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Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) BALTIC STATES SWITCH TO EUROPEAN POWER GRID, ENDING RUSSIA TIES Syllabus: Prelims – CURRENT EVENT Context: Three Baltic states disconnected their electricity systems from Russia’s power grid, the region’s operators said, part of a plan designed to integrate the countries more closely with the European Union and boost security. Background: – Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania disconnected from the IPS/UPS joint network and, subject to last-minute tests, they will synchronise with the EU’s grid after operating on their own in the meantime. Key takeaways Plans for the Baltics to decouple from the grid of their former Soviet imperial overlord, debated for decades, gained momentum following Moscow’s annexation of Crimea in 2014. The grid was the final remaining link to Russia for the three countries, which reemerged as independent nations in the early 1990s at the fall of the Soviet Union, and joined the European Union and NATO in 2004. The three staunch supporters of Kyiv stopped purchases of power from Russia following Moscow’s invasion of Ukraine in 2022, but have relied on the Russian grid to control frequencies and stabilise networks to avoid outages. The Baltic Sea region is on high alert after power cable, telecom links and gas pipeline outages between the Baltics and Sweden or Finland. All were believed to have been caused by ships dragging anchors along the seabed following Russia’s invasion of Ukraine. Russia has denied any involvement. For Russia, the decoupling means its Kaliningrad exclave, located between Lithuania, Poland and the Baltic Sea, is cut off from Russia’s main grid, leaving it to maintain its power system alone. The Baltic countries spent nearly 1.6 billion euros ($1.66 billion) since 2018 to upgrade grids to prepare, while Moscow has spent 100 billion roubles ($1 billion), including on the building of several gas-fired power plants in Kaliningrad. Source: Indian Express GROSS DOMESTIC KNOWLEDGE PRODUCT Syllabus: Prelims – ECONOMY Context: In a revival of an idea that had been shelved in 2021, the government is looking to capture the knowledge economy as a metric to supplement the Gross Domestic Product (GDP).  Background: – The Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) had a session on “Conceptual Framework of Gross Domestic Knowledge Product (GDKP) Measurement”, chaired by Principal Scientific Advisor Ajay Kumar Sood. Key takeaways The Gross Domestic Knowledge Product (GDKP) is an innovative metric designed to assess a nation’s economic progress by focusing on its knowledge-based assets and activities. The concept of Gross Domestic Knowledge Product (GDKP) is not a standard economic term like Gross Domestic Product (GDP), but it can be understood as a theoretical or emerging framework that measures the economic value generated from knowledge-based activities, innovation, and intellectual capital within a country. Focus: It emphasizes the role of knowledge, information, and creativity as key drivers of economic growth in the modern economy. At present, all expenditures on Intellectual Property Products (IPP) are recorded under Gross Fixed Capital Formation (GFCF) — the indicator for capital investments in the GDP dataset for the economy.  GDKP was discussed earlier in 2021 when NITI Aayog made a presentation on the concept note. The National Statistical Commission had pointed out then that the concept note did not provide the methodology for capturing the data and computation of GDKP.  Source: Indian Express PRADHAN MANTRI ANUSUCHIT JAATI ABHYUDAY YOJANA (PM-AJAY) Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: A meeting of the Central Advisory Committee (CAC) for the Pradhan Mantri Anusuchit Jaati Abhyuday Yojana (PM-AJAY) was held under the Chairmanship of Dr. Virendra Kumar, Union Minister of Social Justice and Empowerment and Chairperson of the CAC. Background: Scheduled Castes (SCs), who constitute 16.6% of our population as per 2011 Census, have historically suffered social and educational disabilities and economic deprivation arising therefrom. Accordingly, special provisions have been enshrined for advancement of their interests. Key takeaways The Pradhan Mantri Anusuchit Jaati Abhyuday Yojana (PM-AJAY) is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme launched in the fiscal year 2021-22 by the Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment. It was established by merging three existing schemes: Pradhan Mantri Adarsh Gram Yojana (PMAGY) Special Central Assistance to Scheduled Castes Sub Plan (SCA to SCSP) Babu Jagjivan Ram Chhatrawas Yojana (BJRCY) Objectives: Reduce poverty of the SC communities by generation of additional employment opportunities through skill development, income generating schemes and other initiatives.  Improve socio-economic developmental indicators by ensuring adequate infrastructure and requisite services in the SC dominated villages.  Increase literacy and encourage enrolment of SCs in schools and higher educational institutions by providing adequate residential facilities in quality institutions, as well as residential schools where required, especially in the aspirational districts/ SC dominated blocks and elsewhere in India. Key Components: Development of SC-Dominated Villages into “Adarsh Gram”: Transform villages with significant SC populations into model villages with access to basic services and infrastructure necessary for dignified living. As of the latest data, a total of 29,881 villages have been covered under this component, with 6,087 declared as Adarsh Gram. Grants-in-Aid to States/Districts: Provide financial assistance for projects aimed at socio-economic betterment of SC communities, including comprehensive livelihood projects and infrastructure development. Central assistance of ₹3,242.07 crore has been released, benefiting 850,611 individuals. Construction/Repair of Hostels: Build and repair hostels to support SC students, particularly those from rural and remote areas, in accessing quality education. Since 2021-22, 46 hostels have been sanctioned for 5,185 beneficiaries, with an allocation of ₹126.30 crore. The scheme is 100% funded by the Central Government. However, the States/UTs are free to provide additional funds from their own resources if they so desire. Source: PIB AUTONOMOUS DISTRICT COUNCILS Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – POLITY Context: The Khasi Hills Autonomous District Council (KHADC) and the Jaintia Hills Autonomous District Council (JHADC) elections will be held on February 21, 2025. Background: – The KHADC and JHADC cover areas dominated by matrilineal communities — the Khasi and Jaintias respectively — but less than 7% of the candidates contesting the elections to these councils are women. Key takeaways Autonomous District Councils (ADCs) in India are administrative bodies

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) INDIA’S CITIES AS ENGINES OF GROWTH Syllabus: Prelims – GS 2 & GS 3 Context: The Union Budget 2025, emphasised urban development as one of the six domains for transformative reforms. This renewed focus on urban areas points to the government’s commitment to empowering cities as a vital component of India’s development.  Background: – By prioritising infrastructure investment, encouraging Urban Local Bodies to diversify their revenue streams, and fostering public-private partnerships, the budget lays the groundwork for greater financial autonomy and sustainable urban development. Key takeaways In the 2025-26 budget, the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA), has been allocated Rs. 96,777 crore, accounting for 1.91% of the total estimated expenditure.  In recent years, budgetary allocation for urban development has seen a steady rise — from 50,000 crore in 2021 to 79,000 crore in 2024 and 96,777 crore in 2025. Several key schemes, such as Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY-Urban), which focuses on affordable urban housing; the Smart Cities Mission, which focuses on creating smart cities; and the Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT), which focuses on water and sanitation infrastructure, are recipients of these budgetary allocations.  In recent years, allocations have also gone to urban transport projects, particularly Metro rail and Mass Rapid Transit projects. Moreover, to boost incomes for the urban poor, a revamp of the Prime Minister Street Vendors AtmaNirbhar Nidhi (PM SVANidhi) – was also announced.  The budget also announced “Urban Challenge Fund”. Under this fund, proposals shall be evaluated along three categories: “Cities as growth hubs, creative redevelopment of cities, and water and sanitation projects.” The fund will finance up to 25% of the cost of bankable projects, with a stipulation that at least 50% of the project cost is sourced from bonds, bank loans, or Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs).  Structuring the Urban Challenge Fund to include private enterprise participation is a signal to empower Urban Local Bodies to raise their own sources of finance to fund projects. As the analysis by PRS Legislative Research points out, the majority of ULBs’ revenue comes from central and state government grants.  Main revenue sources of ULBs The main revenue sources of ULBs can be primarily categorised as tax and non-tax revenues. Tax revenues mainly include property tax, professional tax, and entertainment tax, while non-tax revenues include user fees such as parking fees, water supply fees, license fees, and rental income from municipal property.  For example, in the 2021-22 financial year, the Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation (BMC) had 19% of its revenue from tax, 54% from fees and user charges, and the remaining from other sources of income. In comparison, the Greater Chennai Corporation (GCC) generated 80% of its income from tax sources and the remaining 20% from other sources of income.  While large cities have a wider tax base and capacity to generate revenues, smaller cities have to rely on grants from central and state governments. For example, in 2021-22, 57% of Kochi Municipal Corporation’s revenue came from revenue grants, contributions, and subsidies. How urban local bodies raise funds The most prominent example of this is municipal bonds, where ULBs issue bonds. Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation was one of the first ULBs in India to issue a municipal bond to service its water and sanitation projects.  ULBs can also raise loans from financial institutions such as HUDCO, the World Bank, etc., for specific projects.  A glance at the database of public-private partnership projects in India shows that at least 5-10% of the total projects are urban projects in the fields of water-sanitation and transport. These projects not only bring private finance onboard, but also facilitate expertise and capabilities from the private sector. Source: Indian Express FOR SECOND YEAR, NO DEATH PENALTY PASSES SC TEST Syllabus: Prelims – GS 2 & GS 4 Context: Reflecting a divergence in decision-making on death penalty at different levels in the judiciary, the Supreme Court — for the second consecutive year — did not confirm a single death sentence in 2024 while trial courts awarded 139 such verdicts, according to a report by Project 39A, a criminal justice programme at the National Law University Delhi. Background: –  The SC heard six appeals in 2024 — it commuted five death sentences to life imprisonment while one was acquitted. Key takeaways ‘Death Penalty in India: Annual Statistics Report 2024’, states that at the end of 2024, there were 564 death row prisoners in jails across India, the highest number since 2000. In 2024, of the 139 death sentences awarded by trial courts, 87 (62%) were imposed in murder cases and 35 (25%) in cases of murder involving sexual offences. This is a reversal from the previous year, when more death sentences were imposed in cases of murder involving sexual offences (59) than in simple murder cases (40). The total number of death row prisoners (564 in 2024) has risen every year since 2019, when there were 378 inmates on death row. In 2024, 17 women were on death row. The report attributes the high number of death row convicts to a trend of “high imposition of death sentences at trial courts, and the low rates of death penalty appeal disposals at High Courts”. Under Section 366 of the Criminal Procedure Code, 1973, and Section 407 of the Bharatiya Nyaya Suraksha Sanhita, 2023, death sentence proceedings must be forwarded to the High Court for confirmation before they can be executed. Source: Indian Express SHADOW FLEET BRINGS RISK OF OIL SPILL IN THE BALTIC Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: As ageing and deficient tankers in the “Russian shadow fleet” traffic the shallow waters of the Baltic Sea, a major oil spill disaster looms, experts say. Background: Security analysts say Russia is operating a large “shadow fleet” of hundreds of vessels, seeking to dodge the sanctions Western nations imposed on its oil exports over its full-scale invasion of Ukraine in 2022. Key takeaways A shadow fleet refers to a group of aging or unregistered vessels that operate outside standard maritime regulations to transport goods—especially sanctioned oil, arms, or illicit cargo—while avoiding detection and international

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) SAROJINI NAIDU Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – HISTORY Context: Sarojini Naidu’s enduring legacy as a champion of women’s rights is honoured by celebrating her birth anniversary on February 13 as National Women’s Day in India. Background: – Born to Bengali parents in Hyderabad in 1879, Naidu was a woman of many talents.  Key takeaways Sarojini Naidu (1879–1949) was an Indian independence activist, poet, and the first woman to become the President of the Indian National Congress.  She played a crucial role in India’s struggle for independence and was known as the Nightingale of India due to her literary contributions. Key Contributions: Role in the Freedom Movement: Joined the Indian National Congress (INC) in 1905 during the Bengal Partition movement. Advocated for women’s rights, education, and social reforms. Played an active role in the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–22) and Civil Disobedience Movement (1930). Participated in the Salt Satyagraha (1930) and was arrested for her involvement. Political Achievements: First Woman President of INC (1925) – Advocated for self-rule and equality. First Indian Woman Governor (1947) – Became the Governor of the United Provinces (now Uttar Pradesh) post-independence. Member of the Constituent Assembly Literary Contributions: Famous works: The Golden Threshold (1905), The Bird of Time (1912), The Broken Wing (1917). Source: Indian Express IMMIGRATION AND FOREIGNERS BILL, 2025 Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – POLITY Context: The Immigration and Foreigners Bill, 2025, is likely to be introduced by Union Home Minister Amit Shah in the ongoing Budget session of Parliament. Background: – The proposed legislation will replace the existing laws — the Passport (Entry into India) Act, 1920; the Registration of Foreigners Act, 1939; the Foreigners Act, 1946; and the Immigration (Carriers’ Liability) Act, 2000. The acts, namely the Passport (Entry into India) Act, 1920, the Registration of Foreigners Act, 1939, and the Foreigners Act, 1946, are not only of the pre-Constitution period but also, they were brought into extraordinary times of first and second world wars. While there is an underlying continuity and commonality of objectives among the four Acts, there are some overlapping provisions among the said laws. Key takeaways The Bill will specify the matters relating to foreigners and their registration, the provisions relating to the obligation of universities and educational institutions admitting any foreigner, the obligation of hospitals, nursing homes or any other medical institution admitting foreigners. The bill specifies the role of “every person occupying or having under his control any residential premises” to submit to the registration officer information in respect to any foreigners accommodated in such premises. It mandates every university and educational institution admitting any foreigner to furnish information to the registration officer.  Similarly, it specifies the role of “every hospital, nursing home or any other such medical institution providing medical, lodging or sleeping facility in their premises” to inform the authority (registration officer) about “any foreigner taking indoor medical treatment or their attendant for whom such lodging or sleeping facility has been provided”. The Bill obligates the carriers such as airlines and vessels to remove a passenger denied entry by the immigration officer and provide passenger and crew data to the authorities in advance. The bill carries a provision of up to ₹5 lakh in fine for violating carriers. Source: Indian Express NARI ADALATS Syllabus: Prelims – CURRENT EVENT Context: The government has written to states inviting proposals to establish ‘Nari Adalats’, Women and Child Development Minister Annpurna Devi said. Background: The ministry intends to extend the  scheme, already  running on a pilot basis in Assam and J&K, to other states. Key takeaways Nari Adalats are women-led alternative dispute resolution forums established under the “Sambal” sub-scheme of Mission Shakti by the Ministry of Women and Child Development.  These forums aim to provide women with an accessible grievance redressal mechanism at the gram panchayat level, addressing cases of petty nature such as harassment, subversion, or curtailment of rights. Key Features: Structure: Each Nari Adalat comprises 7 to 11 members, known as ‘Nyaya Sakhis,’ who are nominated by the gram panchayat.  Functioning: These forums resolve disputes through negotiation, mediation, and reconciliation, ensuring speedy, accessible, and affordable justice for women.  Implementation: Initially launched on a pilot basis in 2023 in 50 gram panchayats each in Assam and Jammu & Kashmir, the program has seen success, prompting the Ministry to invite proposals from other states and Union Territories for expansion.  Source: Indian Express PRESIDENT’S RULE AMONG OPTIONS FOR MANIPUR Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – POLITY Context: A significant temperature drop has been observed across North India due to a western disturbance currently positioned over North Pakistan, the India Meteorological Department (IMD) reported. Background: – After N Biren Singh resigned as Manipur’s Chief Minister, the BJP leadership is exploring its options. If the party fails to find a consensus CM candidate, the state may have to be put under President’s rule. Key takeaways The imposition of President’s Rule under Article 356 effectively transfers all the functions of the state government to the Centre and the function of the state legislature to Parliament during the period when it is in force. The process begins if the President, on receiving a report from the Governor, is “satisfied that a situation has arisen in which the Government of the State cannot be carried on in accordance with the provisions of this Constitution”. President will issue a ‘Proclamation’, which can remain in force for up to two months. The Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha must approve it through a resolution before this period expires for it to remain operative further. If approved, the proclamation of President’s Rule can be extended to six months and Parliament can approve further six-month extensions for up to three years. Certain conditions must be met before a proclamation can be renewed by Parliament beyond a year since it was first issued. Further extensions can only be approved if an Emergency has been declared in the country or that particular state, or if the Election Commission certifies that President’s Rule is necessary due to difficulties in conducting state elections. Since 1950, when the Constitution first

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) CORRUPTION PERCEPTIONS INDEX Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: India ranked 96 out of 180 countries on the Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) for 2024. Background: – The index ranked Denmark at the top, followed by Finland, and Singapore. Key takeaways The Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) is a global ranking that measures perceived levels of public sector corruption across countries. It is published annually by Transparency International, a non-governmental organization based in Germany. The index uses a scale of 0 to 100, where 0 is highly corrupt and 100 is corruption clean. The rank tells the country’s position relative to other countries in the index.  The score for each country is derived from a minimum of three data sources, selected from 13 distinct corruption surveys and assessments. These sources are gathered by a range of reputed organisations, such as the World Bank and the World Economic Forum. Transparency International gave India a CPI score of 38. In 2023, India’s overall score was 39 while in 2022, it was 40. There is a decline in the score of India on CPI. The CPI report has also highlighted that corruption is strongly intertwined with climate change. The funds intended to help those suffering from the consequences of global heating are stolen or misused. Corruption also impacts the implementation of policies aimed at addressing climate change leading to further environmental damage. Among India’s neighbors, Bangladesh has received a score of 23, Pakistan 27, and Sri Lanka 32. Bangladesh is one of the largest recipients of climate finance, which is vulnerable to embezzlement and other forms of corruption. Source: Indian Express CONVICTED PERSONS AND ELECTIONS Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – POLITY Context: The Supreme Court is hearing petitions filed by Ashwin Upadhyay and others, seeking a life time ban on convicted persons from contesting elections. Background: – A report by ADR states that 251 (46%) of the 543 elected MPs in 2024, have criminal cases against them, and 171 (31%) face serious criminal charges including rape, murder, attempt to murder and kidnapping. It added that chances of winning for a candidate with a criminal background was 15.4% as against just 4.4% for a candidate with a clean background. Key takeaways Section 8(3) of the Representation of the People Act, 1951 (RP Act, 1951), provides for the disqualification of a person convicted of a criminal offence and sentenced to imprisonment for not less than two years. Such a person is disqualified from contesting elections for a further period of six years from the date of release.  Section 8(1) further stipulates that a person convicted under criminal laws for heinous crimes like rape; the Protection of Civil Rights (PCR) act for preaching or practice of untouchability; UAPA for unlawful association; Prevention of Corruption Act etc., will be disqualified irrespective of the period of their sentence and six years after release. What were past judgements? In the Association for Democratic Reforms (ADR) case (2002), Supreme Court mandated the disclosure of criminal records of all candidates contesting elections.  In the CEC vs Jan Chaukidar case (2013), SC upheld the creative interpretation of the provisions of the RP Act, 1951 by the Patna HC. One of the qualifications as per the act to contest elections is that a person should be an ‘elector.’ Section 62(5) stipulates that a person in jail is not eligible to vote in elections. The court interpreted that persons who are under trial prisoners, therefore cease to be ‘electors’ and hence not qualified to contest elections. However, the Parliament amended the act in 2013 to overturn this judgment allowing under trial prisoners to contest elections.  In Lily Thomas (2013), the SC struck down section 8(4) of the RP Act, 1951, that allowed a sitting legislator to continue as a member even after being convicted if they filed an appeal. After this judgment, a sitting legislator is disqualified immediately after the sentencing for a conviction. Additional Information Section 11 of the RP Act, 1951 provides that the Election Commission (EC) may remove any disqualification or reduce the period of disqualification of a convicted person.  EC utilised this power in September 2019, to reduce the disqualification period of Prem Singh Tamang, incumbent Chief Minister of Sikkim, from six years to 13 months which allowed him to contest and win a byelection. Source: The Hindu MALARIA Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: The WHO’s recent declaration of Georgia as the 45th country to eliminate malaria is a significant milestone. Background: Despite decades of global efforts, malaria still causes over 240 million cases and more than 600,000 deaths annually. Key takeaways Malaria is a life-threatening vector-borne disease caused by Plasmodium parasites, which are transmitted to humans through the bite of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes. Causative Agent (Plasmodium Parasites) – There are five species of Plasmodium that cause malaria in humans: Plasmodium falciparum – Most severe, responsible for cerebral malaria. Plasmodium vivax – Causes recurring malaria due to dormant liver stage. Plasmodium malariae – Milder infection, can persist for years. Plasmodium ovale – Rare, found mainly in Africa & Asia. Plasmodium knowlesi – Zoonotic malaria, found in Southeast Asia. Transmission Cycle: Infected Anopheles mosquito bites a human. Parasites enter the bloodstream and reach the liver, where they multiply. They re-enter the bloodstream and infect red blood cells (RBCs), causing fever and chills. Some parasites develop into gametocytes, which are taken up by another mosquito, completing the cycle. Malaria Distribution & Impact: Endemic in tropical regions, mainly Africa, South Asia, and South America. India: Malaria cases are declining but still prevalent in tribal areas, Northeast, and forested regions. Vaccination: RTS,S/AS01 (Mosquirix) – First WHO-approved malaria vaccine (2021). R21/Matrix-M – Another promising vaccine candidate. Challenges in Developing a Malaria Vaccine & Why It Is Less Effective Compared to Viral Vaccines Complex Life Cycle of Plasmodium Unlike viruses, the malaria parasite (Plasmodium) has a highly complex life cycle involving multiple stages: Sporozoite stage (Liver stage) → Merozoite stage (Blood stage) → Gametocyte stage (Mosquito stage). Each stage expresses different antigens, making it difficult to target the parasite with

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) HUMAN-WILDLIFE CONFLICT Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: As Kerala’s Wayanad district grapples with the deaths of four people in 48 hours due to elephant attacks, the Union environment ministry has informed the Rajya Sabha that the state recorded 460 deaths and 4,527 injuries due to human-wildlife conflict in the 2020-2024 period. Background: – Kerala MPs have sought amendments to the Wildlife Protection Act to prioritise human safety in light of a spate of attacks. Key takeaways The human-wildlife management issue has also been discussed by the National Board for Wildlife. In the board’s last meeting, Kerala’s chief wildlife warden and officials from other states suggested that a national policy should be developed for managing human-wildlife conflict. A 2018 study by Dehradun’s Wildlife Institute of India and the Periyar Tiger Conservation Foundation in Kerala, has found two major drivers of human-animal conflict in the state. First is the decline in the quality of forest habitats, largely due to the cultivation of alien plants — mainly acacia, mangium and eucalyptus — in forest tracts for commercial purposes. With 30,000 hectares of forest land in Kerala being used for cultivation of these species, animals are deprived of their natural habitat and food sources. Moreover, these water-guzzling species also strain the forest’s natural water resources.  Invasive species such as lantana, mikania and senna, planted by forest department over decades, have also hindered growth of natural vegetation in forests. While the Kerala forest department banned the cultivation of acacia and eucalyptus in forest tracts in 2018, the process of regenerating natural forests, such that animals do not face shortage of food and water, will take time.  So far only 1115 hectors of forest could be reconverted into natural habitats through eco-restoration process. The study also found that changing agri-practices were also responsible for drawing animals. In recent years, owing to poor returns, more farmland is being left unattended. This makes them targets for wildlife looking to snack on bananas and pineapples. Moreover, the increase in wildlife attacks has further pushed people to safer settlements away from their farms. This further entices animals to raid estates neighbouring forests. The crisis in Kerala’s farm sector has also driven many towards animal husbandry. But domesticated animals are also prime targets for tigers and other carnivores. Apart from declining quality of forests and changing agri-practices, a number of other human activities, including waste disposal near forested areas, fragmentation of animal habitats due to wanton construction, and increased human presence in and around animal habitat also contribute to increasing animal-human conflict in Kerala. How Kerala is addressing the issue The state has several initiatives – schemes for the construction of elephant-proof trenches, elephant-proof stone walls, and solar powered electric fencing. To keep animals in forests, Kerala has also undertaken eco-restoration programmes. The state is also running a scheme to acquire land from farmers, to be then converted into forestland. In areas which see the highest incidence of human-animal conflict, Rapid Response Teams have also been established. Source: Indian Express CHOOSING NEXT CHIEF ELECTION COMMISSIONER Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – POLITY Context: With Chief Election Commissioner Rajiv Kumar set to retire on February 18, a three-member selection committee headed by Prime Minister is set to meet on February 17 to pick his successor. Background: – This is the first time that a CEC will be selected under the provisions of the new law — the Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners (Appointment, Conditions of Service and Term of Office) Act, 2023. Before this, Election Commissioners Gyanesh Kumar and Sukhbir Singh Sandhu had been selected under the new law. Key takeaways Earlier, Election Commissioners and the Chief Election Commissioner were appointed by the President based on the recommendations of the government. The law came into effect after the Supreme Court, in its ruling in March 2023, mandated a selection panel be formed and said that it should comprise the Prime Minister, the Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha, and the Chief Justice of India. The court said the order would hold good until a law was made by Parliament. However, when the law was passed, the Centre replaced the CJI with a Union Minister as the third member, giving the government a dominant role in the appointment process. On February 17, the panel will select a name from a list of five prepared by a search committee. The Act says, “A Search Committee headed by the Minister of Law and Justice and comprising two other members not below the rank of Secretary to the Government of India, shall prepare a panel of five persons for consideration of the Selection Committee, for appointment as the Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners”. After Mr. Rajiv Kumar, Mr. Gyanesh Kumar is the senior-most Election Commissioner. The committee is also likely to select an Election Commissioner in case current Mr. Gyanesh Kumar is elevated to the top post. According to the law, the CEC and other ECs will be appointed from among persons who are holding or have held a post equivalent to the rank of secretary to the government of India and will be persons of integrity with knowledge of and experience in management and conduct of elections. Source: The Hindu DOKRA ARTWORK Syllabus: Prelims – ART & CULTURE Context: Prime Minister Narendra Modi has gifted Dokra artwork to French President Emmanuel Macron. Background: Dhokra (also spelt Dokra) is non–ferrous metal casting using the lost-wax casting technique.  Key takeaways Dhokra Art is an ancient Indian metal casting tradition that has been practiced for over 4,000 years, dating back to the Indus Valley Civilization.  This art form is renowned for its distinctive lost-wax casting technique, producing non-ferrous metal artifacts that are celebrated for their primitive simplicity, enchanting folk motifs, and robust forms. The term “Dhokra” is derived from the Dhokra Damar tribes, traditional metalsmiths of West Bengal and Odisha. Their craftsmanship traces back to the Indus Valley Civilization, with the famous “Dancing Girl” bronze statue from Mohenjo-Daro being a

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) MUNICH SECURITY CONFERENCE Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: German Chancellor Olaf Scholz delivered a strong rebuke to U.S. Vice President J.D. Vance’s attack on Europe’s stance toward hate speech and the far right, saying it was not right for others to tell Germany and Europe what to do. Background: – Mr. Vance had lambasted European leaders on the first day of the Munich Security Conference, accusing them of censoring free speech and criticising German mainstream parties’ “firewall” against the far-right Alternative for Germany (AfD). About Munich Security Conference (MSC) The Munich Security Conference (MSC) is an annual forum that brings together global leaders, policymakers, and experts to discuss international security issues. The MSC was founded by a German official and publisher Ewald-Heinrich von Kleist at the peak of the Cold War in 1963. The conference initially focused on military issues and was mainly attended by Western countries, who came together to display a united front against Soviet communism. After the end of the Cold War, the conference expanded its agenda beyond defence and security to include issues like climate change and migration. It also began inviting leaders from eastern nations, including Russia, India and China. Today, the MSC, held in February every year, “seeks to promote trust and contribute to the peaceful resolution of conflicts by facilitating ongoing, curated, yet informal dialogue within the international security community”. Key Takeaways from the Munich Security Conference (MSC) 2025 Shift in the Transatlantic Security Framework The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, has been the cornerstone of European security, ensuring collective defense against external threats. However, recent developments indicate a fundamental shift. While U.S. remains a NATO member, European nations can no longer assume automatic U.S. military support in times of crisis. U.S.-Russia Talks on Ukraine: A Policy Shift The U.S. administration has initiated diplomatic talks with Russia to negotiate an end to the Ukraine war, despite strong opposition from European leaders and Kyiv. Notably, Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelensky has not been invited to these talks, raising concerns about Ukraine’s exclusion from crucial negotiations affecting its sovereignty and security. The move has further strained U.S.-Europe relations. Increased Defense Expenditure for European NATO Members The MSC discussions underscored the necessity for Europe to escalate its defense spending in response to Russia’s growing military assertiveness. The current NATO-mandated minimum of 2% of GDP on defense is now expected to rise to 3%. While the U.S. has historically provided substantial military aid to Ukraine, European nations have now surpassed the U.S. in total financial and humanitarian assistance. U.S. Vice President JD Vance’s Controversial Speech U.S. V.P’s speech was widely perceived as critical of European policies. Instead of reaffirming U.S. support for Ukraine, his remarks focused on Europe’s handling of migration, free speech, and governance issues. His address was met with criticism from European leaders. However, the speech was well-received by certain political factions, including President Trump. This development signals growing ideological divergences between U.S. and Europe. Economic Tensions and U.S.-Europe Trade Disputes Amid the discussions at MSC, Trump announced a 25% tariff on all steel and aluminum imports, effective from March. This decision exacerbates economic tensions between the U.S. and Europe, adding to existing disputes over trade policies and defense commitments. Source: BBC DISTRIBUTED DENIAL OF SERVICE (DDOS) ATTACK Syllabus: Prelims – SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: In January, web-based portal Kaveri 2.0, which streamlines property registrations in Karnataka, faced sporadic, crippling server outages. On investigating the outage, the Revenue Department and E-Governance Department concluded that it was a Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attack. Background: – DDoS attacks can lead to a service downtime, which is the primary goal of a DDoS attack — to render a service unavailable, leading to a disruption or potential loss of revenue. Key takeaways A DDoS attack is a malicious attempt to disrupt the normal functioning of a targeted server, service, or network by overwhelming it with a flood of internet traffic.  Unlike a Denial of Service (DoS) attack, which typically involves a single source, a DDoS attack leverages multiple compromised systems, often infected with malware, to generate the traffic. These compromised systems are collectively known as a botnet. Such attacks may be aimed at saturating the bandwidth of a site, exploiting weaknesses in the network protocol stack, or targeting specific weaknesses in applications or services. While DDoS attacks do not directly steal data, they can be used as a distraction while other forms of cyberattacks, such as data breaches, are executed. The Kaveri 2.0 portal, critical for property registrations, experienced performance issues recently. Fake accounts were created, and entries were made into the database using these accounts, overwhelming the system. The attack involved 62 email accounts originating from 14 IP addresses, highlighting the distributed nature of the assault. Ways to mitigate such attacks Organisations implement advanced traffic filtering mechanisms to distinguish between legitimate and malicious traffic. Monitoring tools can help identify unusual traffic patterns and take pre-emptive actions.  Enforcing rate limiting can control the number of requests a user can make in a given time frame, preventing the system from being overwhelmed. Bot detection technologies, such as CAPTCHA challenges and behavioural analysis, can identify and block automated tools or bots.  Robust authentication mechanisms and regular security audits can strengthen the security of online services and prevent unauthorised access. Source: The Hindu PRESIDENT’S RULE Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – POLITY Context: Four days after Manipur Chief Minister N. Biren Singh’s resignation, the Union government announced that President’s rule has been implemented in the violence-hit State.  Background: The violence between the Meitei and Kuki-Zo communities, ongoing since May 2023, has claimed above 250 lives and displaced over 60,000 people.  The conflict originated from the Meitei demand for Scheduled Tribe (ST) status, which the Kukis opposed, fearing loss of job opportunities and other affirmative actions meant for STs. Key takeaways Emergency provisions, inspired by the German Constitution, protect India’s sovereignty, unity and security. They empower the Central government to address extraordinary crises by temporarily assuming control. The

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) TAIWAN Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – GEOGRAPHY, WORLD HISTORY, INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Context: The U.S. State Department’s Taiwan page removed a previous statement about not supporting Taiwan’s independence last week. Background: – The United States has no formal diplomatic ties with Taiwan but is its strongest international backer. About Taiwan Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (RoC), is situated in the western Pacific Ocean and is separated from mainland China by the Taiwan Strait. Taiwan is neighbored by Japan to the northeast, the Philippines to the south, and mainland China to the west. The East China Sea lies to the north of the island, the Philippine Sea to the east, the Luzon Strait directly to the south, and the South China Sea to the southwest. Taiwan is prone to earthquakes as it lies along the Pacific “Ring of Fire” — where 90% of the world’s earthquakes take place. History of Taiwan  Taiwan was briefly controlled by the Dutch and Spanish in the 1600s. In 1684, the Qing dynasty incorporated Taiwan as part of Fujian province and later declared it a separate Chinese province in 1885. Following the Qing’s defeat in a war with Japan, it became a Japanese colony in 1895. In 1945, it was handed over to the Republic of China government at the end of World War Two. In 1949 after being defeated by Mao Zedong’s communist forces, the Republic of China government fled and moved its capital to Taiwan, and Republic of China remains the island’s formal name. Mao set up the People’s Republic of China, and claimed it was the only legitimate Chinese government for the whole of China, including Taiwan, as the Republic of China’s successor state. For decades, the Republic of China (ROC) based in Taipei claimed to be the legitimate government of China. However, in 1971, it was expelled from the United Nations in favor of the Beijing government. However, Taiwan is a region where the people elect their own leaders, and it has a defined territory governed by its own military, passport, and currency. As a result, Taiwan functions with de facto independence, even though most countries do not formally recognize it as such. Currently, only 12 countries maintain formal diplomatic ties with Taipei, most of which are small and developing nations. Most major Western countries, along with U.S. allies, maintain close unofficial relations with Taiwan by recognizing its passport and having de facto embassies in each other’s capitals. India does not have formal diplomatic ties with Taiwan yet. India has an office in Taipei for diplomatic functions — India-Taipei Association (ITA) is headed by a senior diplomat. Taiwan has the Taipei Economic and Cultural Center (TECC) in New Delhi. Both were established in 1995. Source: Indian Express ARAVALI SAFARI PARK Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – GEOGRAPHY, ENVIRONMENT Context: The Haryana government’s ambitious 3,858 hectare Aravali safari park project spread across Gurugram and Nuh is envisaged to be the world’s largest safari park. However, the project has faced stiff opposition ever since it was first mooted. Background: – A group of 37 retired Indian Forest Service officers have written a letter to Prime Minister seeking to scrap the project arguing that the project’s aim is to simply increase tourist footfall and not conserve the mountain range. Key takeaways The hills in the southern districts of Gurugram and Nuh are a part of Aravali, the oldest fold mountain range in the world.  Aravali runs diagonally across Rajasthan extending from Champaner in Gujarat in the southwest to near Delhi in the northeast for about 690 km.  It is ecologically significant as it combats desertification by checking the spread of the Thar Desert towards eastern Rajasthan, and performs the role of an aquifer with its highly fractured and weathered quality rocks allowing water to percolate and recharge the groundwater. What are the laws protecting Aravali? Of the approximately 80,000 hectare Aravali hill area in Haryana, a majority is protected under various laws and by orders of the Supreme Court and NGT.  The most widespread protection to the Aravalis comes from the Punjab Land Preservation Act (PLPA), 1900. The Special Sections 4 and 5 of the Act restrict the breaking of land and hence deforestation in hills for non-agricultural use. Recently around 24,000 hectares has been notified as Protected Forest under the Indian Forest Act, as a proposed offset to forest land diversion in the Nicobar islands. Similarly, the T.N. Godavarman Thirumulpad judgment (1996) extends legal protection to forests as per dictionary meaning — which should cover the remaining Aravali areas that are not notified as forest. The Regional Plan-2021 for the National Capital Region also offers crucial protection, designating the Aravalis and forest areas as ‘Natural Conservation Zone’ and restricting the maximum construction limit to 0.5%. Source: The Hindu EXPERIMENTAL ADVANCED SUPERCONDUCTING TOKAMAK (EAST) Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: Recently, Chinese scientists reported that they were able to maintain a plasma at a temperature of 100 million degrees C for about 1,066 seconds in a nuclear fusion reactor called the Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak (EAST). Background: Nuclear fission produces harmful radioactive waste whereas nuclear fusion doesn’t. This is why developing a nuclear fusion reactor has become an important technological goal for the world. Challenges of nuclear fusion The tritium problem The problem is the amount of energy required to start and sustain a fusion reaction. The lightest nucleus in nature is of hydrogen, consisting of a single proton. An isotope of hydrogen called deuterium has one proton and one neutron in its nucleus. The nucleus of another isotope called tritium has one proton and two neutrons.  Deuterium-deuterium fusion requires a higher temperature to begin than deuterium-tritium fusion. This is because the extra neutron in the tritium nucleus helps overcome the repulsion of like-charges between the protons. The fusion of a deuterium and a tritium nucleus creates a non-radioactive helium-4 nucleus, a neutron, and 17.6 MeV of energy, which is significant. While deuterium is abundant in seawater, there are no

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) DEPOSIT INSURANCE Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – ECONOMY Context: The government is considering increasing the insurance cover for bank deposits from the current limit of Rs 5 lakh. Background: – Deposit insurance was introduced in India in 1962, and coverage has thus far been enhanced six times – from Rs 1,500 per depositor held in the same right and same capacity at all the branches of the insured bank to Rs 5 lakh now. Key takeaways The deposit insurance cover is offered by the Deposit Insurance and Credit Guarantee Corporation (DICGC), a specialised division of the Reserve Bank of India (RBI). The objective of the DICGC is to protect “small depositors” from the risk of losing their savings in case of a bank failure.  The insurance cover of Rs 5 lakh per depositor is for all accounts held by the depositor in all branches of the insured bank. DICGC insures all commercial banks, including branches of foreign banks functioning in India, local area banks, regional rural banks, and cooperative banks. However, primary co-operative societies are not insured by the DICGC. Savings, fixed, current, and recurring deposits are insured. The DICGC does not provide insurance for deposits by foreign, central, and state governments, and for inter-bank deposits. The premium for deposit insurance is borne by the insured bank. DICGC collects premiums from member financial institutions at a flat or differentiated rate based on the bank’s risk profile. How does the limit for DICGC’s insurance coverage work? In 2021, a new Section 18A was inserted in the DICGC Act, 1961, which enabled depositors to get interim payment and time-bound access to their deposits to the extent of the deposit insurance cover through interim payments by DICGC, in case of imposition of restrictions on banks by the RBI. At present, the DICGC offers insurance cover on bank deposits up to Rs 5 lakh within 90 days of imposition of such restrictions.  Since the DICGC insures both the principal and interest amount held by a depositor in a bank, this is how the cover works: Say, a depositor has Rs 4,99,800 in her account, which includes the principal amount of Rs 4,90,000 and Rs 9,800 as interest accrued on it. In this case, the DICGC will provide insurance for Rs 4,99,800, which essentially means the depositors will get Rs 4,99,800 if their bank fails However, if the principal amount is Rs 5,00,000 (or more), and the interest accrued is Rs 10,000, the interest accrued will not be covered, as the depositor would have exhausted the cover limit of Rs 5 lakh. If the bank goes into liquidation, DICGC is liable to pay to the liquidator the claim amount of each depositor up to Rs 5 lakh within two months from the date of receipt of the claim list from the liquidator. The liquidator will have to disburse the right claim amount to each insured depositor. Source: Indian Express INTERNATIONAL THERMONUCLEAR EXPERIMENTAL REACTOR (ITER) Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: Prime Minister Narendra Modi, on his visit to France to attend an AI summit, also toured the ambitious International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) in Cadarache, accompanied by French President Emmanuel Macron. Background: – Prime Minister Modi’s visit to the ITER facility marks the first time that a Head of State or Head of Government has visited ITER. Key takeaways ITER is an international collaborative project aimed at building the world’s largest magnetic fusion device, designed to prove the feasibility of fusion as a large-scale and carbon-free source of energy. Presently, as many as 33 nations, including India, are collaborating on ITER project. Seven ITER members — China, India, European Union, Japan, Korea, Russia and United States — have been making joint efforts for decades to build and operate the ITER experimental device. ITER is currently under construction in the south of France. According to its current timeline, it is expected to begin deuterium-tritium fusion reactions by 2039, producing 500 MW of fusion power. ITER would not be converting the output heat energy into electricity. But its success is expected to pave the way for other machines to start using fusion energy as a regular source of electricity generation. According to the ITER website, the primary task of ITER is to investigate and demonstrate burning plasmas — “plasmas in which the energy of the helium nuclei produced by the fusion reactions is enough to maintain the temperature of the plasma, thereby reducing or eliminating the need for external heating”. Source: Indian Express EARTHQUAKES IN DELHI Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – GEOGRAPHY Context: Delhi frequently experiences earthquakes, often originating from distant regions. However, the magnitude 4 earthquake that struck before dawn on Monday was distinct, as its epicenter was within Delhi itself, near Dhaula Kuan. Background:  Magnitude 4 earthquakes are not very strong, and do not result in much damage. Key takeaways Delhi lies in a seismically active area. India’s official earthquake hazard map puts Delhi in Zone 4, the second highest classification of areas based on their susceptibility to shaking experienced during an earthquake. Zone 4 in India includes areas that are expected to experience MSK-8-level intensity during an earthquake. The MSK, or Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik scale is a measure of intensity, rather than strength, or energy released, which is described by magnitude. Simply put, the MSK scale measures the susceptibility of an area to an earthquake. Based on the local geology and other factors, two places can feel, and be impacted by, a quake very differently, even if they are equidistant from its epicentre. Delhi falls in a region that has high susceptibility to quakes. MSK-8 means the area is vulnerable to major damage being caused to buildings and other infrastructure.  Zone 5, the most vulnerable areas in India, correspond to MSK-9 levels of intensity or higher. Aravalli-Delhi Fold Belt Delhi lies in what is known as the Aravalli-Delhi Fold Belt, a seismically-active geological belt extending from southern and eastern Rajasthan to Haryana and Delhi. This region is characterised

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) INDIA AND QATAR Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: As Prime Minister Modi and Amir Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani held talks in New Delhi, India and Qatar decided to elevate their ties to a “strategic partnership”. Background: – Both countries signed two agreements and five MoUs, covering areas like economic cooperation, youth affairs and a double taxation avoidance agreement. Within the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), India has signed strategic partnerships with the UAE, Saudi Arabia, Oman and Kuwait; Qatar is the latest to join that club. Key takeaways Trade between the two countries is $14 billion annually, and they set a target to double it to $28 billion by 2030. Qatar’s sovereign wealth fund has $1.5 billion FDI in India, and the joint statement said that the Qatar side announced a commitment to invest USD 10 billion in India. Bilateral relationship Qatar’s key exports to India include LNG, LPG, chemicals and petrochemicals, plastics and aluminium articles. India’s key exports to Qatar include cereals, copper articles, iron and steel articles, vegetables, fruits, spices, processed food products, electrical and other machinery, plastic products, construction material, textiles and garments, chemicals, precious stones and rubber. Qatar is the largest supplier of LNG to India (10.74 MMT for US$ 8.32 billion in FY 2022-23), accounting for over 48% of India’s global LNG imports. Qatar is also India’s largest supplier of LPG (5.33 MMT for US$ 4.04 billion in FY 2022-23) accounting for 29% of India’s total LPG imports. Defence cooperation forms an important pillar of the bilateral agenda. India offers training slots in its defence institutions to a number of partner countries, including Qatar.  As of 2024, Indian population in Qatar forms approximately 25% of Qatar’s populace, primarily as migrant workers. Source: Indian Express RESILIENT TELECOM INFRASTRUCTURE Syllabus: Mains – GS2 & GS 3 Context: The Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI), a multilateral organisation launched by Prime Minister Narendra Modi in 2019, put out a report earlier this month studying Indian telecom networks’ preparedness in the event of disasters.  Background: – Telecom networks are crucial to handling disasters, because they allow the State and National Disaster Management Authorities to communicate quickly with local municipalities and the State and Union governments Key takeaways Telecom networks are particularly vulnerable, as they comprise cabling that may not be fully underground, towers that may not be able to withstand high wind speeds, and because they rely on a steady flow of electricity, which is frequently disrupted by disasters. Coastal regions face elevated risks, as that is where undersea cables connect India with the global internet. If the landing stations of these cables are impacted, there can be massive network disruptions. What can be done? Since much of the disruption is attributable to power failures, much can be accomplished during a disaster by maintaining or restoring power supply to telecom towers and the network operating centres to which they’re connected.  Telecom operators have typically never deployed towers assuming 24/7 power supply — and have battery as well as fuel backup. The CDRI report recommends a few measures to develop a resilient telecom network. These include greater data collection and more coordination among officials, a more robust power infrastructure, and requiring cell towers to withstand higher wind speeds, especially in districts where hurricanes make landfall.  The CDRI also advocates for a dig-once policy, which recommends building as much underground civil infrastructure, like water and gas supply lines, drainage and fibre optic cables simultaneously, reducing the risk of cables being damaged when other infrastructure is built. The short- to medium-term roadmap suggests the need to update disaster damage and loss data format, mainstream disaster risk modelling into telecommunications infrastructure planning, strengthen telecommunications asset design based on local and regional hazard vulnerability profiles, the report says.  There are also commercial interventions that the report touches on. A key one is parametric insurance, a system where telecom operators are not left to bear the commercial burden of a disaster all by themselves, and are thus financially incentivised to bring networks back online rapidly (and presumably to nudge them to disaster-proof their infrastructure well enough to keep premiums down). Source: The Hindu GLOBAL WARMING EXACERBATING WATER GAPS Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – CURRENT EVENT Context: Water gaps amounting to nearly 458 billion cubic meters per year already exist. These are projected to increase by 6 per cent under 1.5 degrees Celsius warming and by 15 per cent under 3 degrees Celsius warming according to a new analysis published in Nature Communications.  Background: The study emphasised on developing a more resilient and sustainable water management system to combat scarcity. This could include investing in resilient infrastructure, enhancing storage capabilities, desalination of seawater, reuse of treated wastewater and physical and virtual water transfers to distribute water from areas of abundance to areas of need. Key takeaways Water gaps are defined as the difference between renewable water availability and water consumption while maintaining adequate flows in aquatic environments. Researchers used climate outputs from climate models to quantify water gaps under baseline, 1.5°C, and 3°C warming scenarios. Regions currently experiencing water gaps are expected to face more severe conditions under 1.5°C warming, with even worse outcomes at 3°C warming. This trend is particularly evident in the eastern US, Chile, the Mediterranean region, south and east India, and the North China Plain. Additionally, some regions that were relatively unaffected in the baseline climate, such as Italy, Madagascar, and some US states on the East Coast (North Carolina and Virginia) and in the Great Lakes region (Wisconsin, Minnesota, Illinois), are projected to see worsening conditions. Saudi Arabia is projected to experience decreased water scarcity under the 1.5°C warming scenario, but substantial increases in water gaps under the 3°C warming scenario. Largest water gaps in India The largest water gaps under the baseline climate are found in India, the United States, Pakistan, Iran and China. India is projected to experience the most important increase in water gaps under warming scenarios. In a 1.5°C warmer

Archives (PRELIMS & MAINS Focus) GLOBAL SEA ICE COVER Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – ENVIRONMENT Context: Global sea ice cover reached a record low of 15.76 million sq km over the five days leading up to February 13, surpassing the previous low of 15.93 million sq km recorded in January-February 2023. Background: – Sea ice refers to the free-floating ice in the polar regions. While it generally expands during the winter and melts in the summers, some sea ice remains year-round. Note that this is different from icebergs, glaciers, ice sheets, and ice shelves, which form on land. Key takeaways Experts suggest that the 2025 low could be due to a combination of warm air, warm seas and winds breaking apart the ice. Antarctic sea ice is particularly vulnerable to ice-breaking winds. Unlike Arctic ice, it is surrounded by the ocean instead of continents and is thus more mobile, and also comparatively thinner. The situation has been made worse this year due to warmer air and warmer waters towards the end of the southern hemisphere summer (December to February). Higher air temperatures led to the melting of the edges of the Antarctic ice sheet — also known as ice shelves — which extend over the ocean. In the Arctic, where winter lasts from November to February, sea ice remained low because of a delayed freezing around the Hudson Bay, a large saltwater body in northeastern Canada. The delay occurred as unusually warm oceans took a longer time to cool down. The region also witnessed some storms which broke apart ice around the Barents Sea, located off the northern coasts of Norway and Russia, and the Bering Sea, the stretch between Alaska and Russia. Higher than usual air temperatures in areas such as Svalbard, Norway, resulted in further loss of sea ice. What dip means Less sea ice cover means that more water is getting exposed to the Sun and more heat (solar radiation) is getting absorbed, leading to a further rise in temperatures.  Notably, sea ice keeps temperatures down in the polar regions, as its bright, white surface reflects more sunlight back to space than liquid water. The loss of sea ice cover could be one of the reasons why the polar regions are getting warmer at a faster rate than the rest of the world. Source: Indian Express MAJORANA 1 Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Context: Microsoft has announced a new chip, called Majorana 1, that it said showed quantum computing is “years, not decades” away, joining Google and IBM in predicting that a fundamental change in computing technology is closer than believed. Background: – Quantum computing holds the promise of carrying out calculations that would take today’s systems millions of years and could unlock important discoveries in medicine, chemistry, and aerospace, among others. Key takeaways Majorana 1 is a groundbreaking quantum computing chip developed by Microsoft. Microsoft’s breakthrough revolves around engineering a new type of particle known as Majorana. These Majorana particles have been fabricated using topological conductors and they exist in a topological state, which differs from traditional states of matter such as solid, liquid, and gas. First theorised over 80 years ago by Italian physicist Ettore Majorana, Majorana fermions are particles that are their own anti-particles. But, there was no physical evidence of such particles. Key Features Topological Quantum Bits: Majorana 1 integrates eight topological qubits, which are more stable and less prone to errors compared to traditional qubits. Topological Conductors: Utilizes a new type of material called topoconductors to observe and control Majorana particles, enhancing the reliability and scalability of qubits. Compact Design: The chip is compact, about the size of a sticky note, yet powerful enough to be a stepping stone towards systems capable of supporting a million qubits. Applications Industrial-Scale Problems: Designed to solve meaningful, industrial-scale problems in fields such as medicine, pollution control, and materials science. Future Potential: Microsoft envisions Majorana 1 as a path to developing quantum systems that can scale to a million qubits, enabling transformative solutions. Significance Quantum Leap: Represents a significant advancement in quantum computing, potentially revolutionizing various industries. Error Resistance: The use of Majorana fermions makes the chip highly stable and resistant to errors, a major challenge in quantum computing. Source: The Hindu CONSUMPTION, INVESTMENT AND GROWTH Syllabus: Prelims & Mains – ECONOMY Context: The role of consumption and investment in driving growth has been a topic of debate. In the latest Budget, the government has not demonstrated a strong commitment to boosting investment. Instead, the emphasis on tax concessions and restrained public spending suggests a reliance on consumption to drive growth. Background: An economy’s growth depends on two factors. One is the supply or the production of goods and services, and the other is the demand or expenditure for purchasing these goods and services.  Key takeaways The demand or aggregate expenditure in an economy comes from four sources.  First is private consumption, which is the sum of expenditures by all individuals on items such as food, clothing, and mobile phones.  Second is private investment, which is the amount spent by firms and households on installing new machines and constructing new factories or residences.  Third is government expenditure, for consumption and investment. Fourth is net exports or exports minus import of goods and services while engaging in trade with the rest of the world. Investment and its multipliers Among the sources of demand, investment stands out for its ‘multiplier effects’. That is, an increase in investment of ₹100 could increase the economy’s overall demand and GDP by more than ₹100 — let us say by ₹125. Consider public investment in building a new highway. The incomes received by workers and firms involved in the project will generate fresh demand in the economy. The highways will trigger the establishment of new industries, all of which translate into a much bigger expansion of aggregate demand. Compared to investment, the multiplier effect from increased consumption is weaker. If incomes increase, consumption expenditures also increase, but the