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Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) ARSENIC POLLUTION Category: ENVIRONMENT Context: Climate change could be resulting in higher levels of arsenic in rice, potentially increasing lifetime cancer and health risks for people in Asian countries by 2050, according to a new study published in The Lancet Planetary Health journal. Decoding the context: The presence of arsenic in rice has long been known as a problem. Almost all rice contains arsenic. The harmful, naturally occurring chemical can accumulate in the soil of paddy fields, leaching into the grains of rice grown there. But the amounts found can vary considerably from well below the recommended limits set by regulatory bodies to several times higher. Learning Corner: Arsenic (As) is a naturally occurring, odorless, tasteless metalloid found in the earth’s crust, soil, water, and air. Arsenic can be found in various forms, including organic and inorganic. Inorganic arsenic is generally considered more toxic than organic arsenic.  Sources of Arsenic Pollution Natural Sources Weathering of arsenic-rich rocks (e.g., Ganga-Brahmaputra basin) Volcanic eruptions and geothermal activity. Anthropogenic (Human-Induced) Sources Use of arsenical pesticides and herbicides. Mining and smelting of arsenic-containing ores. Burning of fossil fuels, especially coal. Industrial effluents and waste disposal. According to new study, rising temperatures and CO2 alter soil chemistry, increasing arsenic absorption in rice, posing higher health risks in rice-dependent Asian countries by 2050 Another concern is arsenic in Groundwater – Arsenic contamination in groundwater is a public health emergency in parts of Eastern India, particularly in: West Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Assam, Jharkhand, Punjab (recent studies). Often caused by the leaching of arsenic from sediments in the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna (GBM) plain due to overextraction of groundwater. Health Effects of Arsenic Exposure Short-term: Vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea. Long-term (chronic exposure): Skin lesions, hyperpigmentation, Arsenicosis (chronic arsenic poisoning), Cancer, Cardiovascular diseases, Neurotoxicity and developmental effects in children. Source : The Hindu LIQUIDITY COVERAGE RATIO Category: ECONOMY Context: The Reserve Bank of India announced amendments to the Liquidity Coverage Ratio (LCR) framework. Decoding the context:  Reserve Bank of India has allowed banks to set aside a lower stock of liquid assets against deposits raised through digital channels in the new guidelines. Learning Corner: The Liquidity Coverage Ratio (LCR) is a Basel III requirement that ensures that a bank has sufficient high-quality liquid assets (HQLAs) to survive a 30-day period of significant financial stress. It aims to improve short-term resilience of banks. The ratio should be ≥ 100%, meaning a bank should have liquid assets equal to or more than the net cash outflows expected during a stress period of 30 days. High-Quality Liquid Assets (HQLAs) Include: Cash, Central bank reserves, Government securities (like G-Secs), High rated Corporate bonds (in some cases, with haircuts). High-Quality Liquid Assets (HQLAs) are those which are easily and immediately convertible into cash with minimal loss. Purpose of LCR: Prevents bank failures due to liquidity crunch. Promotes banking system stability. Ensures confidence during financial stress scenarios. Implementation in India: Implemented by RBI in a phased manner starting 2015, fully in effect by January 1, 2019. Source : Livemint NITROGEN Category: ENVIRONMENT Context: India, the world’s second-largest emitter of nitrous oxide (N₂O) after China, faces significant climate risks, as N₂O has a global warming potential nearly 300 times greater than that of carbon dioxide (CO₂). Decoding the context: Nitrogen is the fifth-most abundant element in the universe and the most prevalent gas in the Earth’s atmosphere, comprising approximately 78% of the air—nearly three times more than oxygen. Although it accounts for only about 3% of human body weight, nitrogen is essential for life, playing a critical role in the structure of amino acids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Learning Corner: Major Nitrogen Compounds Relevant to Global Warming: Nitrous Oxide (N₂O) A potent greenhouse gas. Global warming potential (GWP) is about 298 times that of CO₂ over a 100-year period. Third most significant greenhouse gas after CO₂ and methane (CH₄), contributing ~6% to global radiative forcing. Has a long atmospheric lifetime: ~114 years. Also contributes to stratospheric ozone depletion. Ammonia (NH₃) Indirectly affects global warming by contributing to aerosol formation. Not a direct GHG, but affects air quality and ecosystem health. Sources of Nitrogen Emissions: Natural Sources: Microbial activity in soils and oceans, Forest fires. Anthropogenic (Human-Induced) Sources: Agriculture: Use of synthetic fertilizers, animal manure → microbial processes in soil release N₂O. Biomass burning. Wastewater treatment. Fossil fuel combustion. Industrial processes (e.g., nitric acid production). Environmental Impact of Nitrogen Emissions: Enhances global warming due to high GWP of N₂O. Depletes stratospheric ozone, worsening UV exposure risks. Causes eutrophication of water bodies. Leads to acid rain formation (via NOx). Climate feedback: Warmer soils enhance microbial N₂O production, amplifying emissions. Source : The Hindu ARTICLE 355 Category: POLITY Context: The Supreme Court today declined to pass any directions on a plea seeking deployment of paramilitary forces in West Bengal in light of the violence that broke out in Murshidabad over the Waqf (Amendment) Act. Decoding the context: The petitioner sought for immediate deployment of paramilitary forces and the implementation of Article 355 of the Constitution. Learning Corner: Text of Article 355: “It shall be the duty of the Union to protect every State against external aggression and internal disturbance and to ensure that the Government of every State is carried on in accordance with the provisions of this Constitution.” Key Features: Duty of the Union (Central Government): To protect states from: External aggression (e.g., foreign invasion). Internal disturbance (e.g., riots, insurgency, terrorism). To ensure the constitutional machinery in the state functions properly. Part of Emergency Provisions: Included in Part XVIII of the Constitution (Articles 352–360). It acts as a justification or pre-condition for the imposition of President’s Rule (Article 356). Not self-executing: Article 355 does not automatically confer powers; it imposes a duty. Constitutional Context: Often read in conjunction with Article 356, which allows for President’s Rule if a state government fails to comply with constitutional provisions. Source : News On AIR ARYABHATTA Category: SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: Half a century has passed since India successfully launched Aryabhata, its first satellite, on April 19, 1975.  Decoding

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) SUNRISE SECTORS Category: ECONOMY Context: Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman said India plans to increase the share of the manufacturing sector from 12% to 23% over the next two decades, aiming to create jobs and drive economic growth. Decoding the context: India is focussing on 14 identified sunrise sectors like semiconductors, renewable energy components, medical devices, batteries and labour intensive industries, including leather and textile, to enhance the share of manufacturing in GDP, she said while speaking at Hoover Institution at Stanford University California. Learning Corner: Sunrise sectors refer to newly emerging industries that show rapid growth potential, driven by technological innovation, increasing consumer demand, policy support, or global trends. These sectors are typically in early stages but are expected to be major contributors to economic growth and employment in the future. Importance in Indian Context: Critical for economic diversification Promote Atmanirbhar Bharat (Self-reliant India) Attract foreign direct investment (FDI) Drive green growth and innovation Enable India’s leadership in global value chains (GVCs) Key Sunrise Sectors (14 Identified by Government) Semiconductors: Chip manufacturing, assembly, and testing (e.g., Tata’s Gujarat, Assam plants). Renewable Energy Components: Solar panels, wind turbines, green hydrogen Medical Devices: Diagnostic equipment, implants, and wearables. Batteries: Lithium-ion, advanced chemistry cells for EVs and energy storage. Labour-Intensive Industries: Textiles, leather, footwear, and apparel. Others: Electronics, electric vehicles (EVs), aerospace, space technology, biotech, agri-tech, drones, and green hydrogen. Source : The Hindu CLOUDBURST Category: GEOGRAPHY Context: Three people were killed and several residential and commercial structures collapsed after a cloudburst led to torrential rain, wind and hail across Ramban tehsil of Jammu and Kashmir. Decoding the context: The extreme weather also led to the closure of the Jammu – Srinagar National Highway (NH-44), the only all-weather road connecting the Kashmir Valley to the rest of the country. Learning Corner: A cloudburst is a sudden and very intense rainfall event over a small geographical area, typically less than 20–30 square kilometers, which can result in flash floods, landslides, and heavy destruction, especially in mountainous and hilly regions. Rainfall intensity: More than 100 mm (10 cm) per hour. Duration: Typically lasts 15 minutes to a few hours. Most common in Himalayan and Western Ghats regions. Scientific Explanation (Causes): Formed when warm moist air rapidly rises, cools and condenses at high altitudes. Sudden release of water due to condensation of large moisture-laden clouds. Often linked with orographic lift – where moist air is forced upwards by mountain slopes. Absence of upper-level winds fails to disperse the cloud mass. Sometimes associated with localized convection and thunderstorm activity. Vulnerable Areas in India: Himalayan Region: Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand North-Eastern Hills: Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh Western Ghats: Kerala, Karnataka during monsoon Impacts: Sudden flash floods and mudslides Loss of life and property Destruction of roads, bridges, and infrastructure Disruption of communication and power supply Can worsen glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) in high-altitude regions Key Points: Cloudbursts are not classified as cyclonic rainfall, but convectional. Forecasting is difficult due to very small area and short duration. IMD uses Doppler Radar to monitor and warn of cloudburst-prone conditions. Often occurs in monsoon season (July–September). Source : Times of India NON-NUCLEAR HYDROGEN BOMB Category: SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: In a significant advancement in weapon technology, China has successfully detonated a new hydrogen-based explosive device. This breakthrough, developed by the China State Shipbuilding Corporation (CSSC), marks a step forward in China’s military capabilities. Decoding the context: Unlike traditional hydrogen bombs, which rely on nuclear fusion, this device uses a chemical reaction involving magnesium hydride. The result is a powerful fireball capable of producing sustained heat, with no nuclear materials involved. Learning Corner: Hydrogen Bomb Definition: A thermonuclear weapon that uses nuclear fusion of hydrogen isotopes (deuterium, tritium) to release massive energy, triggered by a fission-based atomic bomb. Mechanism: Fission (splitting atomic nuclei) initiates fusion (combining hydrogen nuclei), releasing energy far greater than atomic bombs. Key Features: Explosive yield: Megatons (millions of tons of TNT equivalent). Causes widespread destruction via blast, heat, and radioactive fallout. Non-Nuclear Hydrogen Bomb Definition: A novel explosive device using chemical reactions with magnesium hydride (MgH₂) to release hydrogen gas, creating a sustained fireball without nuclear materials. Mechanism: Conventional explosive fractures magnesium hydride into micron-scale particles. Thermal decomposition releases hydrogen gas, which ignites with air, producing a fireball >1,000°C lasting over 2 seconds (15x longer than TNT). Self-sustaining combustion loop enhances thermal damage Source : The Hindu STANDING DEPOSIT FACILITY (SDF) Category: ECONOMY Context: As the banking system liquidity moves into surplus and with limited credit offtake at the start of the financial year 2025-26 (FY26), commercial banks parked ₹4.13 trillion with the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) under the Standing Deposit Facility (SDF).  Decoding the context: This marked the highest amount banks have parked in the SDF since its introduction in April 2022. Learning Corner: The standing deposit facility is a collateral-free liquidity absorption mechanism implemented by the RBI with the intention of transferring liquidity out of the commercial banking sector and into the RBI. It enables the RBI to take liquidity (deposits) from commercial banks without having to compensate them with government securities. Replaces the reverse repo rate as the floor of the Liquidity Adjustment Facility (LAF) corridor. Key Features Purpose: Absorbs excess liquidity from the banking system to control inflation and stabilize money supply. Rate: Set at 25 basis points below the repo rate (e.g., 6.25% if repo is 6.50%). Eligibility: Scheduled commercial banks and small finance banks. Operation: Overnight facility; banks deposit funds at the end of the day. No Collateral: Unlike reverse repo, SDF does not require government securities. Limit: No cap on deposit amount, enhancing flexibility. Significance Strengthens RBI’s monetary policy transmission by efficiently managing liquidity. Reduces dependence on government securities for liquidity absorption. Supports financial stability amid surplus liquidity scenarios. Aligns with global best practices for central bank liquidity management. Source : Business Standard DAVIS STRAIT PROTO MICROCONTINENT Category: GEOGRAPHY Context: Researchers have discovered a previously unknown proto-microcontinent, the Davis Strait Proto Microcontinent, beneath the Davis strait

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) MUZIRIS PORT Category: HISTORY Context: Historian M.G.S. Narayanan who played a pivotal role in shaping the Muziris Heritage Project, passed away recently. Decoding the context: A towering figure in Indian academic history, MGS Narayanan undertook a historical enquiry into Kerala’s historical past and debunked several historical myths. He  was the former chairperson of the Indian Council of Historical Research (ICHR). Learning Corner: Muziris Port is an ancient port on Kerala’s Malabar Coast (near Kodungallur, Thrissur), active from 3rd century BCE to 4th century CE, known as a hub of the historic spice route. Location: North Paravur-Kodungallur-Mathilakam area (Ernakulam-Thrissur border). Trade: Exported spices (black pepper, cinnamon), pearls, ivory, semi-precious stones; imported gold, wine, olive oil from Romans, Greeks, Persians, and Arabs. Cultural Significance: A cosmopolitan center hosting Christianity (St. Thomas, 52 CE), Judaism, Islam (Cheraman Juma Masjid, 629 CE), and Jainism (Tamil-Brahmi script evidence). Decline: Muziris likely declined due to a massive flood in 1341 CE, which altered the course of the Periyar River, leading to the silting up of the port and the rise of Cochin (Kochi) as a new harbor. Muziris Heritage Project (MHP): Launched in 2009 by Kerala Tourism to conserve 3,000-year-old heritage across 150 sq km. Includes 25+ museums, restored monuments (Paliam Palace, Paravur Synagogue, Cheraman Juma Masjid), and Pattanam excavations. Important Contemporary Ports in India (3rd Century BCE–4th Century CE) Tamralipti (Tamluk, West Bengal): Major eastern port under Mauryas, Guptas; linked to Southeast Asia, China. Traded rice, textiles, spices; mentioned in Buddhist texts (Jatakas). Connected to Ganga River trade routes. Bharukaccha (Bharuch, Gujarat): Western port under Satavahanas, Western Kshatrapas; traded with Rome, Persia. Exported cotton, agate, beads; imported wine, metals. Arikamedu (Puducherry): Southern port near Chola capital; active 2nd century BCE–2nd century CE. Traded beads, pottery, textiles with Romans (evidenced by Roman ceramics). Archaeological finds confirm Mediterranean trade links. Poompuhar (Kaveripattinam, Tamil Nadu): Chola dynasty’s primary port; mentioned in Sangam literature (Silappathikaram). Traded pearls, spices, silk with Southeast Asia, Rome. Source : The Hindu RABIES Category: SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: The number of rabies deaths has been increasing in Kerala reportedly at an alarming rate over the past four-five years.  Decoding the context: According to the Health department, in 2021, the number of deaths was 11. There were 15 deaths in 2022, 17 in 2023, and 22 in 2024. This year, there has been 12 deaths so far. Learning Corner: Rabies is a  viral zoonotic disease caused by the rabies virus (genus Lyssavirus), affecting the central nervous system. Transmitted primarily through bites or scratches from infected animals (e.g., dogs, bats, cats). Fatal once clinical symptoms appear; 100% preventable with timely vaccination. Causes and Transmission Primary Source: Dog bites (99% of cases globally); other sources include bats, wild cats, mongooses. Mechanism: Rabies spreads to people and animals via saliva, usually through bites, scratches, or direct contact with mucosa (e.g. eyes, mouth, or open wounds). Once clinical symptoms appear, rabies is virtually 100% fatal. Incubation Period: 2 weeks to 6 years (average 1-3 months), depending on bite location and severity. Symptoms Early: Fever, headache, itching at bite site. Advanced: Hydrophobia, agitation, paralysis, coma; death within days due to respiratory failure. Prevention and Control Rabies is almost entirely preventable with timely post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP), which involves washing wounds with soap and water, administering anti-rabies vaccine (ARV), and in high-risk exposures, using rabies immunoglobulin (RIG).  Animal Control: Animal Birth Control (ABC) program, vaccination of stray dogs, public awareness. Challenges: Vaccine shortages, delayed treatment, inadequate wound care, rising stray dog population. Source : The Hindu ALFALFA Category: ENVIRONMENT Context: With the US pushing India to reduce import duty on alfalfa (lucerne) fodder seed, the government is preparing the ground for restricting the genetically modified (GM) version of the crop from entering the country.  Decoding the context: The Americans grow both GM and non-GM varieties of alfalfa, which derives its name from the Arabic world al-fasfasa that means the best forage. Learning Corner: Alfalfa, also known as Lucerne, is a perennial flowering legume. Native to South-Central Asia, now cultivated globally. Known for its high nutritional value and soil-enriching properties. Agricultural Importance: Used primarily as fodder crop for livestock (rich in protein, vitamins, and minerals). Can be harvested multiple times a year due to rapid regrowth. Cultivated in temperate and subtropical regions, including parts of Punjab, Haryana, and Maharashtra in India. Environmental & Ecological Role: Nitrogen-fixing plant (symbiotic relationship with Rhizobium bacteria). Improves soil fertility and reduces dependence on synthetic fertilizers. Helps in crop rotation and sustainable agriculture. Deep roots reduce soil erosion and improve water infiltration. Climate & Soil: Prefers well-drained loamy soils, neutral to slightly alkaline pH. Requires cool temperatures for germination and warm conditions for growth. Needs moderate irrigation – drought-tolerant once established. Fodder Use: High crude protein (15–20%) and digestibility. Used in dairy and meat industries for feeding cattle, sheep, goats, and horses. Nutritional/Health Use (Human Consumption – Limited): Young alfalfa sprouts are consumed in salads. Known for antioxidant, cholesterol-lowering, and anti-inflammatory properties. Used in Ayurveda and herbal medicine. Source : Hindu Businessline AGENTIC AI Category: SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: India is grappling with a critical shortage of agentic AI professionals as demand surges. Decoding the context: The current talent pool of under 100,000 is struggling to meet the projected need of 200,000 by 2026, leading to soaring salaries and intense competition among GCCs, IT firms and startups. Learning Corner: Agentic AI refers to artificial intelligence systems that can autonomously plan, make decisions, and take actions to achieve goals without step-by-step human instructions. These systems act as “agents” – they exhibit initiative, autonomy, and goal-directed behavior. Key Features: Autonomy: Can operate independently of direct human control. Proactivity: Not just reactive; initiates actions to meet objectives. Planning & Reasoning: Can break down complex tasks, plan steps, and revise plans dynamically. Memory and Learning: Retains past experience to improve future decisions. Interaction: May collaborate with humans or other AI agents (multi-agent systems). Examples: AI Personal Assistants that manage schedules, book tickets, and handle emails autonomously. Robotic agents performing

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) THE CASTE CENSUS Category: POLITY Context: The government has decided to hold a caste census along with the upcoming Census. Decoding the context: The 2021 Census was delayed by the Covid-19 pandemic, and has been on hold ever since. The exercise is understood to be imminent, but there are no dates for it as yet Learning Corner: The data collected in Censuses since 1951 include the numbers of individuals belonging to the Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs), and of various religious denominations. But the members of caste groups other than SCs and STs have not been counted. The most recent caste data available is from the Census of 1931. The 1941 Census, carried out during the War, collected data on caste, but they were never released. Ahead of the first Census of independent India, the government chose to avoid the question of caste. Thereafter, demands for a caste census were repeatedly raised, especially by parties who had a base among Other Backward Classes (OBCs), primarily farming communities and artisans. But no Indian government ever carried out a full count of caste memberships. From Census to SECC In 2010, Law Minister M. Veerappa Moily proposed including caste/community data in Census 2011. The Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India (RGI) rejected the proposal citing logistical difficulties. Objections Raised: Census involves enumeration (observational, non-verification based). Enumerators (mainly school teachers) are not trained to verify caste claims. Difficulties in accuracy, analysis, and data verification. Political Response: Due to pressure from UPA allies (e.g., RJD, DMK, JDU) and OBC MPs, a Group of Ministers (GoM) was formed under Finance Minister Pranab Mukherjee. Decision – In September 2010, the Union Cabinet approved a separate exercise: Socio-Economic and Caste Census (SECC) to be conducted after Census 2011. Timeline: SECC conducted: June–September 2011 Population enumeration (Census): February–March 2011 The data were published by the Ministries of Rural Development and Urban Development in 2016, but the caste data were excluded. The raw caste data was handed over to the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, which formed an Expert Group under then NITI Aayog Vice Chairperson Arvind Panagariya for classification and categorisation. The data are yet to be made public. Recent developments Of late, several state governments have sought to implement “quota within quota” by subcategorising OBCs based on their own caste censuses, calling them “surveys” because the Census is technically part of the constitutional mandate of the Centre. Earlier, on April 1, 2021, the constitutional body National Commission for Backward Classes had urged the government to collect data on the population of OBCs “as part of Census of India 2021 exercise”. Source : Indian Express BRAIN-COMPUTER INTERFACE Category: SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Category: SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: Researchers at the University of California, San Francisco (UCSF) have achieved a significant breakthrough in assistive technology for individuals with paralysis. Decoding the context:  They have developed a brain-computer interface (BCI) that allows a paralysed man to control a robotic arm simply by imagining the movements he wishes to execute. Learning Corner: A Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) is a technology that enables direct communication between the human brain and an external device (such as a computer or prosthetic limb), bypassing traditional neural pathways. How It Works: Neural signals (electrical activity in the brain) are detected using electrodes or implants. Signals are decoded using algorithms and converted into commands. These commands control external devices or software (e.g., moving a robotic arm, cursor movement). Types of BCI: Invasive: Electrodes implanted directly into the brain (e.g., Neuralink). Semi-invasive: Electrodes placed on the surface of the brain. Non-invasive: EEG (Electroencephalography) caps worn on the scalp. Applications: Medical: Restoring mobility in paralysis, aiding speech in locked-in syndrome. Military: Human-enhancement and drone control. Neuroprosthetics: Controlling robotic limbs, exoskeletons. Gaming & Communication: Mind-controlled interfaces. Source : The Hindu STOCKHOLM CONVENTION ON PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS Category: ENVIRONMENT Context: India has reportedly opposed the inclusion of a hazardous insecticide under the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, an international environmental treaty to protect human health and the environment. Decoding the context: The insecticide, Chlorpyrifos, is a chemical linked to adverse effects on neurodevelopment, reduced birth size, lung and prostate cancer upon chronic exposure. Chlorpyrifos has been registered in India under the Insecticides Act since 1977. In 2016-17, chlorpyrifos was the most frequently used pesticide in India, accounting for 9.4 per cent of the total insecticide consumption, according to a report by the International Pollutants Elimination Network (IPEN). Learning Corner: An international environmental treaty adopted in 2001, entered into force in 2004. Aims to eliminate or restrict the production and use of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) — toxic chemicals that persist, bioaccumulate, and cause adverse effects to human health and the environment. Objectives: Protect human health and the environment from harmful POPs. Eliminate or restrict production and use of intentionally produced POPs. Reduce or eliminate releases from unintentional production. Ensure safe disposal and handling of POP waste. POPs are toxic chemical substances that: Persist in the environment for long periods. Bioaccumulate through the food web. POPs are lipophilic, which means that they accumulate in the fatty tissue of living animals and human beings. Travel long distances via air and water. Cause serious health issues — cancers, birth defects, immune & reproductive disorders. Key Provisions: The Stockholm Convention lists chemicals in three annexes: Annex A lists chemicals to be eliminated; Annex B lists chemicals to be restricted; and Annex C calls for minimizing unintentional production and release of listed chemicals. Governance: Overseen by the Conference of the Parties (COP), with the Persistent Organic Pollutants Review Committee (POPRC) assessing new chemicals. The list is updated regularly (now includes 30+ chemicals). Parties must develop National Implementation Plans (NIPs). India and the Convention: India ratified the Convention in 2006. In 2022, India banned the use of several additional POPs under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. National Centre for Sustainable Coastal Management (NCSCM) and Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) are involved in implementation. Additional information –  The “Dirty Dozen” refers to the initial 12 persistent

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) THE CASTE CENSUS Category: POLITY Context: Under the Swachh Bharat Mission-Urban, Ghaziabad has taken a landmark step by successfully issuing India’s first Certified Green Municipal Bond, raising ₹150 crore for the development of a cutting-edge Tertiary Sewage Treatment Plant (TSTP). Decoding the context: The Green Municipal Bond marked a new chapter in India’s financial landscape, providing a sustainable model for funding urban infrastructure. Learning Corner: Green Municipal Bonds (GMBs) are debt instruments issued by urban local bodies (ULBs) to fund environmentally sustainable and climate-resilient infrastructure projects (e.g., water treatment, renewable energy, waste management). Regulatory Framework: Regulated under SEBI (Issue and Listing of Municipal Debt Securities) Regulations, 2015. Issuers must: Have no negative net worth in the past 3 financial years Have no default in loan repayments in the past year Obtain project-specific third-party green certification (e.g., from Climate Bonds Initiative, CARE Ratings) India’s First Certified Green Municipal Bond Issuer: Ghaziabad Nagar Nigam (GNN), under Swachh Bharat Mission-Urban (SBM-U). Certified By: Climate Bonds Initiative (CBI) Details: Issued in 2021, raised ₹150 crore at 8.1% coupon rate; listed on BSE bond platform. Purpose: Funded a Tertiary Sewage Treatment Plant (TSTP) with 40 MLD capacity, serving 1,400+ industrial units via a 95 km pipeline network. Financial Model: Public-Private Hybrid Annuity Model (PPP-HAM), with 40% municipal funding. Impact: Supplies 9.5 MLD treated water to 800+ firms. Significance: First certified GMB in India; demonstrates financial discipline, supports SBM-U’s goal of garbage-free cities by 2026. Source : PIB GREEN HYDROGEN Category: ENVIRONMENT Context: The government launched a green hydrogen certification scheme for producers. Decoding the context:  Renewable energy minister Pralhad Joshi said the scheme is a step towards creating a framework for certifying green hydrogen production and ensuring transparency, traceability and market credibility. Learning Corner: Green hydrogen is a carbon-free fuel produced via electrolysis, splitting water into hydrogen and oxygen using electricity from renewable sources (e.g., solar, wind). Significance: Decarbonization: Reduces CO₂ emissions in industries like steel, transport, and fertilizers; India aims for 5 MMT annual production by 2030 (National Green Hydrogen Mission, NGHM). Energy Security: Cuts fossil fuel imports (₹1 lakh crore savings projected by 2030). Economic Growth: NGHM targets ₹8 lakh crore investments, 6 lakh jobs by 2030. Green Hydrogen Certification Scheme (GHCS) Objective: Establishes a framework to certify green hydrogen production, ensuring transparency, traceability, and market credibility. Scope of Certification Covers: Production stages up to compression and purification of hydrogen. Excludes: Transportation, storage beyond plant boundaries, and conversion into derivatives like green ammonia Key Features: Applies to: Green hydrogen producers availing government incentives under the National Green Hydrogen Mission (NGHM). Excludes: Exporters not utilizing government incentives. Hydrogen is “green” if emissions are ≤2 kg CO₂e/kg (12-month average). Nodal Agency: Bureau of Energy Efficiency accredits certifying agencies. Type of Hydrogen Production Method Environmental Impact Green Hydrogen Electrolysis of water using renewable energy (solar, wind) Zero-emission Grey Hydrogen Produced from natural gas or methane via steam methane reforming (SMR) High CO₂ emissions Blue Hydrogen Same as grey, but with carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology Lower emissions, but not zero Brown/Black Hydrogen From coal or lignite gasification Most polluting Pink Hydrogen Electrolysis powered by nuclear energy Low carbon (depends on nuclear source) Turquoise Hydrogen Produced via methane pyrolysis (splits CH₄ into H₂ and solid carbon) Still under development; cleaner but technology is nascent Yellow Hydrogen Electrolysis using grid electricity (mixed source, not fully renewable) Emissions depend on the grid mix White Hydrogen Naturally occurring geological hydrogen (rare and not commercially viable yet) Potential future source   Source : Economic Times ZOJILA PASS Category: GEOGRAPHY Context: With the early opening of the Zojila Pass, the Siachen base camp is now open to tourists. Decoding the context: visitors will no longer need prior authorisation or a no-objection certificate (NOC) to access the base camp. Learning Corner:. Zojila Pass (also Zoji La) is a high-altitude mountain pass in the Himalayas, located in Kargil district, Ladakh, at 3,528 meters (11,575 ft) above sea level. Connects Kashmir Valley (Srinagar) with Drass and Indus valleys (Leh) via National Highway 1; second-highest pass after Fotu La on this route. Lies on the western section of the Greater Himalayas. Strategic lifeline for Ladakh, supporting military logistics and civilian connectivity.Vital for troop deployment to Siachen and eastern Ladakh. Challenges: Heavy snowfall closes the pass for 4-6 months annually (typically November-April); avalanches, landslides, and extreme weather (-30°C) pose risks. The Zojila Tunnel Project is under construction to provide all-weather connectivity: Will be Asia’s longest bi-directional tunnel (14.2 km). Aims to reduce travel time between Sonamarg and Drass from 3.5 hours to just 15 minutes. Source : Economic Times ORANGE ECONOMY Category: ECONOMY Context: Prime Minister Modi inaugurated the World Audio Visual and Entertainment Summit (WAVES) 2025 at the Jio World Convention Centre in Mumbai, calling it a transformative platform that unites creators, storytellers, innovators, and policymakers from around the world. Decoding the context: The current era marks the sunrise era of the ‘Orange economy’ in India, the Prime Minister said adding that the three pillars of the Orange economy are content, creativity and culture. Learning Corner: The Orange Economy, also known as the Creative Economy, refers to the sector of the economy that involves creative industries that generate economic value through creativity, cultural knowledge, and intellectual property. Key Components: Arts (performing and visual) Music and film industry Publishing and media Design, fashion Architecture Cultural heritage and tourism Software, video games, and digital content Significance: Job Creation: Offers large-scale employment, especially for youth. Innovation: Encourages entrepreneurship and innovation. Cultural Preservation: Promotes national identity and cultural diversity. Sustainability: Less resource-intensive compared to traditional industries. Gender Inclusion: High participation of women in many creative sectors. India’s Context (2025) Economic Contribution: Contributes $30 billion to India’s GDP, employing 8% of the workforce; creative exports at $11 billion annually. Global Reach: Indian films screened in 100+ countries; OTT industry grew 10x in recent years (PM Modi, WAVES 2025). WAVES 2025 Summit: Held in Mumbai (May 1-4, 2025), hosted 10,000 delegates from 90+ countries. PM

Archives (PRELIMS Focus) Insolvency Bankruptcy Code (IBC) Category: ECONOMICS Context: The recent developments in the Bhushan Power and Steel Ltd. case have reignited concerns around the finality of resolution outcomes and the predictability of the framework. Learning Corner: Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code (IBC), 2016  The Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code (IBC), 2016 is India’s landmark legislation aimed at consolidating and streamlining the insolvency resolution process for individuals, companies, and partnership firms in a time-bound manner. Objectives: To ensure time-bound resolution of insolvency and bankruptcy cases (within 330 days). To maximize the value of assets of insolvent persons. To promote entrepreneurship and availability of credit. To balance the interests of all stakeholders, including creditors, debtors, and employees. To improve India’s ease of doing business ranking and promote credit discipline. Key Features: Single framework for insolvency and bankruptcy covering individuals, companies, and LLPs. Establishes institutional mechanisms such as: Insolvency and Bankruptcy Board of India (IBBI) – regulatory body National Company Law Tribunal (NCLT) – adjudicating authority for corporates Debt Recovery Tribunal (DRT) – for individuals and partnership firms Resolution Professionals (RPs) – manage the resolution process Creditors can initiate the process on default of ₹1 crore or more (earlier ₹1 lakh). Control of the defaulting firm is transferred from management to creditors via Committee of Creditors (CoC). Achievements: Helped reduce non-performing assets (NPAs) – e.g., NPA ratio declined from 11.2% (2018) to 2.8% (2024). Promoted credit discipline among borrowers. Recovered over ₹3.89 lakh crore by 2024. Enhanced investor confidence and improved business ecosystem.   Challenges: Delays in resolution beyond 330 days due to judicial backlog. Low recovery rates in recent years (around 28.6%). Inadequate infrastructure, valuation disputes, and multiple legal appeals. Lack of clear treatment for operational creditors and complex business models. Conclusion: The IBC is a transformative reform in India’s economic governance. While it has improved resolution efficiency and credit discipline, its effectiveness depends on judicial efficiency, legal clarity, and institutional capacity building. Source : THE HINDU Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) reduces repo rate Category: ECONOMICS Context The Reserve Bank of India (RBI), in its June 2025 Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) meeting, announced two major steps to support economic growth and liquidity Decoding Context: Repo Rate Cut: The RBI reduced the repo rate by 50 basis points (bps) to 5.5%, marking a cumulative reduction of 100 bps in recent months. This move is expected to lower borrowing costs across the economy, benefiting both retail and corporate borrowers through reduced loan EMIs and cheaper credit. CRR Reduction: The RBI also decided to cut the Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR) by 100 bps, from 4% to 3%, in four quarterly tranches starting September 2025. This phased reduction is projected to inject approximately ₹2.5 lakh crore of liquidity into the banking system, enabling banks to lend more and further easing interest rates for consumers and businesses. These steps are aimed at boosting credit growth, encouraging spending, and supporting India’s GDP, which is projected at 6.5% for FY26. The inflation outlook for the year has also been revised downward to 3.7%. The RBI’s policy stance has shifted from ‘accommodative’ to ‘neutral’, providing flexibility for future monetary actions. Learning Corner: Bank Rates & Monetary Policy Tools – Quick Comparison Table Type of Rate Definition Duration Collateral Key Purpose/Usage Important Notes Bank Rate Rate at which RBI lends long-term funds to banks Long-term No Signals monetary policy stance Higher bank rate → costlier loans → reduced liquidity Repo Rate Rate at which RBI lends short-term funds to banks against securities Short-term Government Securities Main tool to control inflation & liquidity Lower repo → cheaper loans → more investment & consumption Reverse Repo Rate Rate at which RBI borrows from banks using securities Short-term Government Securities Used to absorb excess liquidity Higher rate → banks park funds with RBI → reduced lending Marginal Standing Facility (MSF) Rate for emergency overnight borrowing from RBI Overnight Government Securities For banks exceeding normal borrowing limits MSF > Repo (by 25 bps) – emergency window Standing Deposit Facility (SDF) Facility to absorb excess liquidity without collateral Variable No Primary tool for liquidity absorption (since 2022) Replaced Reverse Repo for liquidity control Call Money Rate Rate of 1-day borrowing/lending in the interbank market Intraday / Overnight No Indicates short-term liquidity conditions Market-determined, highly volatile Monetary Policy Committee (MPC)  What is MPC? The Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) is a statutory and institutional body constituted by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) to determine the policy interest rate (repo rate) required to achieve the inflation target set by the Government of India. Background Constituted under the RBI Act, 1934 (Amended in 2016). Introduced as part of the monetary policy framework agreement between the RBI and Government of India in 2015. Objectives Maintain price stability (control inflation). Support economic growth. Ensure transparency and accountability in monetary policy decisions. Composition of MPC Total 6 members: Members Appointed By RBI Governor (Chairperson ex-officio) RBI RBI Deputy Governor (in charge of MPC) RBI One RBI official nominated by Central Board RBI 3 external members Appointed by Government of India The Governor has a casting vote in case of a tie. Members have a term of 4 years, not eligible for reappointment. Functions of MPC Sets the repo rate (key policy rate). Reviews monetary policy bi-monthly (every two months). Publishes Monetary Policy Statements. Aims to keep CPI inflation at 4% (+/- 2%) as per the inflation targeting framework. Significance Brings objectivity and independence to monetary policy. Helps in containing headline inflation. Balances growth and inflation trade-off through informed decision-making. Source :  THE HINDU G7 (Group of Seven) Category: INTERNATIONAL Context : Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi has accepted an invitation from Canadian Prime Minister Mark Carney to attend the G7 Summit in Kananaskis, Alberta. Decoding Context This development comes amid previously strained India-Canada relations following the 2023 controversy involving the killing of Sikh activist Hardeep Singh Nijjar. In a phone call on June 6, the two leaders discussed the longstanding bilateral relationship, underlining strong people-to-people ties and significant commercial linkages. Both

Archives (PRELIMS Focus) Satellite based Internet Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Context: Elon Musk’s Starlink has officially received a key licence from India’s Department of Telecommunications to offer satellite internet services in the country. Decoding Context:  This licensing clears a major regulatory hurdle and brings Starlink closer to launching commercial operations in India. Starlink is now the third company to secure a Global Mobile Personal Communication by Satellite (GMPCS) licence in India, following Eutelsat’s OneWeb and Reliance Jio The government has opted for administrative allocation of spectrum for satellite communication, supporting Starlink’s stance over the auction-based approach favored by some Indian telecom operators like Jio. This decision is based on the technical challenges of auctioning shared satellite spectrum. Once spectrum is allocated, Starlink will be able to begin commercial roll-out. The service is expected to significantly expand internet access, particularly in remote and underserved regions where traditional infrastructure is difficult to deploy.  Learning Corner: Starlink: A Brief Note Starlink is a satellite internet constellation project developed by SpaceX, the aerospace company founded by Elon Musk. Its primary goal is to provide high-speed, low-latency internet access across the globe, especially in remote and underserved areas where traditional broadband infrastructure is limited or unavailable. Launched in 2019, Starlink operates by deploying thousands of low Earth orbit (LEO) satellites, which communicate with user terminals (dishes) on the ground. As of 2025, it has become one of the largest satellite networks in the world. Starlink has now received approval to operate in India, marking a major step in expanding internet connectivity in rural regions. It competes with other global satellite internet providers like OneWeb and Amazon’s Project Kuiper. Comparison between Administrative Allocation of Spectrum and Auctioning of Spectrum: Feature Administrative Allocation Auctioning of Spectrum Definition Government directly assigns spectrum to an entity Spectrum is sold through a competitive bidding process Process Non-competitive; based on application and policy Competitive; bidders offer prices for spectrum blocks Purpose Used for public interest, strategic or technical reasons To generate revenue and promote market competition Cost to Operator Often lower or nominal charges Market-driven; can be expensive Suitability Ideal for satellite communications, defence, or research Common for mobile telecom (4G/5G services) Spectrum Sharing Facilitates easier coordination and sharing Difficult to manage shared use post-auction India’s Recent Preference Chosen for satellite communication like Starlink Still used for terrestrial telecom operators like Jio and Airtel Summary: Administrative Allocation is preferred for services like satellite internet, where spectrum is shared globally and auctioning is technically unfeasible. Auctioning is suited for mobile services, where exclusive spectrum rights are required and revenue generation is a priority. Source : THE HINDU Stratospheric Aerosol Injection Category: ENVIRONMENT Context A new study has made the controversial idea of stratospheric aerosol injection (SAI)—a form of solar geoengineering—more realistic by proposing innovative methods to reduce its costs and technical barriers Decoding Context: SAI involves injecting tiny reflective particles, inspired by volcanic eruptions, into the earth’s stratosphere at around 20 km altitude to reflect sunlight and cool the planet. While this could help reduce the impacts of climate change, the approach is contentious because its effects would be global, with potential risks and side effects for all countries. Key Points from the Study: Mechanism: SAI aims to cool the planet by spraying aerosols into the stratosphere, mimicking the cooling effect observed after major volcanic eruptions. Technical Advances: The research explores how the type of material used, the timing, and the location of injections impact effectiveness and cost. Technical challenges are greater at higher altitudes but can be addressed by optimizing these factors. Scale: The study found that 12 million tonnes of sulfur aerosols over six years at an altitude of 13 km could produce the desired cooling effect. This is comparable to the amount released by the 1991 Mount Pinatubo eruption. Risks and Challenges: SAI does not require new aircraft, but modifying existing planes is technically challenging. There are concerns about side effects, such as delayed recovery of the ozone layer, changes in rainfall, and geopolitical issues. Some effects, like regional droughts or altered weather patterns, could be severe. Global Impact: Since SAI would affect the entire planet, any country’s actions would have worldwide consequences, not always beneficial for all regions. Conclusion: The study brings SAI closer to practical implementation by addressing cost and technical hurdles, but significant scientific, ethical, and governance challenges remain. The debate continues as researchers weigh the potential benefits against the risks of large-scale climate intervention. Learning Corner: Artificial Weather-Tweaking Ideas Artificial weather-tweaking, or weather modification, refers to deliberate human interventions in natural weather processes to alter climatic conditions. These ideas aim to mitigate climate change, enhance rainfall, or prevent extreme weather events. Major Techniques: Cloud Seeding: Spraying chemicals like silver iodide or salt into clouds to induce rainfall. Stratospheric Aerosol Injection (SAI): Injecting reflective particles into the stratosphere to reflect sunlight and cool the Earth. Marine Cloud Brightening: Spraying sea salt into marine clouds to make them more reflective and enhance their cooling effect. Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS): Though not weather modification directly, CCS removes CO₂ to influence long-term climate. Space-Based Reflectors: Placing mirrors or shields in orbit to reflect a portion of incoming solar radiation. Concerns: Unpredictable Side Effects: May lead to regional droughts, altered monsoons, or ozone depletion. Ethical & Geopolitical Issues: Global consequences from local actions could lead to conflicts or disputes. Governance Vacuum: Lack of international laws or consensus on who controls such powerful technologies. Source :  THE HINDU MagIC Microscopy Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Context : MagIC Microscopy (Magnetic Isolation and Concentration cryo-electron microscopy) is a cutting-edge advancement in the field of structural biology, particularly in cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) Decoding Context Cryo-EM is a powerful imaging technique used to visualize biomolecules like proteins, viruses, and complexes at near-atomic resolution by flash-freezing samples and imaging them with an electron beam. Challenges Addressed: Traditional cryo-EM requires relatively high concentrations of biological samples to obtain clear images. This requirement poses a major limitation when studying rare or difficult-to-purify molecules, which are often

Archives (PRELIMS Focus) India’s Progress in Food Safety Standards Category: POLITY Context: India has transformed its food safety system from adulteration control to a science-based, consumer-focused framework under the FSSAI, established by the 2006 Act. Decoding Context:  Key Reforms Risk-Based Regulation: Standards now align with global benchmarks, with defined limits for residues and additives. Scientific Strengthening: India is conducting Total Diet Studies to reflect local diets and exposures. Global Harmonization: Regulations increasingly match international norms. Institutional Initiatives Digital Oversight: Platforms like FoSCoS manage licensing and compliance. Training & Certification: Programs like FoSTaC enhance industry standards. Public Campaigns: Initiatives like Eat Right India and SNF promote healthy diets. Sustainability Focus: Jaivik Bharat, RUCO, and food waste reduction tackle broader health and environmental goals. Challenges Data Gaps: Need for India-specific studies. Poor Risk Communication: Technical language limits public understanding. Trust Deficit: More transparency and engagement needed. Learning Corner: Brief Note on Food Safety Initiatives by FSSAI The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) is the apex body responsible for regulating and supervising food safety in India. It adopts a multi-dimensional approach to ensure the availability of safe and nutritious food through the following key initiatives: Eat Right India Movement A flagship initiative aimed at transforming the country’s food system. It promotes: Safe, healthy, and sustainable food Reduction in salt, sugar, and trans fats Awareness on food labeling and fortification FoSTaC (Food Safety Training and Certification) Provides structured training to food handlers and supervisors across the food value chain Mandatory for licensed food businesses to have at least one certified supervisor FoSCoS (Food Safety Compliance System) A digital platform for licensing, registration, and compliance monitoring of food businesses Replaced the earlier FLRS (Food Licensing and Registration System) RUCO (Repurpose Used Cooking Oil) Promotes safe disposal and repurposing of used cooking oil into biodiesel Addresses health and environmental hazards of reusing oil Jaivik Bharat Certifies and promotes organic food products Helps consumers identify authentic organic food through the Jaivik Bharat logo Clean Street Food Hub and Eat Right Campus Targets hygiene and safety improvements in specific environments: Street Food Hubs: Upgrades clusters of street food vendors Campuses: Encourages institutions to serve safe and healthy food Safe and Nutritious Food (SNF) Campaign Spreads food safety awareness in homes, schools, and workplaces Encourages safe food practices and dietary diversity Save Food, Share Food Focuses on minimizing food wastage Encourages redistribution of excess food to those in need Source : THE HINDU Axiom Mission 4 (Ax-4) Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Context The launch, initially scheduled for June 10, 2025, was postponed due to poor weather. The revised launch time is June 11 at 8:00 a.m. EDT (5:30 p.m. IST). Decoding Context: Axiom Mission 4 (Ax-4): Overview Axiom Mission 4 (Ax-4) is a private astronaut mission to the International Space Station (ISS), organized by Axiom Space in collaboration with NASA and SpaceX. The mission will launch aboard a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket from Kennedy Space Center, Florida. Crew Composition Commander: Peggy Whitson (former NASA astronaut) Pilot: Shubhanshu Shukla (India, ISRO) Mission Specialists: Sławosz Uznański-Wiśniewski (Poland, ESA) and Tibor Kapu (Hungary) This marks the first ISS mission involving astronauts from India, Poland, and Hungary, and their return to government-sponsored spaceflight after four decades. Mission Goals Duration: ~14 days Over 60 experiments in areas like human research, biology, materials science, and Earth observation Promotes international cooperation and advances microgravity research Viewing Options Live coverage of the launch, docking, and ISS arrival will be available via NASA, SpaceX, and Axiom Space platforms. Docking is expected at 12:30 p.m. EDT (10:00 p.m. IST) on June 11. Source: THE HINDU Drones in Modern Warfare Category: INTERNATIONAL Context The significance of drones have increased during Russia-Ukraine war Decoding Context: Decisive Role: By 2025, drones are responsible for 60–70% of damage to Russian military equipment, becoming a dominant tool in battlefield operations. Mass Production: Ukraine produces around 200,000 First Person View (FPV) drones monthly. These affordable ($200–$400) drones are highly effective against costly Russian tanks and systems. Advanced Capabilities: Ukrainian drones now serve multiple roles—bombing, reconnaissance, relay, and AI-enabled targeting—demonstrating high adaptability. Strategic Innovation: Ukraine’s GOGOL-M “mothership” drone can autonomously deploy two FPV drones over 300 km, targeting critical assets deep in Russian territory. Russian Response: Russia has developed drones like the Tyuvik (resistant to jamming) and fiber-optic models, though they face issues with AI autonomy, as seen in Lancet-3 glitches. Drone Boats: Ukraine introduced armed naval drones like the Magura V7, reportedly used to shoot down Russian aircraft—an unprecedented feat in maritime drone warfare. Tactical Evolution: Ukraine employs “drone walls” along front lines to disrupt enemy troops and conducts long-range strikes against airfields and military hubs. Global Impact: The Ukraine conflict has reshaped global military doctrine, with countries like Taiwan, Israel, and NATO members now prioritizing drone and counter-drone strategies. Learning Corner: First Person View (FPV) Drones – Ukraine Type: Low-cost, manually piloted attack drones. Cost: Approx. $200–$400 per unit. Roles: Reconnaissance Precision strike (kamikaze mode) Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (ISR) Relay and jamming missions AI-enabled variants under development Impact: Account for 60–70% of the damage to Russian assets by early 2025. Significance: Mass-produced (approx. 200,000/month); extremely effective against high-value Russian targets like tanks. GOGOL-M “Mothership” Drone – Ukraine Type: Advanced autonomous drone platform. Capabilities: Can carry and launch two FPV drones Autonomous target identification, tracking, and strike Range: Up to 300 km Targets: Deep strike against aircraft, fuel depots, infrastructure Innovation: Combines AI with long-range precision warfare; still undergoing battlefield testing. Magura V7 Naval Drone – Ukraine Type: Unmanned surface vessel (USV). Unique Feature: Reportedly the first naval drone to shoot down a fighter jet using surface-to-air missiles. Capabilities: Autonomous navigation Carries missile payloads Long-range maritime operations Impact: Expands drone warfare to sea-to-air combat, a new domain in drone deployment. Tyuvik Light Attack Drone – Russia Type: Compact attack drone. Key Features: Autopilot and target-homing system Designed to withstand electronic warfare (EW) High maneuverability in contested zones Use Case: Deployed as an answer to Ukraine’s FPV threat. Fiber-Optic Drones –

Archives (PRELIMS Focus) UNFPA Report Category: INTERNATIONAL Context: India’s population has touched 1.4639 billion (146.39 crore) in 2025, officially making it the most populous country in the world Decoding Context:  According to the UNFPA State of World Population Report 2025, this figure marks a major demographic milestone with long-term implications. Key Highlights: Population (2025): 1.4639 billion Fertility Rate: 1.9 births per woman (below replacement level of 2.1) Life Expectancy: 71 years (men), 74 years (women) Age Distribution: 0–14 years: 24% 10–19 years: 17% 10–24 years: 26% 15–64 years (working age): 68% 65+ years: 7% Population Peak: Expected around 1.7 billion in the early 2060s, after which it will gradually decline. Demographic Dividend: With 68% in the working-age group, India has a key economic opportunity if employment and skilling are addressed effectively. Fertility & Reproductive Trends: Fertility rate has dropped from nearly 6 children per woman in the 1960s to 1.9 in 2025. Decline driven by improved education, access to healthcare, and women’s empowerment. However, 36% of adults still experience unintended pregnancies, and 30% report unmet reproductive desires, indicating inequality in access and reproductive autonomy across regions. Policy Focus: The report urges a shift from population control to reproductive rights. The true demographic dividend can only be realized by empowering individuals with informed reproductive choices, and ensuring access to quality healthcare, education, and job opportunities. Conclusion: India stands at a pivotal moment in its demographic journey. While falling fertility rates and better life expectancy are positive signs, realizing the benefits of this transition depends on inclusive policies, reproductive agency, and economic empowerment of the working-age population. Learning Corner: Decadal Census in India – Brief Note Definition: The Census of India is a decennial (once every 10 years) exercise conducted to collect comprehensive demographic, socio-economic, and housing data of the country’s population. It is the largest administrative and statistical exercise in the world. Historical Background: The first synchronous census was conducted in 1881 under British rule. Since then, it has been carried out every 10 years without fail, even during wars, pandemics, or emergencies. The Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India, under the Ministry of Home Affairs, is responsible for conducting the census. Key Features: Conducted in two phases: House-listing & Housing Census Population Enumeration Involves lakhs of enumerators, mainly government school teachers and other staff. Census 2011 was the 15th National Census since 1881. Census 2021 (Postponed): Census 2021 was to be the 16th decadal census. It has been postponed indefinitely due to the COVID-19 pandemic and administrative reasons. This is the first time since 1881 that a decadal census has been delayed. Importance of the Census: Provides data for planning, policy-making, and allocation of resources. Essential for delimitation of constituencies, reservation of seats, and distribution of funds to states. Helps track migration trends, literacy levels, employment, housing conditions, and access to basic amenities. Challenges: Digital transition: Census 2021 was to be the first digital census, using mobile apps for data collection. Political sensitivity over caste-based enumeration (demand for caste census). Urban-rural coverage, underreporting, and data accuracy remain persistent concerns. Conclusion: The decadal census remains a cornerstone of India’s governance and development planning. With growing demands for more granular socio-economic data (e.g., caste census), its scope and complexity are increasing, making its timely and transparent execution more critical than ever. Source : THE HINDU KATRIN Experiment Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Context The Karlsruhe Tritium Neutrino (KATRIN) experiment in Germany has set a new world record for the smallest upper limit on the mass of the electron neutrino Decoding Context: How It Works: KATRIN measures the energy of electrons emitted during the beta decay of tritium. By analyzing the endpoint of the energy spectrum, it infers the neutrino mass. The setup includes a 70-meter-long beamline and a 200-tonne spectrometer. Key Highlights: New Limit: Neutrino mass < 0.45 eV/c² (at 90% confidence). Data Used: 250 days of data, 36 million electron events. Comparison: Most precise direct and model-independent measurement so far. Cosmology vs. Lab: While cosmological models suggest even smaller combined masses, KATRIN’s direct approach avoids theoretical dependencies. Significance & Future Prospects: Neutrinos are key to understanding physics beyond the Standard Model, cosmic evolution, and structure formation. KATRIN continues to collect data and aims to push sensitivity to 0.3 eV by the end of 2025. The findings may open doors to new physics. Learning Corner: What are Neutrinos? Neutrinos are fundamental subatomic particles that belong to the family of leptons in the Standard Model of particle physics. They are: Electrically neutral Have extremely small mass (but not zero) Interact very weakly with matter (only via weak nuclear force and gravity) Can pass through ordinary matter almost undisturbed Types of Neutrinos: There are three known flavors of neutrinos, each associated with a charged lepton: Electron neutrino (νₑ) Muon neutrino (ν_μ) Tau neutrino (ν_τ) Key Properties: Property Value / Note Charge 0 (neutral) Spin ½ (fermion) Interaction Weak nuclear force, gravity only Mass Extremely small, non-zero (~<1 eV) Speed Close to speed of light   Neutrino Sources: Natural Sources: Sun (solar neutrinos), cosmic rays, supernovae, Earth’s interior (geoneutrinos) Man-made: Nuclear reactors, particle accelerators, and beta decay experiments Important Phenomena: Neutrino Oscillation: Neutrinos can change from one flavor to another, which implies they have mass — a discovery that led to the 2002 Nobel Prize in Physics. Mass Measurement: Experiments like KATRIN aim to determine their absolute mass directly. Why Are Neutrinos Important? They are essential to understanding the Standard Model and physics beyond it. Help explain matter-antimatter asymmetry in the universe. Offer insights into cosmic evolution, nuclear reactions, and dark matter candidates. Due to their weak interaction, they are excellent probes of processes deep inside stars and supernovae. Neutrino Comparison Table Property Neutrino Electron Photon Type Lepton Lepton Boson (Force carrier) Electric Charge 0 −1 0 Mass Very small, non-zero ~9.11 × 10⁻³¹ kg 0 Interaction Weak force, gravity EM, weak, gravity Electromagnetic only Spin ½ (Fermion) ½ (Fermion) 1 (Boson) Speed Close to light speed Much slower Speed of light Penetrating Power

Archives (PRELIMS Focus) High Seas Treaty – 2025 UN Ocean Conference Category: ENVIRONMENT Context: India is actively moving toward ratification of the High Seas Treaty (formally the Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction – BBNJ – Agreement), contrary to any suggestion of reluctance. Decoding Context:  Key Highlights: India has signed the BBNJ Treaty and is undergoing its internal ratification process. At the 2025 UN Ocean Conference in Nice, the Minister of State for Earth Sciences confirmed India’s commitment to the treaty and ocean conservation. A six-point action plan was proposed by India, focusing on science-based, inclusive, and sustainable ocean governance. India’s Commitments: Enhancing marine research and data-driven ocean policy. Expanding marine protected areas. Tackling plastic and marine pollution via circular economy models. Promoting climate resilience and ocean-based solutions. Supporting renewable ocean energy. Integrating indigenous knowledge in marine governance. India also endorsed the ‘Nice Ocean Action Plan’, emphasizing finance, partnerships, and actionable steps toward achieving SDG-14 (Life Below Water). Global Status: As of mid-2025, 49 countries have ratified the treaty; 60 ratifications are required for it to come into force. The treaty aims to: Protect biodiversity in international waters. Establish marine protected areas. Ensure fair sharing of marine genetic resources. Foster international cooperation for high seas governance. Conclusion: India is firmly aligned with the objectives of the High Seas Treaty and is progressing toward formal ratification. Its current stance reflects a deliberate, policy-driven approach consistent with its broader marine conservation strategy.   Learning Corner: High Seas Treaty (BBNJ Agreement) Full Name: Agreement on Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ) Adopted: June 2023 at the United Nations Purpose: To conserve and sustainably use marine biological diversity in areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ), i.e., the high seas which cover nearly two-thirds of the ocean and nearly half of the Earth’s surface. Key Features: Marine Protected Areas (MPAs): Establish a global framework to create protected zones in international waters to safeguard marine ecosystems. Marine Genetic Resources (MGRs): Ensure fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of MGRs, such as deep-sea organisms used in pharmaceuticals or biotechnology. Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs): Mandates EIAs for activities conducted on the high seas to prevent significant harm to marine environments. Capacity Building and Technology Transfer: Assists developing countries with scientific resources, training, and data-sharing to ensure equitable participation in high seas conservation. Decision-Making Structure: Establishes institutions to monitor implementation, resolve disputes, and update scientific guidelines periodically. Significance: Fills a major legal gap in international maritime law under the UNCLOS (United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea). Aims to protect biodiversity in the “global commons”. Critical for tackling threats such as overfishing, climate change, and deep-sea mining. Global Treaties that India has ratified and not ratified: Category Ratified by India Not Ratified by India Nuclear Treaties CWC, BWC NPT, CTBT, ATT Environmental Treaties UNFCCC, CBD, Paris Agreement, Basel, Stockholm BBNJ (in process), some UN water conventions Human Rights Treaties ICCPR, ICESCR, CRC, CEDAW Migrant Workers’ Convention, Enforced Disappearances Labour Treaties Some ILO conventions ILO 87, 98, partially delayed ratification of 138 Maritime Treaties UNCLOS, CITES, WTO-related None major Source : THE HINDU C. Sankaran Nair Category: HISTORY Sankaran Nair’s legacy defies simple categorization due to his multifaceted roles as a jurist, nationalist, reformer, and critic. He was both an insider in the British legal system and a principled dissenter, resigning from the Viceroy’s Council after the Jallianwala Bagh massacre. Key Aspects of His Legacy Constitutionalist and Rebel: Rose to become a judge of the Madras High Court, yet protested British atrocities and advocated for Indian rights through constitutional means. Legal and Social Reformer: Delivered landmark judgments emphasizing due process and justice. Advocated inter-caste marriage, women’s rights, and eradication of caste discrimination. Independent Nationalist: Supported Dominion Status as a step toward full independence. Criticized both British colonialism and Indian political orthodoxy, especially Gandhi’s mass movements and the Khilafat agitation. Courage and Integrity: Refused to apologize after losing a defamation case in England. Resigned from high office over ethical concerns. Underappreciated Figure: Despite his influence, his contributions were sidelined in mainstream narratives. He is now being rediscovered through biographies and popular media. Conclusion Sankaran Nair’s life embodied contradiction and courage—an elite fighting for the marginalized, a loyal servant of law who challenged empire, and a moderate voice amid radical upheaval. His legacy is essential to understanding the complexities of India’s freedom struggle. Learning Corner: Sankaran Nair (1857–1934) Lawyer | Jurist | Nationalist | Social Reformer Sankaran Nair was a prominent Indian jurist and nationalist leader known for his bold dissent against British colonial rule and his deep commitment to constitutionalism and social justice. He served as the President of the Indian National Congress in 1897, becoming the first Malayali to hold the position. Appointed Advocate-General of Madras and later a Judge of the Madras High Court, he was known for his commitment to legal integrity and civil rights. In protest against the Jallianwala Bagh massacre (1919), he resigned from the Viceroy’s Executive Council, becoming one of the earliest high-ranking Indians to do so. Nair was a strong advocate for social reform, promoting women’s rights, caste equality, and inter-caste marriage. He opposed Gandhi’s methods of mass civil disobedience and criticized the Khilafat Movement, preferring constitutional and legislative paths to reform. His book, Gandhi and Anarchy, outlined his differences with the dominant nationalist strategies of his time. Despite his contributions, he was largely forgotten in mainstream history until recent efforts began reviving interest in his legacy. Source: THE HINDU Sudan Refugee Crisis Category: INTERNATIONAL Context : Egypt’s Crackdown Forces Sudanese Refugees Toward Libya and Europe Decoding Context: Following the 2023 civil war in Sudan, millions fled the country—many initially seeking safety in Egypt due to its proximity and historic ties. However, Egypt’s increasingly restrictive refugee policies have made it harder for Sudanese to remain. Stricter visa rules, costly residency requirements, and a shift from UNHCR to government-controlled refugee registration have led to widespread detentions and deportations, even for registered asylum seekers. Facing harassment, fear of arrest, and poor living conditions, many