frozen until after the 2026 Census, to ensure population control is not disincentivized. Jammu & Kashmir underwent delimitation under a distinct constitutional framework post its reorganization as a Union Territory in 2019. The Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014 (Section 26) provides for delimitation only after the first census post-2026. Purpose: Ensure equal representation. Maintain the principle of “one person, one vote”. Adjust constituencies as per population shifts. Delimitation is thus a constitutional tool to uphold democratic fairness while balancing administrative and political considerations. Source:  THE INDIAN EXPRESS Exercise Talisman Sabre (TS25) Category: INTERNATIONAL Context : Air Marshal Ashutosh Dixit, Chief of Integrated Defence Staff (CISC), is visiting Australia from July 26 to 28, 2025, to witness the 11th edition of Exercise Talisman Sabre (TS25). TS25 involves 19 countries and features complex joint training across air, land, sea, space, and cyber domains, including live-fire and amphibious operations. For the first time, six Indian officers are participating as Staff Planners, marking a shift from previous observer roles in 2021 and 2023. Their involvement includes planning and coordination in joint operations. The visit reflects India’s growing role in regional defense cooperation and its commitment to strengthening military interoperability and partnerships in the Indo-Pacific. Learning Corner: Military Exercises by India India conducts a wide range of bilateral, multilateral, and domestic military exercises aimed at strengthening military preparedness, enhancing interoperability, and fostering diplomatic ties. Types of Military Exercises: Bilateral Exercises: Garuda – With France (Air Force) MALABAR – Initially bilateral (India-US), now quadrilateral with Japan and Australia (Navy) Yudh Abhyas – With United States (Army) Shakti – With France (Army) Varuna – With France (Navy) Sampriti – With Bangladesh (Army) Hand-in-Hand – With China (Army) Multilateral Exercises: RIMPAC – Rim of the Pacific (World’s largest naval exercise led by the USA) TSENTR / Vostok – With SCO countries and Russia Cobra Gold – Hosted by Thailand, includes India and several Asia-Pacific nations Exercise Talisman Sabre (TS25) – Multinational drill hosted by Australia and the US, with India’s increasing role Tri-Service Exercises: INDRA – With Russia (All three services) Tiger Triumph – With USA (India’s first tri-service exercise with any country) Domestic Exercises: Dakshin Shakti, Gagan Shakti, Vayu Shakti, etc., are large-scale joint or single-service readiness drills conducted within India. Source :  PIB Thai and Cambodian border disputes Category: INTERNATIONAL Context: Clashes between Thai and Cambodian forces near their disputed border have resulted in at least 11 deaths The fighting has centered around contested areas near the ancient temples of Prasat Ta Muen Thom and Preah Vihear. The use of heavy artillery and fighter jets marks a major escalation. Both nations blame each other for starting the conflict and have recalled ambassadors and closed border crossings. Over 138,000 Thai civilians and thousands of Cambodians have been displaced. International appeals for a ceasefire and diplomatic resolution have intensified amid fears of a broader regional conflict. Learning Corner: Preah Vihear Temple: An 11th-century Hindu temple dedicated to Lord Shiva, located on the Dangrek Mountains along the Thailand-Cambodia border. Built in the Khmer architectural style, it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site (since 2008). Known for its unique linear axial layout, symbolizing a spiritual ascent toward Mount Meru. Subject of a longstanding territorial dispute between Thailand and Cambodia. In 1962, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) awarded the temple to

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) National Sports Governance Bill, 2025 Category: POLITY Context:  The National Sports Governance Bill introduced in the Lok Sabha Formation of a National Sports Board: A SEBI-like statutory body to oversee all sports federations, including BCCI. Ensures centralized regulation, transparency, and accountability in sports governance. Creation of a National Sports Tribunal: A civil court-like body to adjudicate sports-related disputes (e.g., selection, federation elections). Tribunal decisions appealable only to the Supreme Court. Need for the Bill: Current sports governance is ad hoc and fragmented. Aims to replace judicial overreach and frequent court interventions with specialized regulatory and adjudicatory mechanisms. Key Issues Addressed: Autonomy of the Tribunal: Presumed to be independent and free of conflicts, unlike past tribunals. Transparency in the National Sports Board: Will require strong public accountability and clear procedures. Age & Tenure Cap: Caps administrators’ age at 75 and removes fixed terms to make room for experienced international representation. BCCI under purview: Brings BCCI under government oversight for the first time, aligning it with national standards. Athletes’ Right to Redressal: Tribunal will replace courts as the primary forum for dispute resolution, aligning with global norms like the FIFA model. Learning Corner: Khelo India Programme Launched: 2018 Aim: Revitalize sports culture at the grassroots level and identify young talent. Key Features: Annual Khelo India Youth Games and University Games. Financial assistance of ₹5 lakh per annum for 8 years to selected athletes. Creation of sports infrastructure (e.g., centers of excellence, academies). Target Olympic Podium Scheme (TOPS) Launched: 2014 (revamped under Khelo India) Objective: To support India’s elite athletes for Olympic and Paralympic Games. Features: Funding for coaching, training, equipment, foreign exposure. Support staff including physiotherapists, nutritionists, and mental trainers. National Sports Development Fund (NSDF) Established: 1998 Purpose: Mobilize private/public funds to support top-tier athletes and infrastructure. Usage: Customized training. Equipment and facilities development. Fit India Movement Launched: 2019 Objective: Encourage a healthy and active lifestyle across all age groups. Initiated by: Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports (MoYAS) Focus Areas: Fitness pledges, fitness audits of institutions, campaigns in schools and workplaces. Sports Authority of India (SAI) Schemes Key Schemes: National Centres of Excellence (NCOEs) – elite athlete grooming. SAI Training Centres (STCs) – grassroots level training for young talent. Extension Centres of STCs – training in schools/colleges with sports tradition. Pandit Deendayal Upadhyay National Welfare Fund for Sportspersons Aim: Provide financial aid to sportspersons in indigent circumstances or those injured during their career. Support includes: Medical treatment, pension, and sustenance allowance. Mission Olympic Cell (MOC) Function: Operational arm under TOPS for monitoring and clearing athlete proposals on a fast-track basis. National Physical Fitness Campaign Target: School children (5–18 years). Purpose: Monitor and enhance physical fitness levels through standardized tests. Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS Coral Reef Decline Category: ENVIRONMENT Context: Lakshadweep Coral Reef Decline Key Findings 50% decline in live coral cover over the past 24 years—from 37% in 1998 to below 20% today. Study tracked reefs at Agatti, Kadmat, and Kavaratti. Repeated marine heatwaves (1998, 2010, 2016) and climate change are major causes. Causes of Decline Marine heatwaves raise ocean temperatures, leading to coral bleaching. Reduced recovery time between bleaching events limits reef regeneration. Warming seas continuously stress coral ecosystems. Ecological & Social Impact Risk of functional extinction: reefs may no longer support biodiversity or protect islands. Even resilient coral species now show bleaching signs. Local communities face threats to livelihoods and coastal safety. Urgency & Outlook Time is critical—reefs need long recovery periods to regenerate. Local measures can help, but global climate action is essential for long-term survival. Learning Corner: Coral Reefs Coral reefs are marine ecosystems made up of calcium carbonate structures secreted by corals (marine invertebrates). They are found in shallow, warm, and sunlit waters typically between 30°N and 30°S latitude. Known as “rainforests of the sea,” they support around 25% of marine biodiversity despite covering less than 1% of the ocean floor. Major Types of Coral Reefs: Fringing Reefs – Directly attached to a shoreline (e.g., Gulf of Mannar, India). Barrier Reefs – Separated from land by a lagoon (e.g., Great Barrier Reef, Australia). Atolls – Circular reefs enclosing a lagoon, often over sunken volcanoes (e.g., Lakshadweep). Coral Bleaching: Concept Coral bleaching occurs when corals expel symbiotic algae (zooxanthellae) due to stress, primarily from increased sea surface temperatures. The algae provide food and color to corals; without them, corals appear white (bleached) and are more vulnerable to death Causes of Coral Bleaching: Climate Change: Elevated sea temperatures (above 1–2°C from average) are the primary driver. Associated with El Niño events and global warming. Ocean Acidification: Absorption of CO₂ by oceans reduces availability of calcium carbonate, hindering coral skeleton formation. Pollution: Agricultural runoff (nitrates/phosphates), plastics, and oil spills damage coral health. Sedimentation: Reduces light penetration, affecting photosynthesis in symbiotic algae. Overfishing & Unsustainable Tourism: Disrupt reef ecosystem balance and cause physical damage. Impacts of Bleaching: Ecosystem collapse: Loss of marine species reliant on coral ecosystems. Fisheries affected, threatening food security and livelihoods. Reduced coastal protection from storm surges and erosion. Decline in marine tourism revenue. Global and National Efforts: International: Coral Triangle Initiative. UN SDG 14 (Life Below Water). IPCC reports warning against warming above 1.5°C. India: Coral reef monitoring under ICMAM (Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management). Coral restoration projects in Gulf of Mannar, Lakshadweep, and Andaman & Nicobar. Laws: Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Notification, Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 (Schedule I protection for coral reefs). Source:  THE HINDU Vitamin D Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Context : Vitamin D Deficiency and Neurodevelopmental Disorders. Key Findings: Increased risk: Low vitamin D levels have been consistently linked to a higher risk of autism spectrum disorder (ASD), ADHD, cognitive impairments, and, in some cases, schizophrenia. Communication and cognition: Vitamin D plays a role in brain signaling and serotonin metabolism, which are crucial for language development and social behavior. Deficiency may delay communication skills and contribute to ASD-like features. Sex-specific effects: A major cohort study found boys with vitamin D deficiency had over twice the risk of global neurodevelopmental

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) International Court of Justice (ICJ) Category: INTERNATIONAL Context:  International Court of Justice (ICJ) in The Hague ruled that countries are obligated under international law to take action against climate change In a historic decision, the, particularly by reducing greenhouse gas emissions and adapting to climate impacts. Failure to do so could be deemed an “internationally wrongful act,” making such countries liable for compensation, especially to vulnerable nations like small island states. This advisory opinion, sought by the UN General Assembly, clarifies legal obligations under treaties like the UNFCCC, Paris Agreement (2015), UNCLOS, and others focused on environmental protection. Though non-binding, it is seen as a major milestone for climate justice and could influence future legal actions globally. Learning Corner: International Court of Justice (ICJ)  Overview: The International Court of Justice (ICJ) is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations (UN). Established in 1945 by the UN Charter and began functioning in 1946. Headquartered at the Peace Palace, The Hague, Netherlands. Mandate & Jurisdiction: The ICJ performs two main functions: Contentious Jurisdiction: Settles legal disputes between states submitted voluntarily by them. Judgments are binding, without appeal, and enforceable under Article 94 of the UN Charter. Advisory Jurisdiction: Provides non-binding legal opinions on questions of international law referred by: UN General Assembly, UN Security Council, Other UN agencies authorized to seek opinions. Composition: 15 judges, elected for 9-year terms. Elected by both the UN General Assembly and the UN Security Council. Judges must represent the main forms of civilization and principal legal systems of the world. No two judges may be from the same country. Judges act in their individual capacity and not as representatives of their governments. Key Features: Only states (not individuals, companies, or NGOs) can be parties in contentious cases. Cases can involve disputes over: Border demarcation, Maritime rights, Human rights violations, Use of force, Treaty interpretation, Environmental responsibility, etc. Its rulings help develop international law, though enforcement depends on the Security Council. Important Articles: Article 92 – ICJ is the principal judicial organ of the UN. Article 94 – UN member states must comply with ICJ judgments. Article 96 – UNGA and UNSC may request advisory opinions. Landmark Cases: Nicaragua v. United States (1986) – U.S. was found guilty of violating international law by supporting Contra rebels in Nicaragua. Advisory Opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons (1996). Chagos Archipelago case (2019) – Ruled UK should end its administration of the Chagos Islands. Climate Advisory Opinion (2025) – Ruled that failure to act on climate change can constitute an internationally wrongful act, making states liable for damages. Comparison with Other International Courts: Court Jurisdiction Binding Judgments Parties ICJ Legal disputes between states Yes (for parties) States only ICC (International Criminal Court) Crimes like genocide, war crimes Yes Individuals PCA (Permanent Court of Arbitration) Wider disputes (incl. investment) Yes (via arbitration) States, individuals, organizations Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS Paikas Category: HISTORY Context: Omission of Paikas from NCERT class 8 About Paikas: Paikas were a warrior class who served the Gajapati kings of Odisha. They held land (nish-kar jagirs) in exchange for military service. British Annexation & Discontent: In 1803, British officer Colonel Harcourt annexed Odisha with little resistance. The British dethroned King Mukunda Deva II and ignored promises to grant four parganas. The new British rule caused: Loss of land and political status for Paikas, New revenue demands, Dispossession of tribal and peasant communities, Salt taxes and coastal trade restrictions. The 1817 Paika Rebellion: Led by Bakshi Jagabandhu, over 400 Kondh tribals and Paikas revolted. Rebels attacked British establishments and looted treasury offices. Though suppressed, resistance continued until 1825. Learning Corner: Important Tribal Revolts in British India Tribal uprisings were a major component of early resistance against colonial rule. These revolts were primarily sparked by the British disruption of tribal autonomy, exploitation by landlords and moneylenders, encroachment on forest rights, and interference in socio-religious customs. Santhal Rebellion (1855–56) One of the most significant tribal uprisings, it was led by Sidhu and Kanhu Murmu in the Rajmahal Hills of present-day Jharkhand. The rebellion was against oppressive zamindars, moneylenders, and British revenue officials. It was brutally suppressed but forced the British to enact the Santhal Parganas Tenancy Act later. Munda Ulgulan (1899–1900) Led by Birsa Munda, this movement in the Chotanagpur region aimed at restoring the Khuntkatti system of joint landholding. It combined tribal identity, religious reform, and anti-colonial resistance. Birsa Munda is revered as a messianic figure and martyr. Kol Uprising (1831–32) The Kols of Chotanagpur revolted against British interference in their political system and exploitation by outsiders. Leaders like Budhu Bhagat spearheaded this uprising, which was triggered by land alienation and administrative overreach. Bhil Rebellions (1818–1831) The Bhils of western India (mainly Rajasthan and MP) revolted multiple times during the early 19th century. These were primarily localized responses to famine, British land policies, and displacement. Govind Guru was a later Bhil leader who organized the Mangadh uprising in 1913. Khond Rebellion (1846–1855) The Khonds of Odisha rose in protest against British suppression of their religious customs (notably human sacrifice) and forest encroachments. The rebellion, led by Chakra Bisoi, also had millenarian elements. Rampa Rebellion (1879 & 1922–24) The Koya tribals in Andhra Pradesh resisted British forest laws that curtailed their traditional rights. The 1922 phase was led by Alluri Sitarama Raju, who used guerrilla tactics and invoked nationalist and tribal sentiments. He was captured and executed in 1924. Chuar Uprisings (1767–1799) The Chuars, mainly the Bhumij tribals of Bengal (Midnapore and Bankura), resisted land revenue hikes and British oppression. Leaders like Durjan Singh and Jagannath Singh led the early uprisings, which were among the first tribal resistances to colonial policies. Common Themes Across Tribal Revolts Local leadership with deep tribal legitimacy. Reaction to loss of land, forests, and autonomy. Often accompanied by religious reform or revivalism. Largely militant and spontaneous, lacking coordination with pan-Indian movements. Though suppressed, they laid the foundation for future mass movements and tribal rights activism.

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) Energy Mix (2025) Category: ENERGY Context:  India’s Union Budget 2025-26 announced a major push to achieve 100 GW of nuclear power capacity by 2047 Key Highlights: India’s Nuclear Power Journey: Early Start: India was a pioneer in Asia, with its first research reactor in 1956 and power reactor at Tarapur in 1969. Setbacks: Progress slowed after: Refusal to sign the NPT (1968). Pokhran nuclear tests (1974, 1998). Denial of international cooperation and fuel supply. Recovery: Civil nuclear deal with the US in 2005. NSG waiver in 2008 helped resume international collaboration. Challenges in Meeting 100 GW Target: Current Constraints: Existing capacity is just 8.2 GW. New capacity addition (5.4 GW) still in progress. All plants are owned by the public sector NPCIL; private and foreign participation is not allowed under existing law. Policy & Legal Reforms Required: Amendments to: Atomic Energy Act (1962) – to allow private sector ownership/control. CLND Act (2010) – to address liability and insurance concerns. Electricity Act (2003) – to enable dispute resolution and open access. Revisit nuclear regulation: separate regulatory body needed (like AERB being independent). Finance & Economics: High capital costs (₹60-₹90 crore/MW) make nuclear power less attractive. Delay in returns, safety concerns, and risk management require viability gap funding, public-private partnerships, and financial guarantees. Learning Corner: India’s Energy Mix (2025) India’s total installed power generation capacity stands at around 485 GW. The energy mix is evolving with a strong shift towards clean energy, though coal remains dominant in electricity generation. Installed Capacity (by source): Coal & thermal: ~50–55% Renewables (solar, wind, biomass): ~35–40% Large Hydro: ~10% Nuclear: ~2% Electricity Generation Share: Coal & thermal: ~70–75% Renewables + Hydro: ~20–22% Nuclear: ~3% Key Trends: India has achieved over 50% of its installed capacity from non-fossil sources. Solar and wind are the fastest-growing sectors. Despite growth in capacity, coal still contributes the bulk of actual electricity generation. Around 56 GW of clean energy projects are under construction. Target: ~35–40% clean energy in generation mix by 2030. Source: THE HINDU Bio stimulants Category: AGRICULTURE Context: Bio stimulants, now under Agri Ministry’s scrutiny What are Bio stimulants? Definition: Substances that stimulate physiological processes in plants to enhance nutrient uptake, yield, growth, and stress tolerance. Components: Derived from natural sources—botanical extracts, seaweed, vitamins, bio-chemicals. Exclusion: Not classified as pesticides or fertilizers under current law. Why Under Scrutiny? Farmers complained retailers were bundling bio stimulants with subsidized fertilizers like urea and DAP. Concerns raised over ineffectiveness of many products. ~30,000 unchecked products existed until recently; now reduced to ~650 after stricter checks. Legal Framework Previously unregulated, unlike fertilizers/pesticides. Regulated under: Fertiliser Control Order (FCO), 1985 – amended in 2021 to include bio stimulants. Essential Commodities Act, 1955 – allows periodic updates to FCO. 2021: Government created a 5-year Central Bio stimulant Committee for scientific assessment. Learning Corner: Biofortification Definition: Process of increasing the nutritional value of food crops through agronomic practices, conventional plant breeding, or modern biotechnology. Example: Iron-rich pearl millet, zinc-rich wheat. Objective: Address hidden hunger (micronutrient deficiency).  Biofertilizers Definition: Microorganisms that fix nutrients (like nitrogen, phosphorus) in the soil and make them available to plants. Examples: Rhizobium (legumes), Azospirillum, Mycorrhiza. Benefit: Reduce chemical fertiliser dependency. Precision Farming Definition: Use of technology and data analytics to deliver nutrients and water in precise amounts needed by crops. Tools: GPS, remote sensing, drones. Outcome: Efficient nutrient delivery, reduced wastage. Nutrient Use Efficiency (NUE) Definition: Ratio of crop yield to the amount of nutrient applied. Goal: Increase yield with minimal nutrient loss. Enhanced Through: Balanced fertilization, slow-release fertilizers. Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) Definition: Combined use of chemical fertilizers, organic manures, and biofertilizers to maintain soil fertility and productivity. Advantage: Sustainable nutrient supply. Nanofertilizers Definition: Fertilizers developed using nanotechnology to enhance nutrient availability and uptake. Example: Nano Urea (by IFFCO). Pros: Lower doses, reduced environmental impact. Foliar Nutrition Definition: Application of nutrients directly to plant leaves in liquid form. Use Case: Quick correction of micronutrient deficiencies (like Zn, Fe). Source:  THE INDIAN EXPRESS Article 143 Category: POLITY Context : The Supreme Court has issued notices to the Centre and all States based on a presidential reference seeking clarity on the powers and timelines for the President and Governors to act on state legislature Bills. Key Issues: Whether the judiciary can impose timelines on constitutional authorities where the Constitution is silent. Whether the President’s and Governors’ actions or inactions under Articles 200 and 201 are subject to judicial review. Whether the Supreme Court can use its powers under Article 142 to “deem” assent in cases of inaction. Whether delays or refusals based on irrelevant reasons are unconstitutional. Presidential Reference: President Droupadi Murmu, under Article 143(1), has asked the Supreme Court 14 key legal questions regarding: Judicial scrutiny of constitutional discretion. Legal validity of judicially imposed timelines. Grounds for deeming assent and limiting executive delays. Learning Corner: Article 143 – Advisory Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court Purpose: Empowers the President of India to seek the opinion of the Supreme Court on any question of law or fact of public importance. Types: Article 143(1): Advisory opinion on any question of law or fact. Article 143(2): Opinion on disputes arising out of pre-Constitution treaties or agreements. Notable Cases: Re Berubari Union Case (1960): First use of Article 143. SC opined that a constitutional amendment is needed to cede Indian territory to Pakistan. Re Kerala Education Bill (1958): Clarified constitutional provisions regarding minority education rights. Re Special Courts Bill (1979): SC upheld the constitutionality of special courts for trying politicians for corruption. Article 200 – Assent to Bills by Governor Purpose: Empowers the Governor to: Give assent to a Bill. Withhold assent. Reserve the Bill for the President’s consideration. Return the Bill (if not a money bill) for reconsideration by the legislature. Key Observation: Governor cannot sit on a bill indefinitely; expected to act in a reasonable time frame. Notable Issue: Tamil Nadu NEET Exemption Bill (2021): Governor delayed action, raising questions about misuse of Article 200. Article 201 – President’s Power on Reserved

Archives (PRELIMS Focus) Enforcement Directorate (ED) Category: POLITY Context:  The Supreme Court of India strongly criticized the Enforcement Directorate (ED) for misusing its powers to pursue political battles The court emphasized that: ED should not be used as a political tool. Officers are “crossing all limits” in their conduct. The SC firmly reminded the ED to uphold constitutional values, not act as a tool for political vendetta, and maintain judicial fairness and professionalism. Learning Corner: Enforcement Directorate (ED) About: The Enforcement Directorate (ED) is a law enforcement and economic intelligence agency under the Ministry of Finance, Government of India. Key Functions: Enforces the following laws: Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA), 2002 Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA), 1999 Fugitive Economic Offenders Act, 2018 Main Objectives: Investigate cases of money laundering, foreign exchange violations, and financial fraud. Attach and confiscate properties derived from illegal means. Prosecute offenders in special courts under PMLA. Powers: Conduct search and seizure, arrest, and summon individuals. Attach proceeds of crime. File prosecution complaints (charge sheets) under PMLA. Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS F-35B Fighter Jet Category: INTERNATIONAL Context: British Royal Navy’s F-35B Fighter Jet Set to Fly Out from Kerala. Background: The F-35B, from the Royal Navy’s aircraft carrier HMS Prince of Wales, had to land in Kerala due to an emergency. The situation has now been resolved and the jet will rejoin its fleet. Key Details: Repairs were carried out by Air India’s MRO facility. A 14-member UK engineering team assisted with the assessment and safety checks. The aircraft was supported logistically by a UK Airbus A400M Atlas, which will take the team back. Learning Corner: F-35B Lightning II Manufacturer: Lockheed Martin (USA) Type: Stealth multirole fighter (Variant of F-35) Operator: U.S. Marines, U.K. Royal Navy, Italy, and others Key Feature: Short Take-Off and Vertical Landing (STOVL) capability – can operate from aircraft carriers without catapults Speed: ~1.6 Mach Avionics: Advanced sensor fusion, helmet-mounted display, AESA radar Stealth: Designed to evade radar detection using stealth shaping and coatings Armament: Air-to-air missiles, air-to-ground bombs, internal gun, and external pylons Fifth-Generation Fighter Aircraft – Key Features These are the most advanced class of fighter jets currently in service globally. Core Features: Stealth Technology: Radar-evading design and materials Advanced Avionics: Integrated sensors, electronic warfare systems, and sensor fusion Supercruise: Ability to cruise at supersonic speeds without afterburners (in some variants) Maneuverability: High agility using thrust-vectoring and fly-by-wire systems Network-Centric Warfare: Real-time data sharing with other platforms and command centers Situational Awareness: Helmet-mounted displays, 360° battlefield view Examples of Fifth-Generation Jets: F-22 Raptor (USA) F-35 Lightning II (A/B/C variants) (USA) Chengdu J-20 (China) Sukhoi Su-57 (Russia) HAL AMCA (India – under development) Source:  THE INDIAN EXPRESS Right to vote Category: POLITY Context : The Supreme Court is examining if the right to vote, amid Bihar’s Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of electoral rolls, is a constitutional, statutory, or fundamental right. Legal Provisions: Article 326: Gives every citizen above 18 the right to vote based on adult suffrage. Section 62, Representation of the People Act, 1951: Lays down conditions under which a citizen is allowed or denied the right to vote (e.g., not in prison, being ordinarily resident, etc.). What the Courts Have Said: N.P. Ponnuswami case (1952): Right to vote is a statutory right, subject to limitations by law. Jyoti Basu case (1982): Reaffirmed that voting is not a fundamental or common law right. PUCL case (2003): Called it a ‘constitutional right’, if not fundamental. Kuldip Nayar case (2006): Reaffirmed it as a statutory right. Rajbala case (2015): Upheld the statutory nature of voting right. Anoop Baranwal case (2023): Majority reaffirmed the statutory view. Justice Ajay Rastogi (dissenting opinion): Argued that right to vote is an expression of choice under Article 19(1)(a) — linking it to freedom of speech and expression. Learning Corner: Types of Rights Explained: Natural Rights: Inherent and inalienable (e.g., right to life, liberty). Not always directly enforceable unless recognized in fundamental rights. Constitutional Rights: Guaranteed by the Constitution but not part of Fundamental Rights. Enforceable under Article 226 or 32 (e.g., right to property, right to vote under Article 326). Statutory Rights: Granted by laws made by Parliament or State Legislatures (e.g., MGNREG Act, Forest Rights Act). Can be changed or repealed by ordinary legislation. Source :  THE HINDU Vice President Resigns Category: POLITY Context: Vice President Jagdeep Dhankhar resigned on July 21, 2025, citing health reasons. His resignation, effective immediately under Article 67(a) of the Constitution Constitutional Process & Impact Until a new Vice President is elected, Deputy Chairperson Harivansh Narayan Singh will preside over the Rajya Sabha under Article 91. A new Vice President must be elected within 60 days (by September 19, 2025). The election will follow the proportional representation system with a single transferable vote, involving an electoral college of 788 MPs. Learning Corner: Vice President of India Constitutional Position: The Vice President of India is the second-highest constitutional office in the country. Defined under Articles 63 to 71 of the Constitution. Key Functions: Ex officio Chairperson of the Rajya Sabha (Council of States). Acts as President of India in case of vacancy (due to death, resignation, removal, or absence) until a new President is elected (for a maximum of 6 months). Does not perform executive functions unless acting as President. Election Process: Elected by an electoral college consisting of members of both Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha (including nominated members). Voting method: Proportional representation by means of a single transferable vote and secret ballot. No separate state-level representation (unlike Presidential election). Eligibility Criteria: Must be an Indian citizen, At least 35 years old, Qualified to be a member of the Rajya Sabha, Must not hold any office of profit under the Government. Term and Vacancy: Term: 5 years, but continues until successor takes office. Can resign (under Article 67) by writing to the President. In case of resignation or vacancy, Article 91 allows the Deputy Chairperson of Rajya Sabha to perform duties as presiding officer. Notable Facts: The Vice President is not

Archives (PRELIMS Focus) Inflation Category: ECONOMICS Context:  India’s consumer price index (CPI) food inflation was just 2.1% in June 2025 — lower than the US (2.7%), UK (4.5%), and EU (3%). This is the lowest since January 2019. Key Points: Factors Controlling Inflation: Good monsoon for the second consecutive year boosted crop output. High central food stockpiles (see Table 1). Government policy: Allowed zero/low-duty imports of pulses and edible oils. Cooling global prices for oil and pulses. RBI Implication: This easing food inflation gives space for RBI to cut interest rates, which were kept high due to inflation worries. Monsoon and Crop Impact: Ample rainfall across the country boosted soil moisture and groundwater, benefiting Kharif crops like rice, arhar, and soybean. Area sown under Kharif crops has increased marginally in 2025 compared to 2024 (Table 2), especially for pulses, oilseeds, cotton, and maize. Imports and Price Support: Government imports of arhar and tur dal from Mozambique and Malawi. Edible oil imports (soybean, sunflower) were allowed at reduced duty to control inflation. Support prices for crops like tur increased to ensure farmers get remunerative returns. Learning Corner: Different Types of Inflation Inflation refers to the general rise in the price level of goods and services in an economy over a period. Different types of inflation are classified based on causes, speed, and scope: Based on Causes: Demand-Pull Inflation Caused by excess demand over supply in the economy. Occurs when consumer spending increases faster than production. Cost-Push Inflation Caused by a rise in production costs (e.g., wages, raw materials). Producers pass higher costs to consumers as higher prices. Built-in Inflation (Wage-Price Spiral) Occurs when workers demand higher wages to keep up with living costs, increasing production costs and causing further inflation. Based on Speed: Creeping Inflation Mild, slow rise in prices (≤ 3% per year). Considered manageable and sometimes desirable. Walking Inflation Moderate inflation (3–10% annually). Can affect the purchasing power and investment. Galloping Inflation Rapid inflation (double or triple digits). Destabilizes the economy. Hyperinflation Extremely high and typically uncontrollable inflation (e.g., >50% per month). Seen in crisis-hit countries (e.g., Zimbabwe, Venezuela). Based on Scope and Control: Headline Inflation Measures total inflation including volatile items like food and fuel. Tracked by indices like CPI (Consumer Price Index) in India. Core Inflation Excludes food and fuel to reflect the underlying trend in inflation. Useful for monetary policy decisions. Other Special Types: Stagflation Inflation + stagnant growth + high unemployment. Difficult to manage through traditional policies. Deflation Negative inflation; general fall in prices. Often indicates weak demand and economic slowdown. Reflation Deliberate policy-induced inflation to recover from deflation or recession. Achieved through fiscal/monetary stimulus. Skewflation Inflation only in specific sectors, like food or fuel, due to supply shocks. Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS Kailash Manasarovar Yatra Category: INTERNATIONAL Context: The resumption of the Kailash Manasarovar Yatra in 2025, after a five-year gap, is seen as a key step in rebuilding India-China relations. The move has been hailed as a positive gesture in cultural diplomacy, promoting people-to-people exchanges and restoring mutual trust after years of pandemic-related suspension and border tensions. Chinese officials welcomed Indian pilgrims, describing them as “envoys of friendship,” while both governments emphasized the Yatra’s value as a confidence-building measure. Its revival aligns with the 75th anniversary of diplomatic ties, adding symbolic significance to the initiative. The decision follows high-level diplomatic engagements, with agreements to resume direct flights, improve cross-border cooperation on issues like water sharing and media, and discuss expanded routes and services for pilgrims. The Yatra is now being positioned not just as a spiritual journey, but as a strategic opportunity to stabilize and normalize bilateral ties. Learning Corner: Kailash Manasarovar Yatra The Kailash Manasarovar Yatra is a sacred pilgrimage undertaken by Hindu, Buddhist, Jain, and Bon devotees to Mount Kailash and Lake Manasarovar, located in the Tibet Autonomous Region of China. The sites are revered as the abode of Lord Shiva and hold immense spiritual and cultural significance. Key Features: Organized annually by the Government of India in collaboration with Chinese authorities. Traditionally conducted through two routes: Lipu Lekh Pass (Uttarakhand) Nathula Pass (Sikkim) Involves high-altitude trekking, requiring medical fitness and acclimatization. Recent Developments: Suspended since 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic and India-China border tensions. Resumed in 2025, symbolizing a thaw in bilateral relations and a step towards confidence building. Welcomed by both Indian and Chinese leaders as a move to enhance cultural diplomacy, people-to-people ties, and bilateral cooperation. Coincides with the 75th anniversary of diplomatic relations between India and China. Source:  THE HINDU Cryptocurrency Category: ECONOMICS Context : CoinDCX Suffers ₹378-Crore Security Breach What Happened: CoinDCX, one of India’s largest cryptocurrency exchanges, suffered a major security breach on July 19, 2025. Hackers compromised an internal operational wallet used for liquidity management, stealing approximately ₹378 crore ($44.2 million). The breach did not affect any customer wallets or funds. Company Response: Founders reassured users that all customer assets remain safe and unaffected. The entire loss is being absorbed by CoinDCX’s own treasury, ensuring no financial impact on users. CERT-In was informed, and cybersecurity audits are underway. Details of the Hack: Hackers targeted stablecoins (USDT, USDC) and transferred funds across Solana and Ethereum chains, routing them through Tornado Cash to obscure tracking. The attack was flagged by blockchain investigators before CoinDCX made a public disclosure. Key Takeaways: User funds are fully secure. The breach only impacted a company-owned liquidity wallet. CoinDCX responded swiftly with transparency, containment, and external audits. The incident highlights the growing cybersecurity risks in crypto platforms despite proactive measures. Learning Corner: Different Types of Cryptocurrencies Cryptocurrencies are digital or virtual currencies that use cryptography for security and operate on decentralized blockchain networks. They serve different purposes, from being digital money to powering decentralized applications. Payment Currencies Purpose: Designed as a medium of exchange. Examples: Bitcoin (BTC): The first and most widely used cryptocurrency. Litecoin (LTC), Bitcoin Cash (BCH): Faster and lighter alternatives to Bitcoin. Use case: Peer-to-peer payments, remittances, store of value. Stablecoins Purpose: Pegged to a stable asset

Archives (PRELIMS Focus) Measles-Rubella Category: INTERNATIONAL Context:  India has dispatched 3 lakh (300,000) doses of the Measles-Rubella (MR) vaccine to Bolivia in response to a measles outbreak, along with ancillary medical supplies. Bolivia recently declared a National Health Emergency after 60–98 confirmed measles cases, mostly among unvaccinated children. Key Highlights: Outbreak in Bolivia: Rising measles cases prompted door-to-door vaccination drives. India’s Role: Part of health diplomacy and solidarity with the Global South. Global Context: Measles cases are increasing in the Americas and Europe, emphasizing the need for coordinated global immunization efforts. Official Message: India reaffirmed its commitment to global public health and cooperation with friendly nations. This initiative strengthens India-Bolivia relations and reflects India’s proactive role in international health crises. Learning Corner: Measles-Rubella (MR) Measles and Rubella are contagious viral diseases that primarily affect children and can lead to severe complications if not prevented through vaccination. Measles Cause: Measles virus (Morbillivirus). Transmission: Airborne; spreads through coughs, sneezes, and contact with infected surfaces. Symptoms: High fever, cough, runny nose, conjunctivitis, followed by a red rash. Complications: Pneumonia, encephalitis, blindness, and death, especially in malnourished children. Rubella (German Measles) Cause: Rubella virus (a Togavirus). Transmission: Airborne; mainly affects children and young adults. Symptoms: Mild fever, rash, swollen lymph nodes. Complications: Dangerous for pregnant women; can lead to Congenital Rubella Syndrome (CRS) in the fetus, causing birth defects. Measles-Rubella Vaccine (MR Vaccine) Type: Combined live attenuated vaccine. Schedule: Two doses recommended — typically at 9–12 months and 16–24 months of age. Purpose: To eliminate both measles and rubella through immunization. India’s MR Campaign Launched in 2017 to eliminate measles and control rubella. Targeted 410 million children aged 9 months to 15 years. Significant drop in cases reported due to widespread vaccination coverage. Source: AIR Question Hour Category: POLITY Context: Importance of Question Hour. Question Hour is a crucial mechanism in India’s parliamentary democracy, held at the beginning of each sitting. It ensures executive accountability by compelling ministers to publicly answer questions about their ministries’ actions and decisions. Why It Matters: Ensures Transparency: Ministers respond to oral (starred) or written (unstarred) questions, making their actions open to scrutiny. Promotes Real-Time Accountability: MPs can ask follow-up questions, exposing policy gaps and implementation issues. Highlights Public Concerns: Brings urgent or overlooked issues to national attention. Links Government to Citizens: Allows the public, through their MPs, to question the government directly. Present-Day Relevance: With other forms of detailed debates becoming rare, Question Hour remains one of the few consistent tools for holding the executive accountable. Types of Questions: Type Description Significance Starred Oral answer with follow-ups Ensures direct ministerial response Unstarred Written answer only Provides detailed documentation Short-notice For urgent matters Raises pressing national issues Private member From non-minister MPs Encourages broader participation   Learning Corner: Parliamentary Tools to Ensure Government Accountability In a parliamentary democracy, the executive is collectively responsible to the legislature. The Indian Parliament uses several mechanisms to scrutinize the actions of the government and ensure transparency and accountability: Question Hour Held at the start of each sitting. MPs ask starred, unstarred, or short notice questions to ministers. Helps extract information, expose lapses, and clarify policy decisions. Zero Hour Unscheduled discussion after Question Hour. Members raise urgent matters of public importance without prior notice. Adjournment Motion Introduced to draw attention to a definite matter of urgent public importance. Leads to adjournment of normal business and discussion of the issue. A strong tool, used rarely. Calling Attention Motion Used to call a Minister’s attention to a matter of urgent public importance. Minister responds with a statement followed by discussion. Debate on Motion of Thanks to the President Post-President’s Address, MPs discuss government’s policies and programs. Serves as a mini confidence motion. No-Confidence Motion Moved in Lok Sabha to test the government’s majority. If passed, the government must resign. Censure Motion Criticizes specific policies or actions of the government. Does not require resignation, but expresses disapproval. Parliamentary Committees Standing Committees and Department-Related Committees examine bills, policies, and budgets in detail. Function as watchdogs with subject-matter expertise. Budgetary Control Tools Discussion and voting on Demands for Grants. Cut motions (policy, economy, token) to question expenditure. Appropriation Bill and Finance Bill debates test fiscal accountability. Reports and Audits CAG Reports, laid before Parliament, are examined by PAC (Public Accounts Committee). Government is held accountable for financial irregularities and inefficiencies. Source:  THE INDIAN EXPRESS UAPA Category: POLITY Context : The Bombay High Court has upheld the constitutional validity of the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA), dismissing petitions that challenged its legality in the Elgar Parishad case. Key Legal Findings: Not a Preventive Detention Law: Despite using the term “prevention,” UAPA is not classified as a preventive detention law. Date of Commencement: The Act came into force on 30 December 1967, the date it received Presidential assent, as per legal norms. Legislative Competence: Parliament has the constitutional authority to enact laws like UAPA under Article 22 and List I powers. On Amendments and Non-Notified Clauses: The court held that unless specific provisions are officially notified, original provisions continue to apply. Fundamental Rights Challenge: Allegations of violations of Articles 14, 19, and 21 were rejected, and the law was upheld as constitutional. Learning Corner: UAPA (Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act), 1967 The Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA) is India’s primary anti-terror law aimed at preventing activities that threaten the sovereignty, integrity, and security of the nation. Key Features: Objective: To prevent unlawful activities and associations that threaten India’s sovereignty and integrity. Scope: Covers acts of terrorism, support to terrorist organizations, and membership in or association with banned groups. Wide Powers to Government: Enables the central government to declare individuals and organizations as terrorists or unlawful. Stringent Bail Provisions: Accused under UAPA face reverse burden of proof, and getting bail is difficult due to strict conditions. Amendments: 2004: Brought terrorism within UAPA after POTA was repealed. 2019 Amendment: Allowed individuals (not just organizations) to be designated as terrorists. Constitutional Standing: Parliament has the legislative competence to enact UAPA under Entry 9 of List