rchives (PRELIMS Focus) International Court of Justice (ICJ) Category: INTERNATIONAL Context: International Court of Justice (ICJ) in The Hague ruled that countries are obligated under international law to take action against climate change In a historic decision, the, particularly by reducing greenhouse gas emissions and adapting to climate impacts. Failure to do so could be deemed an “internationally wrongful act,” making such countries liable for compensation, especially to vulnerable nations like small island states. This advisory opinion, sought by the UN General Assembly, clarifies legal obligations under treaties like the UNFCCC, Paris Agreement (2015), UNCLOS, and others focused on environmental protection. Though non-binding, it is seen as a major milestone for climate justice and could influence future legal actions globally. Learning Corner: International Court of Justice (ICJ) Overview: The International Court of Justice (ICJ) is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations (UN). Established in 1945 by the UN Charter and began functioning in 1946. Headquartered at the Peace Palace, The Hague, Netherlands. Mandate & Jurisdiction: The ICJ performs two main functions: Contentious Jurisdiction: Settles legal disputes between states submitted voluntarily by them. Judgments are binding, without appeal, and enforceable under Article 94 of the UN Charter. Advisory Jurisdiction: Provides non-binding legal opinions on questions of international law referred by: UN General Assembly, UN Security Council, Other UN agencies authorized to seek opinions. Composition: 15 judges, elected for 9-year terms. Elected by both the UN General Assembly and the UN Security Council. Judges must represent the main forms of civilization and principal legal systems of the world. No two judges may be from the same country. Judges act in their individual capacity and not as representatives of their governments. Key Features: Only states (not individuals, companies, or NGOs) can be parties in contentious cases. Cases can involve disputes over: Border demarcation, Maritime rights, Human rights violations, Use of force, Treaty interpretation, Environmental responsibility, etc. Its rulings help develop international law, though enforcement depends on the Security Council. Important Articles: Article 92 – ICJ is the principal judicial organ of the UN. Article 94 – UN member states must comply with ICJ judgments. Article 96 – UNGA and UNSC may request advisory opinions. Landmark Cases: Nicaragua v. United States (1986) – U.S. was found guilty of violating international law by supporting Contra rebels in Nicaragua. Advisory Opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons (1996). Chagos Archipelago case (2019) – Ruled UK should end its administration of the Chagos Islands. Climate Advisory Opinion (2025) – Ruled that failure to act on climate change can constitute an internationally wrongful act, making states liable for damages. Comparison with Other International Courts: Court Jurisdiction Binding Judgments Parties ICJ Legal disputes between states Yes (for parties) States only ICC (International Criminal Court) Crimes like genocide, war crimes Yes Individuals PCA (Permanent Court of Arbitration) Wider disputes (incl. investment) Yes (via arbitration) States, individuals, organizations Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS Paikas Category: HISTORY Context: Omission of Paikas from NCERT class 8 About Paikas: Paikas were a warrior class who served the Gajapati kings of Odisha. They held land (nish-kar jagirs) in exchange for military service. British Annexation & Discontent: In 1803, British officer Colonel Harcourt annexed Odisha with little resistance. The British dethroned King Mukunda Deva II and ignored promises to grant four parganas. The new British rule caused: Loss of land and political status for Paikas, New revenue demands, Dispossession of tribal and peasant communities, Salt taxes and coastal trade restrictions. The 1817 Paika Rebellion: Led by Bakshi Jagabandhu, over 400 Kondh tribals and Paikas revolted. Rebels attacked British establishments and looted treasury offices. Though suppressed, resistance continued until 1825. Learning Corner: Important Tribal Revolts in British India Tribal uprisings were a major component of early resistance against colonial rule. These revolts were primarily sparked by the British disruption of tribal autonomy, exploitation by landlords and moneylenders, encroachment on forest rights, and interference in socio-religious customs. Santhal Rebellion (1855–56) One of the most significant tribal uprisings, it was led by Sidhu and Kanhu Murmu in the Rajmahal Hills of present-day Jharkhand. The rebellion was against oppressive zamindars, moneylenders, and British revenue officials. It was brutally suppressed but forced the British to enact the Santhal Parganas Tenancy Act later. Munda Ulgulan (1899–1900) Led by Birsa Munda, this movement in the Chotanagpur region aimed at restoring the Khuntkatti system of joint landholding. It combined tribal identity, religious reform, and anti-colonial resistance. Birsa Munda is revered as a messianic figure and martyr. Kol Uprising (1831–32) The Kols of Chotanagpur revolted against British interference in their political system and exploitation by outsiders. Leaders like Budhu Bhagat spearheaded this uprising, which was triggered by land alienation and administrative overreach. Bhil Rebellions (1818–1831) The Bhils of western India (mainly Rajasthan and MP) revolted multiple times during the early 19th century. These were primarily localized responses to famine, British land policies, and displacement. Govind Guru was a later Bhil leader who organized the Mangadh uprising in 1913. Khond Rebellion (1846–1855) The Khonds of Odisha rose in protest against British suppression of their religious customs (notably human sacrifice) and forest encroachments. The rebellion, led by Chakra Bisoi, also had millenarian elements. Rampa Rebellion (1879 & 1922–24) The Koya tribals in Andhra Pradesh resisted British forest laws that curtailed their traditional rights. The 1922 phase was led by Alluri Sitarama Raju, who used guerrilla tactics and invoked nationalist and tribal sentiments. He was captured and executed in 1924. Chuar Uprisings (1767–1799) The Chuars, mainly the Bhumij tribals of Bengal (Midnapore and Bankura), resisted land revenue hikes and British oppression. Leaders like Durjan Singh and Jagannath Singh led the early uprisings, which were among the first tribal resistances to colonial policies. Common Themes Across Tribal Revolts Local leadership with deep tribal legitimacy. Reaction to loss of land, forests, and autonomy. Often accompanied by religious reform or revivalism. Largely militant and spontaneous, lacking coordination with pan-Indian movements. Though suppressed, they laid the foundation for future mass movements and tribal rights activism.
