Current Affairs

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) PROMISE OF NUCLEAR FUSION Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: An experimental nuclear fusion reactor in China triggered a lot of excitement by keeping its operational state maintained for more than 1,000 seconds, or over 17 minutes, which is a new record. Background: – Nuclear fusion is what produces the energy in the Sun, or any other star. Scientists across the world have been trying to recreate this process to produce electricity. The technology can eliminate the world’s energy crisis, and the problem of climate change, but it has not been mastered yet. Key takeaways Nuclear fusion is a process where two light atomic nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus, releasing a tremendous amount of energy. This is the same process that powers the Sun and other stars. How Does It Work? Fusion Fuel: The most common fusion reaction involves hydrogen isotopes: Deuterium (²H) and Tritium (³H) When these isotopes fuse under extremely high temperature and pressure, they form helium (⁴He) and release a neutron along with a vast amount of energy. Conditions for Fusion – To achieve fusion, the following conditions are required: High Temperature: Atomic nuclei are positively charged, so they naturally repel each other due to the electrostatic force. To overcome this repulsion, extremely high temperatures (millions of degrees Celsius) and pressures are required. High Pressure: The plasma must be confined at high density to increase the likelihood of collisions. Confinement Time: The plasma must be held together long enough for fusion reactions to occur. Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak (EAST) reactor The Chinese reactor did not produce electricity or carry out a fusion reaction. However, the reactor managed to maintain plasma in a steady state of confinement for a long time, longer than it had previously been possible. Fusion require very high temperatures. At such temperatures, matter exists only in the plasma state. But such hot plasma cannot be handled by or contained in any material. Within the reactor, this plasma needs to be kept suspended in a confined space, surrounded by very strong magnetic fields acting as walls. Charged particles respond to magnetic fields, and this property is used to guide the flow of plasma within an enclosed space, separated from any matter. This condition, necessary for facilitating fusion reactions, is extremely delicate. Scientists have not been able to maintain these conditions for longer than a few seconds. Real-life electricity-generating reactors would require this state to be maintained for hours, even days, at a stretch. Advantages of Fusion The fusion process produces far greater amounts of energy than any other source — one gram of fuel can yield as much energy as burning about eight tonnes of coal.  It uses cheap input materials, available in almost limitless supply (deuterium and tritium, two heavier isotopes of hydrogen that are used as fuel, are easily available in nature), has a zero emission footprint.  Unlike the fission process, it does not leave dangerous nuclear waste. International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) The largest fusion reactor, an international collaborative project called ITER, is coming up in southern France.  More than 30 countries are participating with India being one of the seven member countries contributing to the reactor’s construction and research. According to its current timeline, it would begin deuterium-tritium fusion reactions by 2039, producing 500 MW of fusion power. Source: Indian Express FEMINISATION OF AGRICULTURE Syllabus: Mains – GS 2 & GS 3 Context: Women contribute around 63 per cent of the agricultural labour force in India, yet they lack access to key resources such as land ownership, finance, and advanced farming technologies. Background: – Women’s involvement in agriculture does not necessarily equate to empowerment.  Key takeaways The female workforce participation rate in India reached its peak at 40.8 % in 2004-05 but has declined since. However, since 2017, the female labour force participation rate (FLPR) has seen a rising trend after years of decline.   The rural FLPR increased from 41.5% in 2022-23 to 47.6% in 2023-24, while the urban FLPR increased from 25.4% to 28% over the same time period. This growth in FLPR could be attributed to the economic recovery following covid, which prompted many women who were previously not part of the labour force to seek employment. In addition, the sudden rise in FLPR in the last few years has also been linked to economic distress. The rise in FLPR is largely driven by the rise in self-employment among women, especially in agriculture. This highlights the lack of non-farm job opportunities for women, with most employment opportunities for rural women remaining confined to agriculture. This leads to feminisation of agriculture.  Feminisation of agriculture can be interpreted  in two ways.  First, it refers to an increase in the proportion of farm related work undertaken by women, including their responsibilities as smallholder cultivators or casual agricultural wage workers.  Second, feminisation of agriculture can also imply an understanding of women’s control, ownership, and participation in agricultural resources and social processes. This includes women’s ownership of farmland, land rights, and decision-making powers. Factors such as declining production and productivity, increasing cost of inputs, higher risks of crop damage due to climate change and the growing aspirations of youth in rural areas have fueled male migration out of rural areas. As a result, women who are left behind take on farm work. Gender disparity in land ownership The Agriculture Census of 2015-16 reported that while 73% of rural women workers are engaged in agriculture, only about 11.72% of the total operated area in the country is managed by female operational holders. Additionally, women’s landholdings are predominantly small and marginal. In India, women can acquire land through inheritance, gift, purchase, or government transfers. However, these systems are often skewed. For instance, women are more likely to be financially constrained than men to purchase land, making inheritance the major means of ownership. Yet, social biases make it difficult for women to inherit. Towards gender equity in agriculture Women’s participation in paid work should not be confused with their empowerment. Women often face a

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) TRUMP AND GREENLAND Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: US President-elect Donald Trump has once again expressed interest in buying Greenland, and Greenland has again stated it is not for sale. Background: – Greenland, though geographically part of North America, has been under Denmark’s control—located nearly 3,000 km (1,860 miles) away—for around 300 years. Why Greenland matters to US? Greenland’s strategic importance rose during the Cold War, and the US has an air base there, the Pituffik Space Base, earlier the Thule Air Base. From Greenland, the US can monitor and prevent any missile coming towards it from Russia, China, or even North Korea. Similarly, it can launch missiles and ships towards Asia or Europe more easily from Greenland. Second, Greenland is rich in rare earth minerals. At present, China is a major supplier of these minerals. Third, as global warming leads to melting of ice, new waterways can open in the Arctic region, and all major powers are keen to boost their presence here. The US would want to pre-empt a larger Russian or Chinese role in Greenland and its neighbourhood. US bought territories In 1803, the US bought more than 2 million sq km of land from France in what is known as the Louisiana Purchase. US paid $ 15 million for the deal. Another example is Alaska, which the Russian empire transferred to the US in 1867, for $7.2 million. In 1917, the US bought the Danish West Indies, a group of islands in the Caribbean, and called them the US Virgin Islands. About Greenland Greenland, the largest island on Earth, is situated in the Arctic and is the most sparsely populated territory in the world. It is home to approximately 56,000 residents, primarily indigenous Inuit people. Around 80% of Greenland is covered by ice, with most of its population concentrated along the south-western coast near the capital, Nuuk. As an autonomous territory of Denmark, Greenland hosts both Danish and U.S. military bases. Its economy relies heavily on fishing, while substantial subsidies from the Danish government contribute about 20% of its GDP. Source: Indian Express ALGAL BLOOM Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – ENVIRONMENT Context: A groundbreaking study, spearheaded by director of the Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS), identified nine key algal bloom hotspots along India’s east and west coasts. Background: – The research, done using cutting-edge satellite data and field reports, showed that factors driving these algal blooms range from nutrient flux during monsoons to coastal upwelling (cooler and nutrient-rich water rising to the ocean surface). Key takeaways India’s coastline, rich in biodiversity, is grappling with a growing phenomenon of algal blooms. These events, caused by a sudden surge in phytoplankton biomass, are becoming more frequent and intense owing to environmental and human factors. Causes of Algal Blooms Nutrient Pollution: Excessive nutrients, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus, from agricultural runoff, wastewater, and industrial discharges, fuel the growth of algae. This process is called eutrophication. Warm Water Temperatures: Algal blooms are more common in warm water, which is why they often occur in summer or in regions with higher temperatures. Stagnant Water: Slow-moving or stagnant water bodies, such as lakes or ponds, are more prone to algal blooms because nutrients accumulate and are not flushed out. Climate Change: Rising global temperatures and changes in precipitation patterns can exacerbate the conditions that lead to algal blooms. Human Activities: Urbanization, deforestation, and agricultural practices contribute to nutrient runoff, increasing the likelihood of blooms. Types of Algal Blooms Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs): These blooms produce toxins that can harm aquatic life, humans, and animals. Examples include cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) blooms, which produce toxins like microcystins and anatoxins. Non-Toxic Blooms: Some algal blooms are not harmful but can still disrupt ecosystems by depleting oxygen levels in the water when the algae die and decompose. Examples of Harmful Algal Blooms Red Tide: Caused by dinoflagellates (a type of algae) in marine environments, leading to fish kills and respiratory issues in humans. Common in coastal areas like the Gulf of Mexico. Cyanobacteria Blooms: Often occur in freshwater lakes and ponds, producing toxins that can harm humans and animals. Source: The Hindu ANNUAL STATUS OF EDUCATION REPORT (ASER) Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: The Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) 2024 was released, revealing improvements in basic reading and arithmetic among students of classes 3 and 5 in rural areas reverting back from the post-pandemic damage. Background: Unlike most other large-scale learning assessments, ASER is a household-based rather than school-based survey. This design enables all children to be included – those who have never been to school or have dropped out; those who are in government schools, private schools, religious or other types of schools; as well as those who are absent from school on the day of the assessment. Key takeaways The Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) is a nationwide household survey conducted by Pratham Foundation, an NGO, to assess the status of children’s enrollment and learning outcomes in rural India. The ‘basic’ ASER survey tracks enrollment for children aged 3-16 and assesses basic reading and arithmetic of children aged 5-16. It was conducted every year from 2005 to 2014 in almost all rural districts of India.  Beginning in 2016, an alternate-year model was introduced, where the ‘basic’ ASER survey is conducted in alternate years and in the gap years, a different lens is employed to examine different age groups and/or new aspects of children’s learning. Key findings from ASER 2024 Significant improvement in learning levels: The proportion of Class III students in government schools who can read a Class II textbook rose to 23.4 per cent in 2024, up from 16.3 per cent in 2022. Basic arithmetic levels among Class III students improved to 33.7 per cent in 2024, from 28.1 per cent in 2018, across both government and private schools. Enrolment trends: Government school enrolment, which surged during the pandemic, is now returning to pre-pandemic levels. It rose to 72.9 per cent in 2022, from 65.6

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) BENNU SAMPLE UNLOCKS SECRETS OF LIFE’S ORIGINS Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: Studies of rock and dust from asteroid Bennu delivered to Earth by NASA’s OSIRIS-REx spacecraft have revealed molecules that, on our planet, are key to life, as well as a history of saltwater that could have served as the “broth” for these compounds to interact and combine. Background: – The findings do not show evidence for life itself, but they do suggest the conditions necessary for the emergence of life were widespread across the early solar system, increasing the odds life could have formed on other planets and moons. Asteroids like Bennu are remnants from the formation of the solar system, offering a snapshot of conditions that existed more than 4.5 billion years ago. Key takeaways Scientists have revealed that rocks from Bennu contain key components of life: Amino acids, nucleobases and traces of ancient saltwater — the essential ingredients for biological processes. Among the most striking discoveries in the Bennu samples are 14 of the 20 amino acids that life on Earth uses to build proteins, as well as all five nucleobases needed for genetic material like DNA and RNA.  However, its amino acids show something unusual. Life on Earth mostly uses ‘left-handed’ amino acids, but Bennu has nearly equal amounts of both left- and right-handed types. The presence of ammonia and formaldehyde — compounds that can react to form more complex molecules — further strengthens the case for asteroids as potential incubators for prebiotic chemistry. Beyond the molecular building blocks, Bennu’s samples also contain traces of water in the form of mineral salts. Scientists detected 11 different evaporite minerals. These minerals suggest that Bennu once harboured briny water that evaporated over thousands, if not millions, of years. Similar salty water reservoirs have been detected elsewhere in the solar system, such as beneath the icy crust of Saturn’s moon Enceladus and on the dwarf planet Ceres. The presence of these minerals on Bennu further supports the idea that watery environments, which could facilitate chemical reactions leading to life, were once widespread. Origins, Spectral Interpretation, Resource Identification, and Security–Regolith Explorer (OSIRIS-REx) The Origins, Spectral Interpretation, Resource Identification, and Security–Regolith Explorer (OSIRIS-REx) is a NASA mission designed to study and return samples from the near-Earth asteroid 101955 Bennu. Key Milestones: Arrival at Bennu: OSIRIS-REx reached Bennu on December 3, 2018, initiating detailed mapping and analysis of the asteroid’s surface.  Sample Collection: On October 20, 2020, the spacecraft successfully collected surface material from Bennu using the Touch-And-Go Sample Acquisition Mechanism (TAGSAM).  Return to Earth: The sample capsule re-entered Earth’s atmosphere and landed in Utah on September 24, 2023, marking the United States’ first successful asteroid sample return mission. Following the successful delivery of Bennu’s samples, the spacecraft was renamed OSIRIS-APEX (Apophis Explorer). It is now tasked with a new mission to study the asteroid 99942 Apophis during its close approach to Earth in 2029. Source: Down To Earth HIMACHAL LAUNCHES PROJECT FOR CANNABIS FARMING Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: In the wake of popular demand for cultivation of cannabis in the Himalayan state, Chief Minister Sukhvinder Singh Sukhu-led Himachal Pradesh government approved a pilot project for cannabis or hemp cultivation.  Background: – Cannabis is a naturally occurring weed found throughout Himachal Pradesh, yet its cultivation had been banned under the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (NDPS) Act, 1985. With this decision, Himachal Pradesh becomes one of the states, along with Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, and Manipur, to grant controlled permission for the cultivation of cannabis for medical and industrial purposes. Key takeaways What does the law say about cannabis cultivation? Cannabis cultivation is largely prohibited in India due to its psychoactive properties.  Section 2 of the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (NDPS) Act, 1985, prohibits the production and sale of cannabis resin and flowers. It defines charas as the separated resin, in any form (crude or purified), obtained from the cannabis plant. It also includes concentrated preparations such as hashish oil or liquid hashish. However, it provides exceptions for cannabis cultivation and use for industrial and medicinal purposes under government regulation.  Section 10 of the Act allows state governments to regulate, permit, or prohibit cannabis cultivation for medicinal and scientific purposes. Additionally, Section 14 grants the Central government the power to authorise and regulate cannabis cultivation for research or other approved purposes. What is controlled cannabis cultivation? It is the regulated cultivation of specific cannabis varieties having minimal intoxicating properties, along with strict monitoring to prevent misuse. Such varieties are commonly known as hemp. The tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) cannabinoid content (a kind of chemical that has an intoxicating effect) in controlled cannabis should be less than or equal to 0.3 per cent. Under controlled cannabis cultivation, authorities focus on its non-narcotic applications, particularly in the pharmaceutical and industrial sectors.  Hemp’s stalks, leaves, and seeds can also be converted into textile, paper, food, cosmetics, biofuel and more. Additionally, cannabidiol (CBD) compounds in the plant are effective in treating chronic pain. Before the tightening of restrictions in 2000, cannabis farming was a common practice in Himachal. Despite the ban, illegal cultivation continues in several districts. Countries like Canada, the United States, Japan, France, Italy, Hungary, China, Denmark, and Australia are leaders in cannabis farming and its processing. Source: Indian Express KARA SEA Syllabus: Prelims – GEOGRAPHY Context: Amid a rapid expansion of Russian activity in the Arctic region, a nuclear-powered icebreaker suffered damage after colliding with a cargo vessel in the Kara Sea. Background: During the winter, nuclear icebreakers frequently accompany oil tankers and LNG carriers across the waters of the Arctic. Key takeaways The Kara Sea is a marginal sea of the Arctic Ocean, located to the north of Siberia, Russia. Location: The Kara Sea is bordered by the Novaya Zemlya archipelago to the west, the Severnaya Zemlya archipelago to the east, and the Franz Josef Land to the northwest. Climate Ice Cover: The Kara

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) ECONOMIC SURVEY FOR 2024-25 Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – ECONOMY Context: The Economic Survey for 2024-25 was tabled by Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman in Parliament on Friday.  Background: – The Survey is a report of the state of the Indian economy in the financial year that is coming to a close. It is prepared by the Department of Economic Affairs in the Union Finance Ministry, under the guidance of the Chief Economic Advisor (CEA). Key takeaways from Economic Survey Real Gross Domestic Product, which maps economic activity from the demand side of the economy, in the current financial year (FY25) is pegged at 6.4%; in the coming year (FY26), the Survey expects it to lie between 6.3% and 6.8%. The goal of a ‘Viksit Bharat’ in the 100th year of Independence, the Survey’s authors emphasised, will require about 8% growth for at least a decade — with the investment rate rising from the current rate of 31% of GDP to 35% of GDP. The survey noted that while the labour share of GVA (gross value added) shows a slight uptick, the disproportionate rise in corporate profits — predominantly among large firms — raises concern about income inequality. A higher profit share and stagnant wage growth risk are slowing the economy by curbing demand. The Economic Survey warns that excessive financialisation, driven by rising household savings in the stock market and increased retail investor participation, could harm the economy, especially in a low-middle-income country like India.  It highlights the risk of financial markets dominating policy decisions, making economic growth overly dependent on asset price inflation and leverage, which could widen inequality and unduly influence regulatory policies. India’s equity market has rapidly grown particularly after the pandemic, but its debt market remains undercapitalised, according to the Economic Survey. Corporate bond issuances in India for the period April to December 2024 rose to 7.3 lakh crore rupees. Still, the size of India’s corporate bond market stands at just 18% of the country’s total GDP as against 80% in Korea and 36% in China, the Survey noted. A majority of these funds were gathered by firms through private placements, thus deterring the participation of retail investors. India will need to focus on indigenisation of technology and raw materials as an “urgent task” to achieve the transition to electric mobility, even as the global automobile industry looks to reduce its dependence on China, the Economic Survey said. Pointing towards a decrease in regular jobs, the Survey found that the proportion of self-employed workers in the workforce has risen from 52.2% in 2017-18 to 58.4% in 2023-24. This shift reflects growing entrepreneurial activity and a preference for flexible work arrangements, the Survey claimed. It added that the agriculture sector still remains dominant in employment, with its share rising from 44.1% in 2017-18 to 46.1% in 2023-24. The share of workers (male and female) in regular or salaried jobs decreased from 22.8% to 21.7% during the same period. The decline in casual workers, from 24.9% to 19.8%, also indicates a shift toward more structured forms of self-employment. Micro, Small and Medium-scale Enterprises (MSMEs) that employ 23.24 crore people in the country continue to face challenges in the regulatory environment, the Survey noted. Regulatory compliance burden holds back formalisation and labour productivity, limits employment growth, chokes innovation and depresses growth, it said. There is an observed tendency for MSMEs in India to remain small. So, they lose access to capital, talent, and technology infusion and often operate outside the formal supply chains. This creates a parallel, informal economy, the Survey noted. The logic for staying small often is to remain under the regulatory radar and steer clear of the rules and labour and safety laws. Overexposure to social media, lack of exercise, not spending enough time with one’s family and overwork (hours exceeding 55-60 per week) have all worsened mental well-being among Indians, said the Economic Survey 2024-25. Establishing a link between good mental health and clean eating habits, the Survey noted that individuals who rarely consume ultra-processed or packaged junk food have better mental well-being than those who regularly do so. Source: The Hindu MURDER OF MAHATMA GANDHI Syllabus: Prelims – HISTORY Context: On January 30, 1948, at exactly 5.17 pm, Nathuram Godse fired three shots at Mahatma Gandhi from his Beretta M1934. The Mahatma died on the spot. Background: – During his trial, Godse tried to take sole responsibility for the crime. But his arguments were rejected. Key takeaways A Bench of the Punjab High Court in Shimla in 1949 upheld the convictions and sentences of five people for the larger conspiracy: Godse, his younger brother Gopal, Narayan Apte, Vishnu Karkare, and Madanlal Pahwa. Apart from these five convicts, the other accused were Savarkar, Shankar Kistayya, and Dattatraya Parchure. Digambar Badge confessed to his role in the conspiracy and became an approver in return for a pardon. The conspiracy Godse and Apte conceived of the plan to kill Gandhi in December 1947. The duo left Poona for Bombay on January 13. The same day, Badge, accompanied by his servant, Shankar Kistayya, also left for Bombay with a bag containing two gun-cotton slabs and four hand-grenades. Godse, Apte, and Badge were joined in Bombay by Pahwa and Karkare at the Hindu Mahasabha office, where the plan was chalked out. After some money was raised for the project — ostensibly to help Hindus in Hyderabad — Godse and Apte travelled to Delhi by plane. They stayed at the Marina hotel till January 20. The rest of the conspirators too arrived in Delhi by January 19. In the morning of January 20, Apte, Karkare, Badge and Shankar reconnoitered Birla House, where Gandhi was staying. The first attempt to kill Gandhi was made on January 20. The plan was to throw a grenade to disperse the crowd — and then throw another at Gandhi. However, Badge lost his courage and the second grenade was never thrown. Pahwa was arrested and interrogated by the police. The plan had failed. Subsequently, Godse decided to

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) MAKHANA Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: Union Finance Minister, while presenting the Union Budget, said that a “Makhana Board” will be set up in Bihar to boost the cultivation and marketing of fox nuts. Background: – Bihar accounts for approximately 90% of India’s makhana production. This production is primarily concentrated in northern and eastern Bihar. Key takeaways Makhana (fox nut), is the dried edible seed of the prickly water lily or gorgon plant (Euryale ferox). This plant is found in freshwater ponds throughout South and East Asia. It is recognized for its violet and white flowers, as well as its large, round, and prickly leaves, which can often exceed a meter in diameter. The edible part of the Makhana plant consists of small, round seeds that have an outer layer ranging from black to brown. This has led to it being referred to as the ‘Black Diamond.’ After processing, these seeds are often consumed as popped snacks known as ‘lava.’ Makhana is highly nutritious and provides an excellent source of carbohydrates, protein, and minerals. Due to its versatile applications in medicine, healthcare, and nutrition, this plant can be consumed in various forms. In 2022, ‘Mithila Makhana’ was conferred a Geographical Indication tag. In addition to Bihar, makhana is cultivated in smaller quantities in the states of Assam, Manipur, West Bengal, Tripura, and Odisha, as well as in neighboring countries like Nepal, Bangladesh, China, Japan, and Korea. Climatic Conditions for Cultivation Makhana (Gorgon Nut or Foxnut) is an aquatic crop and is mainly grown in tropical and subtropical regions.  It is traditionally cultivated in stagnant water bodies such as ponds, land depressions, lakes, ditches, or wetlands with shallow water depths of up to 4-6 feet. For optimal growth and development, Makhana requires a temperature range of 20-35°C, relative humidity of 50-90%, and annual rainfall between 100-250 cm. Source: Indian Express DOMESTIC WORKERS Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: Domestic workers and those who work towards the well-being of this vulnerable segment of the workforce have found hope with the Supreme Court’s recent direction to the Union government to look into a law to regulate the sector. Background: – SC ordered the government to form an inter-ministerial committee to consider the desirability of recommending a legal framework for the benefit, protection and regulation of the rights of domestic workers. India is yet to ratify the ILO Convention 189 on domestic workers. Key takeaways The court noted that the poor conditions of domestic workers are largely due to the lack of appropriate regulations. The court highlighted the exclusion of these workers from many labour legislation, including the Minimum Wages Act and the Equal Remuneration Act.  While acknowledging existing state-specific regulations, SC noted the importance of having national-level legislation that is binding on all states. Domestic work is a feminised occupation, with migrants from marginalised communities constituting a considerable proportion.  Low wages, unfair working conditions, the obligation to attend to additional tasks, increased workload without additional compensation are the key features that mark the sector.  Job insecurity and complete absence of social security measures force the workers to accept vulnerable conditions of work. Why domestic workers needs separate legislation The Code on Wages (2019), unlike the Minimum Wages Act, by definition covers the sector. But the intricacies, complexities and hierarchies of the occupation which intersects with gender, caste, and class makes the sector distinct.  The different systems of employment of workers — part-time/full-time, live in/live out — have contributed to the complexity of the sector.  The asymmetric relationship between employer and employee, where the workplace is the former’s private space and the latter’s workplace is an issue that makes the sector qualitatively different.  Further, the work undertaken — mundane cleaning tasks and cooking or care work — are all socially devalued. Challenges and way forward The definition of what constitutes domestic work needs to be carefully worked out.  One of the prerequisites for enforcement of any labour regulation is proof of employment. Most employers do not view themselves as “employers” or their homes as “workplaces”. The recent attempts in the direction of the states of Kerala and Delhi could be looked at for learning. Source: Indian Express ELS COTTON Syllabus: Prelims – CURRENT EVENT Context: Union Finance Minister, while presenting the Union Budget, announced a five-year mission to “facilitate significant improvements in productivity and sustainability of cotton farming, and promote extra-long staple (ELS) cotton varieties”. Background: Currently, India’s per acre yields are significantly lower than others. Brazil boasts an average yield of 20 quintals per acre, while China boasts a yield of 15 quintals.  Better seeds, timely agronomic advice, and adoption of technology would help India improve in this regard, and grow premium varieties such as ELS cotton. Key takeaways What is Extra-long Staple cotton? Cotton is classified, based on the length of its fibres, as long, medium, or short staple.  Gossypium hirsutum, which constitutes roughly 96% of the cotton grown in India, falls in the medium staple category, with fibre lengths ranging from 25 to 28.6 mm. On the other hand, ELS varieties boast fibre lengths of 30 mm and above. Most ELS cotton comes from the species Gossypium barbadense, commonly known as Egyptian or Pima cotton. ELS cotton today is mainly grown in China, Egypt, Australia, and Peru. In India, some ELS cotton is grown along rain fed parts of Maharashtra and around Coimbatore in Tamil Nadu. Fabric produced using ELS cotton is of the highest quality. Brands producing top-of-the-line fabrics mix a small quantity of ELS with medium staple cotton to improve quality. Why is ELS cotton not grown in India? For the 2024-25 season, the Minimum Support Price (MSP) of medium staple cotton was Rs 7,121 (per quintal) while that of long staple cotton was Rs 7,521. Nonetheless, farmers in India have thus far been reluctant to adopt ELS cotton. This is mainly due to lower than average per acre yields. While the medium staple variety yields between 10 and 12 quintals per acre, ELS cotton has a yield of only 7-8 quintals. Additionally, farmers

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) THE BUDGET Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – ECONOMY Context: Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman presented her eighth consecutive Budget on Feb 1st. Background: – Finance Minister lists four engines of development in the Union Budget 2025-26. These are agriculture, MSMEs, investments, and exports. Key takeaways Agriculture The government will promote self-sufficiency in pulses, focusing on the production and procurement of toor, urad, and masur.  Bihar will get a Makhana board, to boost the cultivation and marketing of fox nuts. The people engaged in Makhana cultivation will be organized in FPOs. Bihar accounts for about 85 per cent of the total Makhana production of the country. ‘Rural Prosperity and Resilience’ program will be launched in collaboration with states. This initiative aims to tackle under-employment in agriculture by promoting skill development, investment, technology adoption, and revitalization of the rural economy. The objective is to create abundant opportunities in rural areas, ensuring migration remains a choice rather than a necessity. A National Mission on High Yielding Seeds will be launched. The loan limit under the Modified Interest Subvention Scheme will be enhanced from  Rs. 3 lakh to 5 lakh for loans taken through the KCC. A new scheme for the agriculture sector—Prime Minister Dhan Dhanya Krishi Yojana (PMDDKY). The scheme will be on the lines of Aspirational Districts Programme (ADP) and  will be implemented across agriculture districts. MSMEs To help them achieve higher efficiencies of scale, technological upgradation and better access to capital, the investment and turnover limits for classification of all MSMEs will be enhanced. In a boost to credit to Micro industries, the government will provide customised credit cards with limit of Rs 5 lakh under Udyam portal. Building on the National Action Plan for Toys, the government will implement a scheme to make India a global hub for toys – promoting ‘Make in India’ brand. The government will launch the National Manufacturing Mission covering small, medium, and large enterprises for furthering Make in India. The Mission will also support clean tech manufacturing, given India’s commitment to climate-friendly development. Investments Extension of Jal Jeevan Mission until 2028 to obtain 100 percent coverage. The Government will establish a ₹1 lakh crore Urban Challenge Fund to support initiatives like ‘Cities as Growth Hubs,’ ‘Creative Redevelopment,’ and ‘Water & Sanitation’. The fund will cover up to 25% of viable project costs, requiring at least 50% funding from bonds, bank loans, or PPPs. A Nuclear Energy Mission for research & development of Small Modular Reactors (SMR) with an outlay of Rs. 20,000 crore will be set up. The Shipbuilding Financial Assistance Policy will be revised to offset cost disadvantages, including Credit Notes for shipbreaking in Indian yards to support the circular economy. Budget announced a ‘Deep Tech Fund of Funds’ for next generation startups and ten thousand PM research fellowships for technological research in IITs and IISc in next 5 years. The 2nd Gene Bank was announced with 10 lakh germplasm lines will be set up for future food and nutritional security. (Supporting both public and private sector.)  Exports Establish an Export Promotion Mission to enhance export credit access and support MSMEs in global markets. BharatTradeNet: Develop a unified digital platform for international trade documentation and financing solutions. Global Supply Chain Integration: Support domestic manufacturing to integrate India’s economy into global supply chains, focusing on Industry 4.0 and youth talent. National Framework for GCC: Create a framework to promote Global Capability Centres in tier 2 cities, focusing on talent and infrastructure. Source: Indian Express CITIZENSHIP LAWS Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – POLITY Context: In the gale of executive orders announced after Trump assumed office for a second term, the President issued one diluting birthright citizenship, which has been written into the U.S. Constitution since 1866. The order has been challenged in court in more than 20 States and a federal judge has temporarily blocked it.  Background: – If implemented, it will mean that children born to illegal immigrants — as well as those legally in the U.S. on temporary visas for study, work or tourism purposes — will not be eligible for automatic U.S. citizenship. At least one parent must now be a U.S. citizen or legal permanent resident, the order says. Key takeaways The 14th amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which granted citizenship to “all persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof” was enacted in 1866, against the backdrop of the Civil War which had just ended. Trump’s supporters rail against the practice of birth tourism, or anchor babies, where foreign nationals seek to give birth in the U.S., in the hope that those babies will be able to help their families migrate to the country as well. How do citizenship laws vary? The U.S. follows the principle of jus soli (the right of soil), based on geography regardless of parental citizenship, as opposed to jus sanguinis (the right of blood), which gives citizenship based on the nationality of the child’s parents.  There are only 37 countries which currently enforce the jus soli principle, of which 29 are in the Americas. Of the other eight, two are in India’s neighbourhood: Nepal and Pakistan, though the latter introduced a Bill seeking to end this. Jus soli historically allowed colonisers to quickly outnumber native populations as citizens. Countries that have traditionally built their national character through diverse immigrant populations have used jus soli as a way of integrating diversity into the common stream of nationhood.  Countries protective of their culture and identity have generally followed the principle of jus sanguinis.  Jus soli derives from English common law and, until anti-migrant backlash a few decades ago, was implemented in the U.K. and most of its former colonies, including India. India offered automatic citizenship to all those born on Indian soil before 1987. Introducing the Citizenship Bill in Parliament in 1955, then-Home Minister Govind Ballabh Pant said, “The mere fact of birth in India invests with it the right of citizenship in India. We have taken a cosmopolitan view and it is

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) PINEAPPLE EXPRESS Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – GEOGRAPHY Context: Following an unusually dry January, a powerful atmospheric river known as the ‘Pineapple Express’ has been sweeping through northern and central California, bringing periods of strong winds, heavy rain, and snowfall in the hills. Background: – Pineapple Express gets its name from the warm, moist air drawn into the system, originating near Hawaii, a region known for its pineapple production. Key takeaways Pineapple Express is a type of atmospheric river— a narrow, fast-moving “river in the sky” that transports significant moisture over long distances. The warm air and high humidity it carries from the Pacific lead to heavy rainfall when the system reaches land. The atmospheric rivers are long, narrow bands in the atmosphere that transport vast amounts of water vapour from the tropics. Their size and strength can differ significantly, but on average, they carry a volume comparable to the flow of the Mississippi River at its mouth. Exceptionally strong atmospheric rivers can transport up to 15 times that amount. When atmospheric rivers make landfall, they typically release this moisture as rain or snow, often covering a vast region as they move inland. The atmospheric rivers in the sky occur often on the West Coast but can happen in other locations, including the eastern United States, where they often channel moisture from the Caribbean.When this moisture begins to interact with land, it can fall as rain or snow.  Although atmospheric rivers come in different shapes and sizes, for one to be a “true Pineapple Express,” location matters. The tail end, where the moisture is pulled into the atmosphere, must start near Hawaii. Then the river must stretch continuously through the atmosphere to the US West Coast. Source: Indian Express INTERNATIONAL BIG CAT ALLIANCE (IBCA) Syllabus: Prelims – ENVIRONMENT Context: The International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA) has officially come into force as a treaty-based, inter-governmental organisation, becoming a fully functional international legal entity. Background: – The Ministry of External Affairs (MEA), acting as the Depository for the Framework Agreement, confirmed that five countries – Nicaragua, Eswatini, India, Somalia, and Liberia – have deposited their instruments of ratification, acceptance, or approval, making them the founding members of the IBCA. Key takeaways The IBCA was launched by Prime Minister Narendra Modi on April 9, 2023, during an event commemorating the 50th anniversary of Project Tiger.  The initiative’s main objective is the conservation of seven major big cat species: the Tiger, Lion, Leopard, Snow Leopard, Cheetah, Jaguar, and Puma. Members: As of now, 27 countries have consented to join, including India, Nicaragua, Eswatini, Somalia, and Liberia. The membership of the IBCA is open to all UN member countries, especially those that host these species, and to non-range countries that are interested in supporting big cat conservation efforts. The IBCA has a framework agreement, and its headquarters is in India. It includes an Assembly of Members, a Standing Committee, and a Secretariat. The Union Cabinet approved a one-time budgetary support of Rs 150 crore for the IBCA for the period from 2023-24 to 2027-28. The IBCA aims to become self-sustaining after the initial five years through membership fees, contributions from bilateral and multilateral organizations, and the private sector. Source: DD News PM SURYA GHAR MUFT BIJLI YOJANA Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: The Union Budget 2025 has increased the allocation for PM Surya Ghar Muft Bijli Yojana (SGMBY) scheme to ₹20,000 crore, a sharp rise from the ₹11,100 crore in the FY25 Revised Estimates (RE) and ₹6,250 crore in the FY25 Budget Estimates (BE). Background: According to Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) targets, India has committed to reducing the emission intensity of its GDP by 45 percent by 2030 from the 2005 level and achieving about 50 percent cumulative electric power installed capacity from non-fossil fuel-based energy resources by 2030. Key takeaways The Pradhan Mantri Surya Ghar Muft Bijli Yojana (PMSG) is a flagship initiative launched by the Government of India with the twin objectives of promoting renewable energy and ensuring affordable electricity access. The scheme aims to install rooftop solar systems in one crore residential households. This is expected to not only reduce household electricity bills (by providing up to 300 units of free electricity per month) but also help reduce the nation’s carbon footprint. Key Components of the Scheme Residential consumers are provided with a subsidy based on their system capacity. For example, for the first 2 kW of rooftop solar capacity, a subsidy of up to 60% (at benchmark costs) is available, while for the next 1 kW (i.e. capacity between 2 and 3 kW), the subsidy is capped at 40% of the additional cost. No subsidy is provided beyond 3 kW capacity. Loan Facilities: In addition to the subsidy, the scheme offers access to collateral-free, low-interest loans for eligible households to finance the installation of rooftop solar systems. National Portal: Applications are processed through a dedicated online portal, where households register using their consumer details and select from a network of government-registered vendors.  Vendor and DISCOM Coordination: The implementation is carried out by registered vendors and coordinated at the state level by Distribution Companies (DISCOMs) or power departments, ensuring that installations meet the technical and quality benchmarks. Model Solar Village Initiative: To further promote renewable energy at the grassroots, the scheme includes establishing one Model Solar Village per district. Who are eligible to apply for the Scheme? The applicant must be an Indian citizen. Must own a house with a roof that is suitable for installing solar panels. The household must have a valid electricity connection. The household must not have availed of any other subsidy for solar panels. Source: Moneycontrol NAVIGATION WITH INDIA CONSTELLATION (NAVIC) Syllabus: Prelims – SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: ISRO reported the partial failure of its NVS-02 navigation satellite due to the non-firing of its engines in space. This was the latest in a series of setbacks suffered by the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS), operationally referred to as the

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) INDIA-MIDDLE EAST-EUROPE ECONOMIC CORRIDOR (IMEC) Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: Greek Foreign Minister George Gerapetritis has affirmed Greece’s full support for the India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC), describing it as a project for peace. Background: – Minister acknowledged that the initiative, launched in September 2023, has faced delays due to conflicts in West Asia, particularly the Israel-Gaza war. Key takeaways The India–Middle East–Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC) aims at boosting economic development and enhancing inter-regional connectivity between Asia, the Persian Gulf, and Europe.  Announced during the 2023 G20 New Delhi summit, the project seeks to create a modern trade route that reconnects historical pathways, linking India to Europe via key partners including the United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Israel, and Greece. Key Features and Objectives Bifurcated Route: IMEC is envisioned with two main legs: an eastern corridor that channels container traffic from India to the Gulf region and a northern corridor that connects the Gulf to Europe. This multimodal pathway will integrate high-speed rail, shipping lanes, digital connectivity (through undersea cables), and even renewable energy infrastructure like clean hydrogen pipelines Economic and Logistical Advantages: The corridor is expected to reduce transit times by up to 40 percent and lower logistics costs significantly. It is seen as a strategic tool to diversify trade routes away from traditional chokepoints like the Suez Canal Counterbalance to China’s Belt and Road Initiative: IMEC is interpreted as a counterweight to China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). Geopolitical Implications Enhanced Regional Integration: The corridor is designed to strengthen economic ties and promote regional stability. Strategic Diversification: In addition to facilitating faster and cheaper trade, IMEC is intended to reduce reliance on existing maritime routes, thereby mitigating vulnerabilities exposed by conflicts. This diversification is critical for future-proofing supply chains. Diplomatic and Economic Synergies: By linking diverse economies through coordinated infrastructure projects, the corridor can serve as a catalyst for deeper engagement among the participating countries. Source: The Hindu CRIMINALISING BEGGING Syllabus: Mains – GS 1 & GS 2 Context: Bhopal district collector issued orders prohibiting begging in the district, a month after the Indore collector passed similar orders, and introduced stringent measures including registration of FIRs for receiving and giving alms. Background: – The criminalisation of begging has been a contentious issue in many parts of the country with some states having stringent laws, often criticised for being ‘anti-poor’ and mandated in the place of rehabilitation-centric interventions. Key takeaways The orders are under section 163 of the Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita (BNSS), 2023. This law gives officials including the district magistrate, sub-divisional magistrate or any other executive magistrate, the power to issue an order in urgent cases of ‘nuisance or apprehended danger’. The order can direct any person from abstaining from a certain act. It may apply to persons residing in a particular place or area, or the public generally frequenting or visiting a particular place or area. The orders state that action will be taken under section 223 of the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS). The section punishes those disobeying an order announced by a public servant, who is lawfully empowered to do so. If an order under the section is not obeyed, the person can be punished with imprisonment or fine or both. Section 163 BNSS, however, also says that an order under the section shall remain in force for not more than two months, provided the state government considers it necessary that the order remain in force for a period not exceeding six months. Is begging termed illegal anywhere else? The first law against begging was the Bombay Prevention of Beggary Act, 1959. Its roots were colonial, when there were laws against ‘vagrants’, in various provinces, including the Bengal Vagrancy Act, 1943 and the Cochin Vagrancy Act, 1945. In 2018, the Delhi High Court struck down various sections of the Bombay Prevention of Begging Act, 1959, as extended to the NCT of Delhi, declaring them unconstitutional and effectively decriminalizing begging. However, the court did not invalidate provisions related to ancillary offences, such as Section 11, which penalizes those who employ or cause others to beg. Many states including Maharashtra continue to criminalise begging under the Act. There is no central Act on begging in the country but many states have enacted their own laws, most of them based on the 1959 Act. While some argue that Act is needed to address forced begging or ‘begging rackets’, activists say that it can be addressed in existing provisions, like laws against trafficking. Source: Indian Express UNITED NATIONS HUMAN RIGHTS COUNCIL (UNHRC) Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: President Donald Trump signed an executive order withdrawing the US from the United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC). Background: Trump pulled the US out of UNHRC in 2018 during his first term in office. Former President Joe Biden reinstated the US’ membership of the organization in 2021. Key takeaways The United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC) is an intergovernmental body within the United Nations system.  It was established in 2006 to replace the former United Nations Commission on Human Rights. The UNHRC is responsible for strengthening the promotion and protection of human rights around the globe. Membership: The Council consists of 47 Member States elected directly and individually by a majority of the 193 UN General Assembly states. Members serve for three-year terms and can serve a maximum of two consecutive terms. Functions: The UNHRC addresses human rights violations and makes recommendations on them. It holds regular sessions three times a year and can also hold special sessions to respond to urgent human rights situations. Universal Periodic Review (UPR): The Council reviews the human rights records of all UN Member States through the UPR process. Special Procedures: The UNHRC appoints independent human rights experts, known as Special Rapporteurs, who monitor and report on human rights situations in specific countries or themes. Commissions of Inquiry: The Council can authorize commissions of inquiry and fact-finding missions to investigate human rights violations. Source: DW GARBHINI-DRISHTI Syllabus:

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) RBI’S REPO RATE CUT Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – ECONOMY Context: After holding the repo rate at 6.50 per cent for two years, the Reserve Bank of India’s (RBI) six-member Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) reduced the key policy rate by 25 basis points (bps) to 6.25 per cent on February 7. Background: – This marks the first repo rate cut in nearly five years and will likely lead to a fall in interest rates and equated monthly instalments (EMIs) on home and personal loans. Key takeaways The repo rate is the interest rate at which the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) lends money to commercial banks. The term “repo” stands for Repurchase Agreement or Repurchasing Option. Mechanism: When commercial banks need funds, they can sell securities to the RBI with an agreement to repurchase them at a predetermined price. The difference between the sale and repurchase price is the interest charged, which is the repo rate. The main reason behind the repo rate cut is to stimulate economic growth by making borrowing cheaper, leading to increased spending and investment, ultimately supporting job creation and employment. How might the repo rate cut impact the economy? All external benchmark lending rates (EBLR) — lending rates set by the banks based on external benchmarks such as the repo rate — will come down by 25 bps, giving relief to borrowers as their equated monthly instalments (EMIs) will also fall.  Lenders may also reduce interest rates on loans that are linked to the marginal cost of fund-based lending rate (MCLR, or the minimum lending rate below which a bank is not allowed to lend), where the full transmission of a 250-bps hike in the repo rate between May 2022 and February 2023 has not happened. EMIs on home and vehicle loans will come down, making it easier for individuals to repay their debts.  A lower repo rate makes borrowing cheaper for individuals and businesses, which can lead to increased spending and investment, thereby boosting economic growth. However, a lower repo rate can lead to higher inflation, as increased money supply and lower interest rates can drive up prices. It can reduce the interest earned on savings, making it less attractive for individuals to save. Source: Indian Express MARINE HEATWAVES (MHWs) Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – ENVIRONMENT Context: The marine heatwaves (MHWs) linked to the death of more than 30,000 fish off the coastal Western Australia in January were made up to 100 times more likely to occur due to climate change. Background: – The MHWs began in September 2024 and are still ongoing in the region. The current MHWs are the second-worst in Western Australia’s recorded history. The region saw its most intense MHWs during the 2010–11 summer, when temperatures soared to 5 degrees Celsius above average. Key takeaways A marine heatwave occurs when the surface temperature of a particular region of the sea rises to 3 or 4 degrees Celsius above the average temperature for at least five days.  MHWs can last for weeks, months or even years. A 2021 report by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) said MHWs have increased by 50% over the past decade and now last longer and are more severe. MHWs have been recorded in surface and deep waters, across all latitudes, and in all types of marine ecosystems, the report said. Why have marine heatwaves intensified? The primary reason is the climate crisis. As global temperatures have soared to 1.3 degrees Celsius above the pre-industrial levels, 90% of the extra heat has been absorbed by the ocean.  Global mean SST increased close to 0.9 degrees Celsius since 1850, and the rise over the last four decades is around 0.6 degrees Celsius. As a result, MHWs have become more frequent, long-lasting, and severe. Impact Of Marine Heatwaves MHWs can be devastating for marine life. For example, the 2010-11 MHWs in Western Australia caused large-scale fish kills. It also destroyed klep forests and fundamentally altered the ecosystem of the coast. Kelps usually grow in cooler waters, providing habitat and food for many marine animals. These heatwaves contribute to coral bleaching, which reduces the reproductivity of corals and makes them more vulnerable. Thousands of marine animals depend on coral reefs for survival and damage to corals could, in turn, threaten their existence. Source: Indian Express RISING TENSIONS IN THE GREAT LAKES REGION Syllabus: Prelims – GEOGRAPHY Context: Days after the capture of Goma, M23 rebels and allied Rwandan forces have launched a new offensive in the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Background: The ongoing insurgency in the DRC, which is the continuation of protracted turmoil and insecurity that has plagued the region for generations, is intertwined with the region’s geography and resources. Key takeaways The Great Lakes Region of Africa The Great Lakes Region of Africa, located in East and Central Africa, is a series of lakes in and around the East African Rift Valley.  This network of large freshwater lakes in the heart of Africa is endowed with various natural resources, which give the East African Rift Valley a unique ecology and socioeconomic significance.  These lakes include Lake Victoria, Lake Tanganyika, Lake Malawi, Lake Albert, Lake Kivu and Lake Edward. They are surrounded by ten riparian states that include Burundi, the DRC, Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zambia.  Most of them have a traumatic past, while violent conflict is endemic in the region. The resource curse—whereby abundant natural wealth spurs conflict and corruption—is a recurring theme. Source: Indian Express WESTERN DISTURBANCE Syllabus: Prelims – GEOGRAPHY Context: A significant temperature drop has been observed across North India due to a western disturbance currently positioned over North Pakistan, the India Meteorological Department (IMD) reported. Background: – The system is gradually moving eastward, impacting weather patterns in the region. Key takeaways Western Disturbances are extratropical storm systems that originate over the Mediterranean Sea/ Caspian Sea region. These systems travel eastward across the Middle East into the Indian subcontinent, particularly affecting the northern

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) DISCOVERY OF POTASH RESERVES Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – ECONOMY Context: Punjab Mining Minister Barinder Kumar Goyal said the government will explore potash mining in Fazilka and Sri Muktsar Sahib districts, where surveys previously detected large mineral reserves in three mining blocks. Background: – Surveys of the Geological Survey of India (GSI) have also identified reserves in parts of Rajasthan. These findings highlight the potential for potash mining in both states, reducing India’s dependence on imports and bolstering the domestic fertilizer industry. Key takeaways Potash refers to potassium-bearing minerals that are primarily used in fertilisers. Over 90% of potash is used as fertilizer and it is one of the three primary agricultural nutrients (Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium or N-P-K).  While all potash fertilizers contain potassium there are a number of different forms in which it exists. Among these forms is Sulphate of Potash (SOP), a premium potash fertilizer that is free of chloride (a compound considered harmful to plants). On the other hand, Muriate of Potash or MOP contains some chloride.  While SOP is used primarily on high-value crops, usually leafy plants, fruits and vegetables, MOP is commonly used on carbohydrate-type crops, such as wheat. Where were potash reserves found? Punjab is now the second state after Rajasthan to have significant potash reserves. In Rajasthan, potash deposits were mainly found in the northwestern Nagaur-Ganganagar basin. According to the National Mineral Inventory (NMI) database, the total potash resources are estimated at 23,091 million tonnes in 2020. Rajasthan alone contributes 89% to the total resources. However, despite having substantial reserves, exploration and extraction have been delayed. So far, India has not engaged in potash mining.  As of now, the country is completely dependent on imports. Source: Indian Express DUNKI ROUTES Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: A US military aircraft carrying 104 deported Indian nationals landed at Amritsar airport on 5th February 2025. According to the deportees, they spent between Rs 30 lakh and Rs 1 crore in expenses and agent fees in their efforts to reach the US, mostly through what is known as the “dunki route”. Background: – The Trump administration has identified about 20,000 Indian illegal immigrants as part of its mass deportation plan. Indians comprise about 725,000 illegal migrants — the biggest group outside of Central and Latin America. Key takeaways “Dunki” or “donkey journey” refers to the long-winding, often dangerous routes that people across the world take to reach the places they want to immigrate to. These difficult journeys are undertaken due to a lack of requisite legal permits or financial resources. The American authorities have deported those who have taken this illegal route to reach America. Deportation is the process of removing a non-citizen for violating immigration law.  According to the US Immigration and Customs Enforcement’s Fiscal Year 2024 Annual Report, Honduras, Mexico, Guatemala, and El Salvador remain top countries where citizens are deported or repatriated from the US. However, India figures above China and almost equals Brazil. India Government’s reaction After the deportation of the illegal migrants from the USA, the Indian government said that it is considering enacting a new law, tentatively titled ‘Overseas Mobility (Facilitation and Welfare) Bill, 2024’, to establish an enabling framework which will promote “safe, orderly and regular migration for overseas employment”. There is a pressing need for comprehensive legislative overhaul to replace the outdated provisions of the Emigration Act 1983. The ministry said that Indian missions/consulates spread awareness amongst emigrants and issued advisories for prospective emigrants. These awareness activities such as advisories equip emigrants with information on safe migration practices, registered recruiting agents, valid foreign jobs, and ways to avoid fraudulent recruiting agencies. Source: Indian Express ARTICLE 200 Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – POLITY Context: The Supreme Court questioned Tamil Nadu Governor R N Ravi’s decision to withhold assent to some Bills presented to him by state legislature and said “he seems to have adopted his own procedure”. Background: On November 13, 2023, the Governor R.N. Ravi had declared that he was withholding assent on 10 bills passed by the Tamil Nadu state assembly. Subsequently, the assembly convened a special session on November 18, 2023, and re-enacted the same bills. This time, the governor had to proceed to refer all 10 bills to the President for consideration; the President had assented to one Bill, rejected seven and did not consider two proposed laws. The state government argued that the governor’s conduct was that of a political opponent.  Key takeaways While Article 163 of the Constitution deals with the powers of the Governor generally, Article 200 specifically deals with the issue of granting assent to Bills. Both the provisions are read together to determine the contours of the power the Governor holds on this issue. When a Bill passed by the legislature of a state is presented to the Governor, the Governor has four options: (1) grant assent to the Bill; (2) withhold assent to the Bills; (3) return the Bills for reconsideration; or (4) reserve the Bill for the consideration of the President. Article 200 reads: When a Bill has been passed by the Legislative Assembly of a State or, in the case of a State having a Legislative Council, has been passed by both Houses of the Legislature of the State, it shall be presented to the Governor and the Governor shall declare either that he assents to the Bill or that he withholds assent therefrom or that he reserves the Bill for the consideration of the President. However, the Article has a key proviso. It says that the Governor “may, as soon as possible” return Bills other than money Bills, with a message requesting that the House reconsider it in parts or in whole. However, once the Legislative House reconsiders the Bill and sends it to the Governor once again, the Governor “shall not withhold assent therefrom”. An indefinite timeline in deciding on Bills can paralyse the elected government. At the same time, giving assent to Bills is one of the few areas in which the Governor