July 2025

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) Depreciation of Rupees Category: ECONOMICS Context:  The rupee recorded its biggest single-day fall in nearly 3 months, depreciating by 61 paise to close at ₹87.42 per USD. Cause: Trump Tariff Announcement: US President Donald Trump warned of 20–25% tariffs on Indian goods. Month-end dollar demand. Aggressive FPI selling. Market Reaction: Rupee fell sharply after touching an intraday low of ₹87.66. The rupee has depreciated by 161 paise in the last 11 sessions. Contributing Factors: Fears of economic impact from new US tariffs. Heavy outflows by FPIs (₹16,370 crore in a week). Dollar demand from importers (especially oil firms). Stronger dollar globally. Learning Corner: Currency Appreciation & Depreciation: Appreciation: When the value of the Indian Rupee rises relative to foreign currencies (e.g., ₹75/USD becomes ₹70/USD). Depreciation: When the Rupee falls in value (e.g., ₹75/USD becomes ₹80/USD). Link with Inflation: Depreciation → Costlier Imports → Imported Inflation India depends heavily on oil, electronics, and capital goods imports. A weaker rupee makes these imports more expensive, leading to higher domestic prices. It fuels cost-push inflation (e.g., higher transport and input costs). Appreciation → Cheaper Imports → Helps Tame Inflation A stronger rupee reduces the import bill, especially for crude oil. It can ease inflationary pressure, particularly in sectors dependent on imported inputs. Broader Impact on Indian Economy: Aspect Depreciation of Rupee Appreciation of Rupee Exports Boosts competitiveness (positive) Hurts competitiveness (negative) Imports Becomes costlier (negative) Becomes cheaper (positive) Inflation Increases (especially WPI, CPI) May reduce inflation Current Account Deficit (CAD) May worsen May improve (if exports stay stable) Foreign Investment Can deter if seen as unstable Can attract stable flows RBI Intervention via the Forex Market: Objective: To stabilize the exchange rate of the rupee. When the Rupee Depreciates Sharply: RBI sells US Dollars from its foreign exchange reserves. This increases the supply of dollars and demand for rupees, supporting the rupee. Helps curb imported inflation (e.g., oil becomes less costly in rupee terms). When the Rupee Appreciates Excessively: RBI buys US Dollars, injecting rupees into the market. Prevents exports from becoming uncompetitive. Avoids disinflation or deflation risk due to excess appreciation. Tool Used: Spot and forward transactions, swaps, open market operations in forex. RBI Intervention via Monetary Policy: Objective: To control domestic inflation and manage capital flows. When Inflation Rises (Often Due to Depreciation): RBI may increase the repo rate (tight monetary policy). Higher interest rates attract foreign capital inflows, strengthening the rupee. Also reduces domestic demand, controlling demand-pull inflation. When Growth Slows and Inflation is Low: RBI may cut interest rates to boost credit and investment. This may lead to mild rupee depreciation, which can support exports. Tool Used: Repo rate, CRR, SLR, Open Market Operations (OMOs)   RBI Tool Purpose Impact on Rupee Impact on Inflation Selling USD Curb rupee fall Strengthens rupee Controls imported inflation Buying USD Curb excess rise Weakens rupee Boosts exports Raising Repo Rate Tame inflation Attracts FPI, strengthens rupee Controls inflation Cutting Repo Rate Boost growth May weaken rupee Mild inflation rise possible Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS Mangroves Category: ENVIRONMENT Context: Restoring Mangroves Can Turn the Tide on India’s Coastal Security Why Mangroves Matter: Natural Barriers: Protect coastal areas from cyclones, tidal surges, and erosion. Climate Mitigation: Act as carbon sinks; trap carbon dioxide and store blue carbon. Biodiversity Hotspots: Provide habitat for fish, crabs, molluscs, and migratory birds. Cultural/Economic Value: Vital to local communities for fishing, farming, and traditional practices. Major Threats to Mangroves: Urban expansion, pollution, shrimp farming, altered hydrology, and climate change. Over 50% of mangroves globally are at risk of collapse by 2050 (IUCN report). Learning Corner: Mangroves Mangroves are salt-tolerant trees and shrubs found in coastal intertidal zones of tropical and subtropical regions. They grow in brackish water, where freshwater mixes with seawater, especially in estuaries, lagoons, and deltas. India has about 4,975 sq km of mangrove cover (as per ISFR 2021), mainly in Sundarbans, Gujarat, and Andhra Pradesh. Unique Features of Mangroves Salt Tolerance (Halophytic Nature) Survive in saline conditions through salt-excreting leaves and special root adaptations. Special Root Systems Have stilt roots, pneumatophores (breathing roots), and prop roots for oxygen absorption and anchorage in soft, waterlogged soils. Tidal Adaptability Thrive in highly dynamic tidal zones, tolerating both flooding and exposure to air. High Carbon Sequestration Store large amounts of “blue carbon” in both biomass and deep, anoxic soils  crucial for climate change mitigation. Nursery Grounds Serve as breeding and nursery habitats for fish, crabs, shrimps, and molluscs — vital for coastal livelihoods. Natural Coastal Barriers Protect shorelines from cyclones, tsunamis, storm surges, and coastal erosion. Species Diversity India hosts over 40 mangrove species, with Avicennia, Rhizophora, and Sonneratia being common genera. Ecological and Economic Significance Provide ecosystem services, such as biodiversity support, carbon storage, fisheries productivity, and livelihoods. Act as bioshields, especially in disaster-prone coastal areas like the Sundarbans and Odisha coast. Mangrove Cover in India by State/UT (Descending Order): Rank State/UT Mangrove Area (sq km) % of India’s Total Mangrove Cover Key Mangrove Regions 1 West Bengal 2,114 42.3% Sundarbans (World’s largest mangrove delta) 2 Gujarat 1,141 23.6% Gulf of Kutch, Gulf of Khambhat 3 Andaman & Nicobar Islands 617 12.3% North, Middle & South Andaman coastlines 4 Andhra Pradesh 404 8.1% Godavari and Krishna estuaries 5 Maharashtra 304 6.4% Thane Creek, Raigad, Ratnagiri 6 Odisha 251 5.0% Bhitarkanika delta 7 Tamil Nadu 45 1.0% Pichavaram, Muthupet 8 Goa 26 0.5% Mandovi and Zuari river estuaries 9 Kerala 9 0.2% Kannur, Kozhikode estuaries 10 Karnataka 3 0.1% Uttara Kannada coast Total Mangrove Area in India: 4,975 sq km (approx. 0.15% of total geographical area) Source:  THE HINDU Kamchatka Quake Category: GEOGRAPHY Context : A massive 8.8 magnitude earthquake struck Russia’s Kamchatka Peninsula, one of the strongest in recent times. What Happened? It occurred on the Circum-Pacific Seismic Belt (Ring of Fire), which accounts for 80% of the world’s strongest quakes. Triggered a tsunami with waves up to 3–4 metres in parts of Kamchatka and up to 2 feet in Hawaii. No casualties were reported

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) Gini Index Category: ECONOMICS Context:  The Gini Index ranked India among the world’s more equal societies It fails to capture ground-level realities of urban-rural, gender, wealth, and digital inequalities. Its methodology overlooks informal sector employment, access disparities, and social norms that perpetuate inequality. Forms of Inequality in India: Wealth Inequality: A small fraction holds most of the nation’s wealth. The top 10% own a disproportionate share of income. Informal jobs and non-taxable income make wealth inequality hard to quantify. Gender Inequality: Women make up only 35.9% of the workforce. Only 12.7% of leadership roles are held by women. Startups founded by women are just 7.5% of the total. Patriarchal norms result in fewer resources for girl children and less inheritance. Digital Inequality: Only 53.9% of schools have Internet, and 52.7% have functional computers. Only 25% of rural women vs 49% of rural men have internet access. School closures during pollution seasons show how unequal internet access affects education. Learning Corner: Gini Coefficient The Gini Coefficient (or Gini Index) is a statistical measure of income or wealth inequality within a population. Definition: It ranges from 0 to 1 (or 0% to 100%): 0 represents perfect equality (everyone has the same income). 1 represents perfect inequality (one person has all the income, others have none). How It’s Measured: Based on the Lorenz Curve, which plots the cumulative share of income against the cumulative share of the population. The Gini Coefficient is the ratio of the area between the line of equality and the Lorenz curve to the total area under the line of equality. Applications: Used globally by economists, policymakers, and institutions like the World Bank and UNDP to assess income distribution. Helps compare inequality across countries or over time. Limitations: Does not capture non-income inequalities (e.g., gender, digital access). Insensitive to the location of inequality (whether at the top or bottom of the income scale). Similar Gini scores may mask very different economic structures. Source: THE HINDU Atmanirbhar Oil Seeds Abhiyan Category: POLITY Context: Launched in 2024-25, this mission aims to make India self-reliant in oilseed and edible oil production by 2030-31 Key Objectives: Achieve self-sufficiency in key oilseeds like mustard, soybean, groundnut, sunflower, sesame, and others. Enhance research in high-yield, climate-resilient varieties. Promote modern farming practices and digital technologies. Provide financial incentives and input subsidies. Strengthen post-harvest management, market linkages, and processing infrastructure. Expand crop insurance coverage. Boost secondary oil extraction from sources like rice bran, cottonseed, and tree-borne oilseeds. Implementation & Targets: Duration: 2024-25 to 2030-31 Budget: ₹10,103 crore Target: Raise oilseed production from 39 to 69.7 million tonnes Goal: Meet 72% of projected domestic edible oil demand Support Measures: Launch of SATHI portal for seed supply coordination. Increased MSP and schemes like PM-AASHA to ensure fair pricing. Higher import duties to protect domestic producers. Emphasis on environmental sustainability and rural employment. Learning Corner: Oilseeds Production in India: India is one of the largest producers of oilseeds globally but remains a net importer of edible oils, meeting over 50% of its domestic demand through imports. Major oilseeds grown include: Groundnut, Soybean, Mustard/Rapeseed, Sunflower, Sesame, Linseed, Niger, Safflower, and Castor. Cultivated mainly in rain-fed areas; productivity is often lower due to climate variability, low input use, and limited irrigation. Key Government Schemes: National Mission on Edible Oils – Oilseeds (NMEO–Oilseeds) (2024–25 to 2030–31) Aims to make India self-reliant in edible oils. Targets to increase oilseeds production to 69.7 million tonnes by 2030–31. Key components: High-yielding seeds, climate-resilient varieties Financial incentives, input subsidies Crop insurance, SATHI portal for seed coordination Post-harvest management and value addition Focus on both primary and secondary sources (e.g., rice bran, cottonseed) National Food Security Mission (NFSM – Oilseeds & Oil Palm) Promotes productivity and area expansion for oilseed crops. Provides financial support for inputs, training, and cluster demonstrations. Price Support Scheme (PSS) Under PM-AASHA, ensures Minimum Support Price (MSP) procurement for oilseeds by government agencies. Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY) A flexible scheme to fund state-led initiatives, including support for oilseeds based on local needs. Source:  PIB Ladakh’s hot springs Category: GEOGRAPHY Context : Ladakh’s hot springs and the origin of life Why They Matter: Unique Carbonate Chemistry: Unlike global focus on silica, Ladakh’s hot springs (notably in Puga Valley) show rapid calcium carbonate (travertine) formation, which preserves organic molecules like amino acids and fatty acids—key to prebiotic chemistry. Natural Laboratory: These springs offer a real-world setting resembling early Earth, ideal for studying how life might have formed. Extremophile Insights: Harsh conditions (UV radiation, temperature extremes) mirror early Earth and Mars. Microbes here produce protective substances, offering clues to how life adapts and survives in extreme environments. Astrobiological Significance: Mars Analog: Similarities to Martian hydrothermal systems make Ladakh valuable for space science. Biomarker Clues: Helps identify where and how to search for biosignatures on Mars, guiding missions by ISRO and NASA. Key Takeaways: Carbonates are crucial for preserving life’s building blocks. Supports new directions in astrobiology, synthetic biology, and Mars exploration. Strengthens India’s contribution to the search for life beyond Earth. Learning Corner: Hot Springs: Definition: A hot spring is a natural discharge of geothermally heated groundwater at the Earth’s surface. Formed when groundwater seeps deep into the Earth, gets heated by magma or hot rocks, and rises back to the surface. Temperatures can vary — from lukewarm to boiling. Found in tectonically active regions, especially volcanic zones. Notable Indian examples: Manikaran (Himachal Pradesh) Tapovan (Uttarakhand) Bakreshwar (West Bengal) Geysers: A geyser is a special type of hot spring that erupts periodically, shooting steam and hot water into the air. Occur when pressure builds in underground chambers filled with boiling water and steam. Require: Intense geothermal heat Abundant groundwater A unique plumbing system with narrow conduits Much rarer than hot springs. Famous geysers: Old Faithful in Yellowstone National Park (USA) El Tatio in Chile No significant true geysers in India. Geological Importance: Indicators of geothermal energy potential Support unique microbial ecosystems Sites of tourism and religious importance Source:  PIB Pralay missile Category: SCIENCE

rchives (PRELIMS  Focus) Golden jackals Category: ENVIRONMENT Context:  Golden jackals in Kerala have shown remarkable adaptability to human-dominated landscapes, thriving beyond traditional forests in areas like agricultural lands, village edges, and peri-urban zones They exploit food sources from human activities, such as waste and livestock carrion, demonstrating a flexible diet and strong scavenging ability. This ecological plasticity allows them to survive habitat fragmentation and loss. However, their growing presence near human settlements raises concerns about potential conflicts and disease transmission, highlighting the need for effective management of human-wildlife interactions. Learning Corner: Golden Jackal (Canis aureus) IUCN Status: Least Concern (LC) Distribution: Native to South Asia, Middle East, North and East Africa, and Southeastern Europe. In India, they are found across the subcontinent — from forests and grasslands to rural, agricultural, and urban fringes. Habitats: Golden jackals occupy a diverse range of habitats, including: Dry deciduous forests Scrublands Grasslands and savannas Mangroves and wetlands Agricultural fields Peri-urban and rural areas Key Features: Size: Medium-sized canid (8–10 kg on average) Color: Golden to reddish-brown fur Diet: Omnivorous and opportunistic — includes rodents, birds, fruits, insects, carrion, and human food waste Behavior: Can be solitary, in pairs, or small family groups; mostly nocturnal Ecological Role: Important scavenger, helps control rodent populations and clean up carrion Conservation Concerns: Human-wildlife conflict (livestock predation, urban presence) Disease transmission (rabies, canine distemper) Habitat loss and fragmentation Source: THE HINDU Private Test Facility for Heavy Water Upgrade Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Context: India has inaugurated its first private test facility for upgrading depleted heavy water (D₂O), a critical component for nuclear reactors. Located in Palghar, Maharashtra Key highlights: The facility will test equipment needed to upgrade depleted D₂O to 99.9% purity, required for Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs). Earlier, components were manufactured and tested in-house by BARC; this move aims to cut time by at least two years. TEMA India will also manufacture parts for the distillation process and ensure correct results before deployment. The facility has already dispatched components for Unit 8 of the Rajasthan Atomic Power Project (RAPP-8). The project supports India’s aim of achieving 100 GW nuclear capacity by 2047. India currently operates 24 nuclear reactors with a combined capacity of 8,780 MW, with more under construction. Learning Corner: Heavy Water (D₂O)  Definition: Heavy water is a form of water in which the hydrogen atoms are replaced with deuterium (²H or D), a stable isotope of hydrogen that has one neutron in addition to the proton. Key Features: Chemical Formula: D₂O Appearance: Looks like ordinary water but is about 10% denser Non-radioactive Uses: Primarily used as a moderator and coolant in Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) Slows down neutrons to sustain the nuclear fission chain reaction Also used in scientific research and isotope production Importance in Nuclear Power: Maintains neutron economy by reducing neutron absorption Enables the use of natural uranium as fuel without enrichment Purity Requirement: Must be 99.9% pure to function effectively in reactors Gets contaminated over time and needs re-upgrading through distillation or other methods India’s Context: India uses heavy water extensively in PHWRs BARC oversees heavy water production and upgrading Now, private firms like TEMA India are also contributing to testing and upgrading processes Safety: Non-toxic in small quantities, but not suitable for drinking in large amounts Not radioactive but handled with care in nuclear facilities Source:  THE INDIAN EXPRESS Monsoon Category: GEOGRAPHY Context : Monsoon at Mid-Season – India Records 8% Above-Normal Rainfall As of July 28, 2025, India’s southwest monsoon has performed well, with 8% above-normal rainfall (440.1 mm) from June 1 to July 28. Most regions recorded normal or above-normal rainfall, except east and northeast India, which saw a deficit of 23%. Regional Rainfall (June 1–July 28): Central India: 574.4 mm (+24%) Northwest India: 447.8 mm (+6.9%) South Peninsula: 351.8 mm (+1.6%) East & Northeast: 316.9 mm (−23%) Key Points: Punjab, Bihar, Sikkim, Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh, and Meghalaya have seen persistent rain deficiency. July is the most crucial monsoon month and has shown 5.4% above-normal rainfall so far. Back-to-back low-pressure systems and depressions over Bay of Bengal sustained rainfall across most parts of India. Learning Corner: Monsoon  Definition: Monsoon refers to the seasonal reversal of winds accompanied by changes in precipitation. In South Asia, it primarily denotes the Southwest Monsoon, which brings the majority of India’s annual rainfall. Types of Monsoon in India: Southwest Monsoon (June–September): Brings ~75% of India’s annual rainfall Caused by differential heating of land and ocean Divided into two branches: Arabian Sea Branch and Bay of Bengal Branch Northeast Monsoon (October–December): Affects mainly southeastern India (Tamil Nadu, parts of Andhra Pradesh) Importance of Monsoon: Agriculture: Supports kharif crops like rice, maize, and pulses Water Resources: Replenishes rivers, lakes, and groundwater Economy: Impacts rural demand, food security, and hydropower Factors Influencing Monsoon: El Niño and La Niña events Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) Western disturbances Low-pressure systems and depressions in Bay of Bengal Challenges: Uneven distribution causes floods or droughts Delayed onset or withdrawal affects sowing cycles Climate change is increasing unpredictability in monsoon behavior Source :  THE INDIAN EXPRESS National Education Policy (NEP) Category: POLITY Context Five Years of NEP What Has Worked School Curriculum Revamp: The 10+2 system is being replaced by the 5+3+3+4 structure. NCERT has published new books for classes 1–8, emphasizing experiential learning. Early Childhood Education: Pre-primary learning is being strengthened with materials like NCERT’s Jaadui Pitara. Foundational Learning Focus: National Initiative for Proficiency in Reading with Understanding and Numeracy (NIPUN Bharat) launched to ensure reading and math skills by class 3. Academic Credit System: National Credit Framework allows flexible credit transfer and course entry/exit. CUET (Common University Entrance Test): Implemented in 2022 as a common entrance test for undergraduate admissions. Indian Campuses Abroad: IITs and IIMs have set up campuses in Africa and the Gulf; foreign universities are coming to India. What’s In Progress Board Exam Changes: From 2026, CBSE to allow class 10 students to choose subjects and take board exams twice a year. Holistic Report Cards: PARAKH under